Models of policy making and the concept of power in policy

Models of Policy Making and the Concept of “Power” in Policy Making Nayyar Raza MBBS, DHPM, MPH, M.Sc

I The Rational Model: Optimizing Optimizing: Make the Best Decision Define the Problems Establish Goals and Objectives Generate all Possible Alternatives Consider the Consequences of all Alternatives Evaluate all Alternatives Select the Best Alternative Implement and Evaluate the Decision Questions: Can you make the Best Decision? Why?

II The Bounded Rationality Model: Satisficing Satisficing: Make a Satisfactory Decision Situation Recognize and Define the Problem Analyze the Difficulties Get the Relevant Facts Classify the Problem Specify Problem Establish Criteria for a Satisfactory Solution Develop a Plan of Action Consider Alternatives Weigh Consequences of Each Alternative Deliberate Select Course of Action Initiate Action Plan Program Communicate Monitor Appraise

III The Incremental Model: Muddling Muddling: Successive Limited Comparison Charles Lindblom describes the way most decisions are made as the process of muddling through. A small and limited set of options are considered. Options are only marginally different from existing situation. Options are considered by comparing actual consequences. Try the option and then observe consequences. If consequences are fine, then a little more. If consequences are negative, then back off and try something different. Focus is on outcomes and trial and error.

IV The Mixed Scanning Model: An Adaptive Strategy Mixed Scanning is guided by two questions : What is the organization’s mission? What decisions move the organization towards its mission and policy? Mixed scanning is a combination of the bounded rationality model and mixed scanning model; it is directed, incremental change. Mixed scanning has its roots in medicine. A broad goal, mission, or policy guides the decision process. Decisions are made incrementally, but with the broad goal in mind. Consequences are assessed in terms of the goal. Decisions are made with partial information. Then further small decisions are made if progress is good.

Using the Correct Model: Information, Time, Importance Decision Opportunity No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Sufficient Information? Important? Sufficient Time? Important? Important? Important? Bounded Rationality Truncated B.R Mixed Scanning Truncated Mixed Scanning Mixed Scanning Incrementalism to Mixed Scanning Incrementalism Sufficient Time? Truncated Mixed Scanning

think of policy making as a struggle between groups with competing interests, some in favour of change and others opposed to it, depending on their interests or ideas. Therefore, understanding policy making requires an understanding of the nature of power, how it is distributed and the manner through which it is exercised.

What is Power Power is generally understood to mean the ability to achieve a desired outcome – to ‘do’ something. In policy making, the concept of power is typically thought of in a relational sense as in having ‘power over’ others. Power is said to be exercised when A has B do something that B would not have otherwise done. A can achieve this end over B in a number of ways, which have been characterized as the three ‘faces’ or ‘dimensions’ of power: power as decision making; power as non-decision making; and power as thought control.

Power as Decision Making ‘ Power as decision making’ focuses on acts of individuals and groups which influence policy decisions. Robert Dahl’s classic study, Who Governs?, looked at who made important decisions on contested issues in New Haven, Connecticut, USA (Dahl 1961). He drew conclusions about who had power by examining known preferences of interest groups and comparing these with policy outcomes. He found that the resources which conferred power on citizens and interest groups varied and that these resources were distributed unequally: while some individuals were rich in some political resources, they were likely to be poor in others. Different individuals and groups were therefore found to be able to exert influence on different policy issues. These findings led Dahl to conclude that different groups in society, including weak groups, could ‘penetrate’ the political system and exercise power over decision makers in accordance with their preferences. While only a few people had direct influence over key decisions, defined as successfully initiating or vetoing policy proposals, most had indirect influence by the power of the vote.

Power as Non Decision Making ‘ power is also exercised when A devotes his energies to creating or reinforcing social and political values and institutional practices that limit the scope of the political process to public consideration of only those issues which are comparatively innocuous to A’. Consequently, power as agenda-setting highlights the way in which powerful groups control the agenda to keep threatening issues below the policy radar screen. Expressed differently, power as ‘non-decision making’ involves ‘the practice of limiting the scope of actual decision making to safe issues by manipulating the dominant community values, myths and political institutions

Power as a Thought Control Steven Lukes (1974) conceptualizes ‘power as thought control’. In other words, power is a function of the ability to inﬂuence others by shaping their preferences. In this dimension, ‘A exercises power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to B’s interests’. For example, poor people voted for President Bush in 2004 in spite of his domestic policies which were not in their interests.

Three Sources of Authority Max Weber (1948) identiﬁed three sources of authority. First, traditional authority exists where one obeys on the basis of custom and the established way of doing things (for example, a king or sultan has traditional authority). People conform as part of everyday life on the basis of socialization. For example, poor pregnant women in rural Guatemala do not question whether the practices and advice of their midwife are evidence-based, but surrender to her authority because of trust that society places in midwives based on their experience and the expectation that they know best.

Second, charismatic authority is based on intense commitment to a leader and their ideology or other personal appeals. Those exercising authority on the basis of charisma, such as religious leaders, statesmen (e.g. Nelson Mandela) and health gurus do so on the basis of being perceived as having authority.

Weber’s third category is rational–legal authority . It is based on rules and procedures. In this case, authority is vested in the office as opposed to the attributes of the particular office holder. As a result, the office holder, irrespective of his/her training or expertise, is in authority. Many countries with a history of British colonial rule designate the Secretary as the most senior bureaucrat in the Ministry of Health. The Health Secretary is rarely a doctor but instead is a professional administrator. While many doctors implement the dictates of the Secretary, they do so on the basis of his/her rational-legal authority rather than on the basis of traditional or charismatic authority.

Models of policy making and the concept of power in policy

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked (18)

Similar to Models of policy making and the concept of power in policy (20)

More from Nayyar Kazmi (20)

Models of policy making and the concept of power in policy