Modul kls xi unit 7 hortatory environmental

MODUL
PEMBELAJARAN

SMA NEGERI 2 MATARAM
MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS
KELAS XI SEMESTER 2
UNIT 7 HORTATORY EXPOSITION
MATERI POKOK
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

DISUSUN OLEH
H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.
Pembina IV/a
NIP: 196012311986011055
2010
2010

MODUL Bahasa Inggris Kelas XI Unit 7 Hortatory Exposition Environment SMAN 2 Mataram . Doc 1

PREFACE
First of all we wished to preface that in this part of Learning English Material Based
ICT, SMAN 2 Mataram designed firstly English Learning Material for Senior High School
grade X, XI, & XII Academic Year 2009 / 2010. They are written and designed by H.M.
Sartono.

Nowadays, Mastering English is a challenge for some people, this is because of the
Modern Technology which accelerates the development of any field including Education.
To fulfill the Standard of Competence these English Learning Materials, we have to concern
with Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan as it is legitimated by Peraturan Menteri No 22
Tahun 2006 and it is applied in KTSP SMA which is elaborated completely in Syllabus
Design.

The main teacher's roles are as mediator and facilitator. The students and the
teachers are to be active and creative . The students' activity is focused on four skills such
as Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Skills. All skills enable the students to work
actively, while vocabulary Mastery is given indirectly in every task and also functional skills
which is available in orally that is intended to make students to be able to communicate in
English orally. Then the acceleration task are implemented in every topic and section.

Furthermore, in these part of design English Learning Materials in order to meet the
students' needs, to offer a wide knowledge which are useful to their daily life or activity. So
we can say that the students from SMAN 2 Mataram joining these materials are aware of
English. And during the process of study, the students will discover something new, also
encourage them to communicate in English.

Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to those who have taken apart,
helped and given the motivation, or supported to these designs.

Hopefully, if there were some suggestions, criticisms for the improvement of these
designs will be warmly appreciated.

Designed by

H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd


" ENGLISH SMANDA MATARAM "
Hello! participants, welcome to the unit 7 Hortatory Exposition
with the main topic "ENVIRONMENENTAL ISSUES"
The course consist of two activities that you will finish (online) in
two weeks for every unit lesson, so that you will work on the
materials one oral cycle for one week. another one written cycle
also for one week
The first two weeks, you will learn and do activity about "ORAL
CYCLE'.
The second two weeks, you will learn and do activity about
"WRITTEN CYCLE"
So, if you have any questions please do not hesitate to sent me
and email or post in the pin-board to discuss with other
pin board
participants.

Enjoy your learning!


STANDARD OF COMPETENCY :
Communicating in oral and written texts, using proper language
fluently
and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue,
especially in the passages of Hortatory Exposition
BASIC COMPETENCY :
Expressing the nuance of meaning, using the correct rhetorical steps
in the written texts of Hortatory Exposition , and using simple written
languages.
Achievement Indicator :
Students are able to communicate using proper language fluently
and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue especially to
expressions of anger
and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue
and/
especially
to expressions of annoyance
and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue
especially
to expressions of embarrassment
Students are able to express the nuance of meaning, using the correct
express
rhetorical steps in the written texts of Hortatory Exposition, and using simple
written languages


II. MAPPING CONCEPT
UNIT 7 HORTATORY EXPOSITION
MAIN TOPIC : ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Listening:
• Responding to expressions of anger
• Responding to expressions of annoyance
• Responding to expressions of embarrassment
• Responding to a hortatory exposition
Speaking:
• Expressing anger
• Expressing embarrassment
• Expressing annoyance
• Performing a monologue of hortatory exposition text
Reading:
• Reading hortatory exposition texts
• Identifying the structure of a hortatory exposition text
Writing:
• Writing a hortatory exposition
Learning Objectives
A. Oral Cycle
Respond to hortatory exposition monolog carefully
Respond to expressions of anger
Respond to expressions of annoyance
Respond to expressions of embarrassment
Identify sentence patterns main ideas
Use expressions of anger
Use expressions of annoyance
Use expressions of embarrassment
Developing a dialog into a longer one
B. Written Cycle
Respond to hortatory exposition text
Identify various textual meanings
Write hortatory expositiontext using correct structure


ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Smoke Billowing from Industrial Smokestacks

Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and other
types of contaminants pouring from industrial
smokestacks contribute to worldwide
atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide
contributes significantly to global warming,
while sulphur dioxide is the principal cause of
acid rain in eastern and northern Europe and
north-eastern North America. Other
environmental problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory
diseases, poisoned lakes and streams, and damaged forests and crops.

Adapted from Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007.

Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle Exhaust

Earth's Biosphere

The earth’s biosphere contains numerous
complex ecosystems that collectively contain
all of the living organisms of the planet. Unique
perspectives of the earth help suggest the
immensity and complexity of the planet’s
biosphere. En route to the moon in December

1972, the Apollo 17 spacecraft took this image of the earth, showing Arabia and the
continent of Africa. NASA/Science Source/Photo


Global Temperature Changes

The changes in average global surface temperature since the beginning of weather
recordings in the mid-19th century are shown in this chart. It shows that since scientific recordings
began, temperatures rose sharply to a high in the last two decades of the 20th century; they also rose
sharply from about 1910 to the 1940s, although at a much lower average level than in the 1980s and
1990s.

The atmosphere that shelters the Earth from excessive amounts of ultraviolet radiation and
enables life to exist is a gaseous mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor,
other elements and compounds, and dust particles. Heated by the Sun and by radiant energy from the
Earth, the atmosphere circulates about the planet and modifies temperature differences. Of the Earth’s
water, 97 per cent makes up the oceans, 2 per cent is ice, and 1 per cent is the fresh water in rivers,
lakes, groundwater, and atmospheric and soil moisture. The soil is the thin mantle of material that
supports terrestrial life. It is the product of climate, parent material such as glacial till and sedimentary
rocks, and vegetation. Dependent on all these are the Earth’s living organisms, including human
beings. Plants use water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to convert raw materials into carbohydrates
through photosynthesis; animal life, in turn, is dependent on plants, in a sequence of interconnected
relationships known as the food web.

Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle
Exhaust

Vehicle exhaust contains a number of
airborne pollutants that adversely affect
the health of animals and plants and the
chemical nature of the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon
emissions, two of the major components
of vehicle exhaust, contribute significantly
to global warming and are produced as a
by-product of the combustion of
petroleum-based fuels. Elevated carbon
dioxide and hydrocarbon levels cause
sunlight to be reflected and trapped within
the atmosphere, which slowly raises the
temperature of the atmosphere.
One impact that the burning of fossil fuels
has had on the Earth’s environment has been the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) in
the Earth’s atmosphere. The amount of atmospheric CO2 apparently remained stable
for millennia, at about 260 ppm (parts per million), but over the past 100 years it has
increased to 350 ppm. The significance of this change is its potential for raising the
temperature of the Earth through the process known as the greenhouse effect.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents the escape of outgoing long-wave


radiation from the Earth to outer space; as more heat is produced and less escapes,
the temperature of the Earth increases. Adapted from Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007

.

Warming the Earth

The greenhouse effect refers to
the way in which gases in the
Earth’s atmosphere warm the
Earth like the glass roof of a
greenhouse—by letting sunlight
in but keeping the reflected heat
energy trapped inside. These
naturally occurring gases,
notably carbon dioxide and water
vapour, are called greenhouse
gases.

.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental
effects. It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the
climate regionally and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production.
These changes would, in turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since
1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of about 1° C (1.8° F). Most
scientists have predicted that rising levels of CO2 and other “greenhouse gases” will
cause temperatures to continue to increase, with estimates ranging from 2° to 6° C
(4° to 11° F) by the mid-21st century. However, some scientists who research climate
effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming, and attribute the most
recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

The species Homo sapiens—that is, human beings—appeared late in the Earth’s history, but
was ultimately able to modify the Earth’s environment by its activities. Although human
beings apparently first appeared in Africa, they quickly spread throughout the world.
Because of their unique mental and physical capabilities, human beings were able to escape
the environmental constraints that limited other species and to change the environment to
meet their needs.

Although early human beings undoubtedly lived in some harmony with the environment, as
did other animals, their retreat from the wilderness began with the first, prehistoric
agricultural revolution. The ability to control and use fire allowed them to modify or eliminate
natural vegetation, and the domestication and herding of grazing animals eventually resulted
in overgrazing and soil erosion. The domestication of plants also led to the destruction of
natural vegetation to make room for crops, and the demand for wood for fuel denuded


mountains and depleted forests. Wild animals were slaughtered for food and destroyed as
pests and predators.

While human populations remained small and human technology modest, their impact on the
environment was localized. As populations increased and technology improved and
expanded, however, more significant and widespread problems arose. Rapid technological
advances after the Middle Ages culminated in the Industrial Revolution, which involved the
discovery, use, and exploitation of fossil fuels, as well as the extensive exploitation of the
Earth’s mineral resources. With the Industrial Revolution, humans began in earnest to
change the face of the Earth, the nature of its atmosphere, and the quality of its water.
Today, unprecedented demands on the environment from a rapidly expanding human
population and from advancing technology are causing a continuing and accelerating decline
in the quality of the environment and its ability to sustain life.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental effects.
It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the climate regionally
and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production. These changes would, in
turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since 1850 there has been a mean
rise in global temperature of about 1° C (1.8° F). Most scientists have predicted that rising
levels of CO2 and other “greenhouse gases” will cause temperatures to continue to increase,
with estimates ranging from 2° to 6° C (4° to 11° F) by the mid-21st century. However, some
scientists who research climate effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming,
and attribute the most recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations.

Ozone Layer Destruction
During the 1980s, scientists began to find that human activity was having a
detrimental effect on the global ozone layer, a region of the atmosphere that shields
the Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Without this gaseous layer, which is
found at about 40 km (25 mi) above sea level, no life could survive on the planet.
Studies showed the ozone layer was being damaged by the increasing use of
industrial chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, compounds of fluorine) that
are used in refrigeration, air-conditioning, cleaning solvents, packing materials, and
aerosol sprays. Chlorine, a chemical by-product of CFCs, attacks ozone, which
consists of three molecules of oxygen, by taking one molecule away to form chlorine
monoxide. Chlorine monoxide then reacts with oxygen atoms to form oxygen
molecules, releasing chlorine molecules that break up other molecules of ozone.

It was initially thought that the ozone layer was being reduced gradually all over the
globe. In 1985, however, further research revealed a growing ozone hole concentrated
above Antarctica; 50 per cent or more of the ozone above this area of the Earth was
being depleted seasonally (beginning each October). By late 2000 this hole had grown
to 28.3 million sq km (11 million sq mi) in area. A thinning of the ozone layer is the key
factor in the greenhouse effect, and exposes life on Earth to excessive ultraviolet
radiation, which can increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune-system
responses, interfere with the photosynthetic process of plants, and affect the growth
of oceanic phytoplankton. Because of the growing threat of these dangerous
environmental effects, many nations are working towards eliminating the manufacture


and use of CFCs. However, CFCs can remain in the atmosphere for more than 100
years, so ozone destruction will continue to pose a threat for decades to come.

Divisions of the Atmosphere

Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. A relatively thin envelope,
the atmosphere consists of layers of gases that support life and provide protection
from harmful radiation. The illustration shows the temperature changes associated
with the various layers of the atmosphere and their altitude from the Earth's surface.


Hydrogen Fluoride Gas in the Atmosphere

The various concentrations of hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas in the upper atmosphere of
the Earth are shown here. The weakest concentrations are in the lower latitudes
around the equator and tropics; concentrations increase towards the poles where
they are densest. As HF gas contains no chlorine atoms it has no ozone depleting
effect. However, it is a powerful greenhouse gas and greatly contributes to global
warming. From this image, a processing of data collected by NASA satellites, it is
clear that the largest quantities of HF gas are to be found around Antarctica, where
the levels of ozone are at their lowest (the white circle at the pole indicates no satellite
data).

Ozone Layer Hole

The ozone hole over the South Pole is apparent in this satellite image taken in
October 1999. Low levels of ozone are shown in blue. Ozone is a gas that blocks
harmful ultraviolet sunlight. Industrial chemicals released into the atmosphere have
caused ozone to break down, opening holes in the ozone layer that tend to
concentrate at the poles.

The ozone layer is thinnest near the equator and thickest at the poles. Since ozone
formation depends on ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, the amount of ozone present
in the atmosphere at any given time and place varies. Also, the lifetime of an ozone
molecule in the stratosphere is between several months and several years, so the
distribution of ozone is affected by the motion of the atmosphere; ozone molecules
can be transported long distances before being destroyed.


There are long-term trends in ozone. Between 1979 and 1991, the ozone in the mid-
latitudes (roughly between 25° and 60°) decreased by an average of around 4 per cent
per decade. In the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes, the decrease is greater in the
winter and spring, and less in the summer and autumn, while the southern
hemisphere mid-latitude decrease shows less seasonal variation.

A combination of factors is needed to produce the large loss of ozone over
Antarctica. A crucial first step is that the stratosphere over Antarctica becomes
isolated by strong westerly circumpolar winds of up to 100 m/s (up to about 200
knots) during the polar night. The temperature drop is such that a special type of
cloud, known as a polar stratospheric cloud (PSC), can form at temperatures below
about -80° C (-112° F). Very fast chemical reactions occur on the surface of these
clouds, converting inactive forms of chlorine to molecular chlorine (Cl2). When
sunlight returns in September, catalytic cycles involving chlorine atoms become
active and destroy the ozone.

The amount of chlorine in the atmosphere dramatically increased through the use and
release of chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs (compounds of
fluorine). First developed in 1930 by General Motors Research Laboratories as a safe
replacement for refrigerants in use at the time, their chemical inertness also made
them valuable in other areas of industry. Once released into the atmosphere, they
were transported into the upper atmosphere where they were broken down by the
much higher levels of ultraviolet. This is the only way in which CFCs released into the
atmosphere can be destroyed. Almost all of the chlorine in the atmosphere is due to
human activity.

No similar ozone hole has yet been seen in the Arctic because the meteorological
conditions in spring are very different from those in the southern hemisphere and
much warmer. However, there are chlorine molecules in the Arctic stratosphere, and
on the occasions that temperatures do decrease enough to favour ozone depletion,
chemical ozone destruction can also take place in the Arctic. According to the 1998
report on ozone depletion of the World Meteorological Organization, ozone had been
particularly low over the Arctic during late winter and spring in six out of the previous
nine years.

The most obvious danger from a reduction in the amount of ozone in the atmosphere
is the increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface, particularly
the more dangerous UV-B. However, this must be considered in context. Springtime
ultraviolet levels in Antarctica are still less than typical values in low latitudes such as
Florida. The real danger is to local biological life. One concern is for the
phytoplankton living in the surface water around Antarctica. These small organisms
form a part of the important food chain. Other issues concerning the loss of ozone
include induced changes in climate, discussed later.

Although the ozone hole itself is a separate issue from the greenhouse effect,
changes in the amount of ozone in the atmosphere do have an effect on climate
change. Reductions in stratospheric ozone cause the lower stratosphere to cool
(roughly about 0.6° C per decade from 1979 to 1994).


Greenhouse Effect, term for the role the atmosphere plays in helping warm the Earth's
surface. The atmosphere is largely transparent to incoming short-wave (or ultraviolet)
solar radiation, which is absorbed by the Earth's surface. Much of this radiation is
then re-emitted as heat energy at long-wave, infrared wavelengths; some of this
energy escapes back into space, but much of it is reflected back by gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, and ozone in the atmosphere.
This heating effect is at the root of the theories concerning global warming.

Under normal conditions the level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere remains constant, and trees absorb the same amount of
carbon dioxide that people produce. But in recent decades, our
planet has supported more people and fewer trees, leaving an
excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The amount of carbon
dioxide has been increasing by 0.4 per cent a year; the use of
fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal, and the slash-and-burn
clearing of tropical forests have been contributing factors in the
carbon cycle. Other gases that contribute to the greenhouse
effect, such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons, are increasing
even faster. The net effect of these increases could be a
worldwide rise in temperature, estimated at 2° to 6° C (4° to 11°
F) over the next 100 years. Warming of this magnitude would alter
climates throughout the world, affect crop production, and cause
sea levels to rise significantly. If this happened, millions of people
would be adversely affected by major flooding


Greenhouse Effect © Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental
effects. It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the
climate regionally and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production.
These changes would, in turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since
1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of about 1° C (1.8° F). Most
scientists have predicted that rising levels of CO2 and other “greenhouse gases” will
cause temperatures to continue to increase, with estimates ranging from 2° to 6° C
(4° to 11° F) by the mid-21st century. However, some scientists who research climate
effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming, and attribute the most
recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations.


Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle Exhaust

Vehicle exhaust contains a number of airborne pollutants that adversely affect the
health of animals and plants and the chemical nature of the atmosphere. Carbon
dioxide and hydrocarbon emissions, two of the major components of vehicle exhaust,
contribute significantly to global warming and are produced as a by-product of the
combustion of petroleum-based fuels. Elevated carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon
levels cause sunlight to be reflected and trapped within the atmosphere, which slowly
raises the temperature of the atmosphere. Harold Taylor/Oxford Scientific Films


Marshy Spruce Forest Damaged by Acid Rain

Forests, lakes, ponds, and other terrestrial and aquatic environments throughout the world
are being severely damaged by the effects of acid rain. Acid rain is caused by the combination of
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen compounds with water in the atmosphere to produce rain with a very low
pH. Normally, rainwater has a pH of 6.5, making it very slightly acidic. However, with the addition of
sulphur and nitrogen compounds, the pH of rainwater may drop to as low as 2.0 or 3.0, similar to the
acidity of vinegar. In addition to chemically burning the leaves of plants, acid rain poisons lakewater,
which kills most if not all of the aquatic inhabitants. Steffen Hauser/Oxford Scientific Films

Also associated with the burning of fossil fuels is acid deposition, which is caused by the
emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides into the air from power plants and motor vehicles.
These chemicals interact with sunlight, moisture, and oxidants to produce sulphuric and nitric acids,
which are carried with the atmospheric circulation and come to Earth in rainfall and snowfall,
commonly referred to as acid rain, and as dry deposits in the form of dry particles and atmospheric
gases.

Acid rain is a localized problem. The acidity of some precipitation in northern North America
and Europe is equivalent to that of vinegar. Acid rain corrodes metals, weathers stone buildings and
monuments, injures and kills vegetation, and acidifies lakes, streams, and soils, especially in the
poorly buffered regions of north-eastern North America and northern Europe. In these regions, lake
acidification has killed some fish populations. It is also now a problem in the south-eastern and
western United States. Acid rain can also slow forest growth, and forest die-back has been major
problem. It is associated with forest decline at high elevations in both North America and Europe.


A. ORAL CYCLE ACTIVITY

LISTENING


Listening Activity


Speaking Activity

Activity 1
In your age, you may find someone that you fall in love with. You need to
express your love to the one using acceptable expressions. Do you know
how to do it very well?

You like reading English stories, don’t you? The stories that you read may
include love stories. Can you also write such stories effectively? Learn
those and more in this unit through challenging tasks.

Activity 2
Have you ever fallen in love with someone? Have you ever told your parents
that you love him/her very much? Reflect on your experience to answer the
following questions. Compare your answers with your classmate’s.

1. Have you got a boyfriend or a girlfriend?

2. What makes you love him/her?

3. How do you express love to him/her?
4. Do you feel that expressing love to your parents is different from that of
to your girlfriend or boyfriend? Why?

5. What will you feel if someone you love leaves you?


Activity 3
How do you feel if someone you love leaves you? Here is an example of the
situation. Listen to the dialogue between Ayu and Denias and then answer
the questions. The listening script is in the Appendix. Situation: Denias
tells Ayu that his father will send him to a boarding school far away.
Questions
1. What does Denias tell Ayu?
2. What is Ayu’s feeling about what Denias tells her?
3. Why does Denias leave Ayu?
4. Where is he going to go?
5. When is Denias going to leave?
6. What does Ayu feel when she knows that the one she loves is
going to leave her?
7. How do they express their feelings
Activity 4
1. In the dialogue between Denias and Ayu, you find an expression: I love
you. The expression is used to express ‘love’.

2. In the dialogue between Denias and Ayu, you also find an expression of sadness.
Ayu says “Oh no, It’s very hard for me, Denias,” to express that she is sad because
Denias has to leave her


Activity 5
Listen to the dialogue among Adib, Virga, and Ayu. Do not forget to
complete he summary to check your comprehension. The listening
script is in the TAPE RECORDER


TAPE SCRIPTS

Adib : Hi Denias, what happens? You look nervous.
Denias : It’s nothing.
Adib : Really? Your face tells me that something is going on.
Denias : Yes, you’re right. Actually I’ve had an embarrassing experience.
Adib : What is it?
Denias : When I was on my way home, I saw an old lady trying to cross the street.
Adib : Why didn’t you help her to cross the street?
Denias : I did. I helped her to cross the street.
Adib : That’s great. So, why do you look nervous?
Denias : Actually, she didn’t want to cross the street. She’s just looking for her
shopping bag.
Adib : Hi, Ayu. How are you?
Ayu : Hi, Adib. You know, I’m a bit annoyed.
Adib : What’s up? Is it related to the English test you’ve just had?
Ayu : Yes, you’re right.
Adib : Were there some questions you couldn’t answer?
Ayu : No. Actually, I can answer all the questions.
Adib : So, what made you annoyed?
Ayu : The next door class was very noisy. We couldn’t concentrate well.
Adib : Did your teacher warn them or ask them to be quiet or something that
made them quiet?
Ayu : No. She said that that was okay because that was the nature of
performance classes.
Adib : I think our school should provide special room for performance classes.
Ayu : Yes, I agree with you. If performance classes have their own room, there will be
no such a disturbance.
Adib : And there will be no people annoyed because of such a noise.
Ayu : Absolutely, there won’t any.


Activity 6


Andi : Hi, Retno. I watched your performance last night. You’re great. You can
be a great actress.
Retno : Really? Thanks. Actually I wasn’t that great.
Andi : What are you talking about? You did it very well.
Retno : Actually, I can’t do any play.
Andi : Why? I think your performance was great. Your acting in the play was
just great.
Retno : It wasn’t me. It’s my twin sister, Ratna.
Andi : Really? I thought it was you. I’m sorry.
Retno : That’s fine.
Andi : No. It embarrasses me.
Retno : That’s all right. We are identical twins.

Virga : Hi Denias. Do you know what has happened to Adib? He’s been sacked.
He is no longer the student of our school.
Denias : Adib Ismawan? The one who always wears black jacket?
Virga : Yes.
Denias : Oh. Once, he put rubbish in my locker and some pebbles into my bag.
Virga : He did? What a naughty boy. You know, he put a stone inside my bag
and I didn’t know when he did it.
Denias : What did you do, then?
Virga : I reported it to the school principal.
Denias : What happened then?
Virga : He was punished.
Denias : He deserved harsh punishments.
Virga : Yes, he did.


Reading Activity


Activity 2 Read the following texts.


Activity 3 Answer these questions based on the text.


Written Cycle
Reading

Activity 4 Read the text quickly (scan read) to get the topic of the text.


Activity 1 Arrange the following jumbled sentences into a paragraph.
1. I don't have to spend time picking out my clothes every morning.

2. There are many reasons why I like wearing a uniform to school.

3. Wearing a uniform also saves money.

4. First of all, it saves time.

5. It is cheaper to purchase a few uniforms than to go out and buy lots of school
clothes.

6. Most importantly, wearing a school uniform gives me a sense that I belong.

7. In addition, I don't have the pressure of keeping up with the latest styles.

8. I really think it adds to the feeling of school spirit and community.

9. So, why should we be uncomfortable wearing it?

Activity 2 Answer the following questions.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph?

2. Does the writer express his/her arguments?

3. What are his/her arguments?

4. Does the writer recommend something concerning the issue?

5. What is the recommendation?


Activity 3 Read the following text.


Higher Education for Woman
In this modern era, there are still some parents who are reluctant about sending
their daughter to college. Such narrow attitude shown to woman higher education is largely
due to the traditional role of woman in society. A woman is expected just to be a wife and a
mother most parents believe that if their daughter gets married and chooses to be a
housewife, then the higher education will be a waste. However an educated woman does
not only make a better wife abut also contributor better thing to the large society.
Nowadays more women are successfully combining their career and marriage.
Educated women are richer both emotionally and financially. They are able to find an outlet
for monotonous drudgery of their housekeeping. They bring more satisfaction and
contentment to their lives.
Depriving girl of higher education is crash discrimination. Time has changed.
Modern society need the talents of its people regardless of gender. Today women work
alongside men. In fact, in the last few decades women have made outstanding contributions
to society.
Woman should be given the freedom to be educated whether they get married or
go to work after finishing their education because it is only through education that a woman
will find herself useful and discover what she wants in life. A woman who work is not an
insult to her husband. Conversely, her husband should feel proud of her achievement since
marriage is actually an equal partnership. Therefore, parents should not think that girls
should receive less education just because they will get marriage one day.

Let’s Make City Clean and Fresh
A clean and fresh city will surely make the inhabitants healthy. Every morning
especially in dry season, all roads must be watered with clean water and swept by the
workers of the regional government under the Major’s instruction.
To keep the people from heavy pollution caused by cars, trucks and motorcycles,
enough trees must be planted along all roads. Every building or house in the city must be
surrounded short and small trees which bear colorful flower.
Bad and improper habits which cause disadvantages, bad smell and dangerous
diseases to people such as smoking and throwing rubbish anywhere should be stopped at
once.
The major of each city will have to think over the way how to educate people, so
that they realize on how important cleanliness and health are for their own sake. Building
more public lavatories at every busy place is very badly needed.
It will be wise if the Major decides a certain amount of fine to be paid by those who
disobey the government regulation on cleanliness matter. A man who urinate not at
lavatory, smoke not at smoking room or throw rubbish at the roads should be fined for
instance. Besides dirtying the environment with cigarettes’ butts, smoking will also cause
pollution and lungs disease to other people.
So bad habits and impolite attitude should be immediately stopped, otherwise the
city will be dirty, unhealthy badly polluted and will never attract foreign or domestic tourist


Urban Environment

Urban Armenia

Large Soviet-built blocks of flats stand on a hillside
in Yerevan, the capital of Armenia. Armenia is highly urbanized,
with 69 per cent (1997) of all residents living in cities or towns.
The country is relatively densely populated, at 100 persons per
square kilometre (259 per square mile), but the population is
dropping, largely as a result of emigration.
Jon Spaull/Corbis

Urban Environment, the physical environment in
urban areas with its complex mix of built and natural elements.
Urban environments are increasingly studied, and their
importance recognized, from a variety of perspectives. Some
interpretations of the term include social and cultural aspects—
for instance the values, behaviours, and traditions of the urban
population—and these can have a profound influence on the
quality of life in urban areas, as can the competence and
accountability of the institutions appointed to manage or
safeguard it.


London from the Air
This 1990s view of London, taken from the air, shows the city’s developing financial district
spread out around the River Thames. The Canada Tower at Canary Wharf in the London Docklands
then dominated both the skyline and the inner city area regeneration project around the old
wharves. This image shows the tower before further development around it in the 21st century.
Richard Waite/Arcaid
An increasing proportion of the world’s population is living in urban areas: at the beginning
of the 21st century, this proportion was about half, with around one-seventh in cities with 1 million
or more inhabitants. The urban environment might be considered the opposite of the natural
environment, since it concentrates so many people, buildings, and economic activities and their
supporting infrastructure such as roads, water pipes, drains, and electricity and telephone
systems. In larger cities, central business districts, downtown areas, and industrial estates may
have little visible that can be associated with the natural environment. Human interventions have
so radically shaped their environment that they seem far removed from natural processes and
resources. Other parts of cities, however, seem less removed—for instance parks, green belts,
rivers, coastlines, or residential areas with large gardens and plenty of open space. However, all
urban centres remain dependent on natural resources and on natural processes for disposing of
their wastes.

Each professional discipline brings its own concerns to addressing environmental problems
in urban areas. Environmental health specialists are particularly concerned about the diminution of
environmental hazards; in most urban areas in Africa and many in Asia and Latin America, this
centres on the control of infectious and parasitic diseases whose incidence and transmission is
often increased by overcrowding, poor-quality housing, and inadequate provision for water supply,
sanitation, and drainage. Ecologists tend to focus on the massive disruption that large urban
centres and the materials they need usually bring to flora and fauna and the wider ecosystems of
which they are part. Political scientists may focus on environmental justice, highlighting the ways
in which the wealthy and powerful can obtain high-quality living environments within cities while
the poor and non-powerful face numerous environmental hazards. The different disciplinary
perspectives are much needed to make sense of the complex interweaving of natural and built
elements within urban centres and of the climatic, social, economic, and political factors that
influence them.


THE DIVERSITY OF URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

Đstanbul, Turkey
Situated on the Bosporus Strait, Đstanbul is a major port and the largest city in
Turkey. The walls seen here are the remains of the original city, built in ad 324 by
Constantine I of Rome.
Turkish Tourism Office
While all urban centres share certain environmental characteristics, their size,
built forms, and spatial configurations are also very varied. While it is usually economic
and political factors that determine a city’s location and size, its buildings and their
location and organization within neighbourhoods and the wider city are also much
influenced by characteristics of the site, climatic conditions, and resource availabilities
(especially building materials and fresh water). In many cities, it was particular local
characteristics that encouraged the city’s foundation there or subsequent expansion—for
instance, good port facilities on rivers or the coast (e.g. Southampton, Buenos Aires), a
fertile river valley (Vienna, St Louis), mineral resources nearby (Johannesburg, Potosí),
a site with a healthy and pleasant climate (Christchurch, San Francsico), or easy
defensibility (Đstanbul, Quebec).
However, it has often proved difficult to protect the environmental advantages
of city sites, when cities grow in population. Many cities have outgrown the natural
advantages of their site—as, for instance, in Rio de Janeiro and Caracas where
expanding populations have had to build homes on hillsides that are often too steep or
unstable for safe residential development. The very large increases in the generation of
air pollution have revealed the limitations of certain city sites for the dispersion of
pollution. For instance, the site of Mexico City is of considerable natural beauty, well
suited to a major city; it had been chosen by the Aztecs as the location of their great
city Tenochtitlán, before the arrival of Europeans. Until relatively recently, it was
regarded as a pleasant city site. Now it has serious problems of air pollution because the
high altitude, lack of winds, and shape of the valley in which it is situated make the site
ill-suited to a very large city with a high concentration of industries and motor traffic,
unless emissions from those sources are strictly controlled. Mexico City is also one
among many cities where the demand for fresh water has outstripped the capacities of
local supplies, or local sources have become too polluted to use. Many major cities that
were once adequately served by local ground and surface water sources now have to
import water from more distant catchment areas, often with damaging ecological
consequences for these areas.


Cities have always been much influenced by the knowledge and culture of their inhabitants.
This can be seen both in the form of buildings and in the design of neighbourhoods and public
spaces. These characteristics were shaped by local climatic and geographical conditions; building
design, the materials used, and the organization of public and private spaces helped to moderate
extreme temperatures, provide protection from rain and wind, and, where needed, limit risks from
natural hazards. However, these cultural differences are disappearing. In many major cities, it is only
the historic centres or older settlements engulfed by the urban expansion that retain the
characteristics that, for instance, distinguish the Islamic city from the Hispano-American city. This
diversity is being eroded as modern building designs and materials become internationalized and as
the ready availability of fossil fuels and electricity allows temperatures within city buildings to be
controlled, regardless of building design and climatic conditions. Poverty is also eroding these
cultural differences in many cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Here, the illegal and informal
settlements in which so many city inhabitants live also present a more uniform picture, as
widespread use is made of temporary materials for buildings, and as homes are squeezed on to any
land site from which the inhabitants might escape eviction.

Motor vehicles are now a major influence on the environment and spatial form of virtually
all cities. Roads, highways, parks, and garages have reshaped older urban environments and
imposed their logic on new ones, especially where a high proportion of urban households own a car.
Motor vehicles can become a dominant influence, with roads and associated facilities taking up a
third or even half the total city area. Increasing levels of car ownership and use also encourage an
ever-increasing separation between homes and workplaces and a low-density urban sprawl.
Growing vehicle numbers can radically reshape cities even where less than a third of households
own private cars, especially in cities where central districts were developed before the advent of
motorized traffic. Most of the major cities of Europe, North Africa, Asia, and Latin America were
already important cities in the first half of the 20th century (many were important 200 years ago) so
their central areas have road systems that are now too small to accommodate a widespread use of
private cars.

The quality of the urban environment can also differ greatly between different areas of any
city. In many cities, this is partly the result of town planning, with zoning and land-use regulations
encouraging a concentration of industries, shops, middle-class housing, and low-income or public
housing in particular areas. However, income differentials are often a more potent cause. Thus there
are dramatic contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different areas of most cities in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America, even though there is little effective zoning and land-use regulation.
Here, the high-quality areas often match the standard of those in Europe and North America while the
low-quality areas have no provision at all for piped water, sewers, drains, and paved roads.


There are also large contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different areas
in most cities in Europe and North America. Many of their middle- and high-income areas (mostly but
not all in the suburbs and beyond) have among the best-quality urban environments in the world.
However, these same cities often have particular districts—most but not all in central areas—where
the quality of the housing and the wider environment has deteriorated as local employment
opportunities have declined and as the wealthier and more mobile people have moved out. The
poorest areas in cities like New York and Glasgow have infant mortality rates several times higher
than the wealthier areas of those cities, and average life expectancies that are many years lower.
This problem is particularly acute in many of the cities that were the great centres of industry several
decades ago, and which have been unable to attract new investment to reverse the rapid decline in
industrial production and employment. It is also particularly acute in cities that are divided into
different local government areas with little or no provision for a sharing of revenues or of city-wide
costs between the richer and the poorer areas.

All cities have what might be termed a mosaic of high- and low-quality areas. Many of the
high-quality areas are in the suburbs but the suburbs often have many low-quality areas too—
especially in cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America where much of the low-income population live in
illegal or informal settlements that developed in certain suburban or peri-urban locations. Many of the
low-quality areas may be in particular central-city areas but many cities still have central-city areas
with high-quality living environments and high average per capita incomes. The quality of the
environment in residential neighbourhoods can also change rapidly—for instance as the wealthier
inhabitants of what had been a mainly middle-class inner suburb move out and cheap boarding
houses develop there with many households coming to share the space and facilities that formerly
served one household. Or as an inner-city area which had become a tenement district attracts
higher-income households who renovate the building stock, increase the local tax base and bring
pressure on the city authorities for improved services.

All urban environments represent a combination of individual and collective human efforts to
make the natural environment more convenient for human activities—for instance, allowing the
clustering of economic activities and the homes of the needed workforces. In virtually all urban
centres, there are legal and institutional measures to reduce both natural and human-created
environmental hazards within the urban boundaries. In most, there are also measures (usually set up
and enforced by higher levels of government) to protect natural resources in their surroundings and
to control pollution. In many, special measures are used to reduce risks from natural hazards such as
storms, earthquakes, floods, or landslides (for instance, more stringent construction regulations for
buildings in earthquake-prone areas). However, most urban environments show the limits of the law
and the institutions of governance to achieve this. In many urban centres, lower-income groups live
on land sites subject to flooding or landslides because it is too expensive for them to rent, buy, or
build housing on safer sites. Lower-income groups also tend to live in the noisiest and most polluted
areas. In some cases, industrial enterprises contravene laxly enforced environmental legislation.


ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS WITHIN URBAN AREAS

The tens of thousands of urban centres around the world include among the
most healthy and the most dangerous human environments. At their best, they provide
healthy homes and workplaces combined with centres of culture, entertainment, and
leisure. At their worst, urban environments can underlie infant mortality rates that are
so high that one third of children die before their fifth birthday and with much of the
urban population suffering unnecessarily from ill-health or injury from environmental
hazards. At least 600 million urban dwellers in Africa, Asia, and Latin America live in
homes and neighbourhoods in which housing is of such poor quality—overcrowded, and
with inadequate provision for piped water, sanitation, and drainage—that their lives and
health are continuously at risk.

Perhaps the main determinant of the quality of the urban environment is
whether the potential advantages of the concentration of population and production in a
city are well utilized, while avoiding the potential problems. Although the fact that cities
concentrate production and population may be considered a problem, it also gives them
some obvious potential advantages over rural settlements or dispersed populations. For
instance:

1) High densities mean much lower costs per household for the provision of
piped, treated water supplies, the collection and disposal of household and human
wastes, and most forms of health, educational, and emergency services. Within the
larger cities, the concentration of population can make sewage disposal problematic
given the volume of sewage generated. However, this is not the case in smaller cities
and towns—where most of the world’s urban population lives. There are many examples
of the successful and safe utilization of sewage for intensive crop production. There are
also many examples of effective sanitation systems that do not require high volumes of
water. The techniques for enormously reducing the use of scarce freshwater resources in
city homes and businesses, including recycling or directly reusing waste waters, are well
known.

2) The concentration of production and consumption in cities means a greater
range and possibility for efficient use of resources such as paper, glass, or plastics,
through material reclamation, recycling, and reuse, and for the specialist enterprises
that ensure this can happen safely.

3) A much higher population concentration in cities means a reduced demand
for land relative to population. In most countries, urban areas take up less than 1 per
cent of the national territory.


4) The concentration of production and households in cities means a considerable potential
for reducing fossil-fuel use where homes and workplaces need to be heated—for instance through
the use of waste-process heat from industry or thermal power stations, or through co-generation
(combined heat and power systems).

5) Although growing levels of urbanization are associated with growing levels of private car
ownership, cities represent a much greater potential for limiting the use of motor vehicles and the
fossil fuels they need through walking, bicycling, or greater use of public transport.

From a health perspective, environmental problems are best identified if considered in
terms of the nature of the hazard (for instance biological pathogens, chemical pollutants, and
physical hazards) and the physical context in which they occur (for instance the home, workplace,
neighbourhood, or at the city level). The most serious urban environmental problems worldwide in
regard to health are the biological pathogens (disease-causing agents) in urban water, food, air, and
soil. For instance, diarrhoeal diseases are responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of
infants and children living in urban areas each year and for tens of millions whose physical and
mental development is impaired by repeated attacks of diarrhoea. Tens of millions of urban dwellers
suffer each year from malaria or other diseases spread by insects—including hundreds of thousands
who die (mostly children under five). Hundreds of millions of urban dwellers of all ages suffer from
debilitating intestinal parasitic infestations caused by pathogens in the soil, water, or food, and from
respiratory and other diseases caused or exacerbated by pathogens in the air, both indoors and
outdoors. Cities in Europe and North America suffered comparable environmental health problems
only a century ago and it is a tribute to much-improved environmental management that this is no
longer the case.

There is a large and growing list of chemical pollutants which are known to cause or
contribute to ill health or premature death. Exposure takes place in homes, workplaces, or within the
ambient environment. Air pollution is sufficiently serious in many cities to have demonstrable health
impacts; industries, motor vehicles, and, in many cities, domestic cookers and heaters are the main
source. There is also a growing list of chemicals in the urban environment about which there is
concern, even if the precise health impact is not known.

Physical hazards are a major source of injury and premature death in most urban areas.
Domestic accidents are often among the most serious, especially if a high proportion of the
population live in overcrowded dwellings made of flammable materials as is common in many urban
areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Road accidents are often among the most serious causes of
injury and premature death; in many major cities, hundreds die from road accidents each year and in
some, thousands. It is pedestrians or cyclists who are most often killed or injured—and for every
accidental death, many times more people are seriously injured.


CITIES AND THEIR SURROUNDS

Landmarks of Rio de Janeiro
Much of the city of Rio de Janeiro, in south-eastern Brazil,
lies between mountains and water. The massive statue known as
Christ the Redeemer, right, tops Corcovado Mountain. The statue,
built to commemorate Brazil’s first 100 years of independence from
Portugal, seems to gaze over the city towards Sugarloaf Mountain, a
bare granite rock rising out of Guanabara Bay.
Will and Deni McIntyre/ALLSTOCK, INC.
All urban centres depend on natural resources drawn from
beyond their boundaries and virtually all dispose of their liquid and
solid wastes in their surrounds. Many also “export” air pollution—for
instance as acid rain. Most draw fresh water from ground or surface
sources outside their boundaries, with some needing to draw on
freshwater resources from distant areas. Urban consumers and
businesses also draw on the environmental resources of farmland,
forests, and aquatic ecosystems beyond their boundaries. All these
have environmental impacts on resources and ecosystems outside
urban boundaries; the overall impact is often referred to as the
urban centre’s “ecological footprint”.


Comodoro Rivadavia's Urban Sprawl

The slopes of the Chenque hills have limited the westward
expansion of Comodoro Rivadavia, forcing it to develop into a narrow
urban strip running parallel to the sea. From the top of the hills, the
city and the Atlantic Ocean can be seen in all their magnitude.
Located on the Gulf of San Jorge, Comodoro Rivadavia is the
commercial and transport centre for the surrounding areas. In
addition, it is the export centre for one of the country's most
important oil and gas producing regions.

Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis

Historically, virtually all urban centres had ecological
footprints that were local, since the high cost of transporting food,
fresh water, and other natural resources limited the area from which
they drew. However, larger cities and wealthier consumers have
enormously increased the volume of natural resources consumed by
cities, while advances in transport and low fuel prices have allowed
resources to be brought from ever-greater distances. The consumers
and businesses in the world’s largest and wealthiest cities are using
natural resources drawn from all over the world. Legislation has
sought to reduce the environmental damage that urban wastes cause
in their surrounding ecosystems, but this has often proved difficult as
the environmental impacts take place outside the urban boundaries
and the jurisdiction of the urban authorities. It is even more difficult
to make urban populations feel responsible for the ecological
problems to which they contribute when the resources they draw are
from more distant ecosystems.


SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Cities have an important part in achieving sustainable
development—the meeting of human needs without a level of
resource use and waste generation that threatens the local, regional,
or global environment. Moving from a concern for the urban
environment to a concern for sustainable development has resulted
in a growing awareness of two new responsibilities of urban citizens
and governments. The first is a concern for the environmental impact
of urban-based production, consumption, and wastes on the needs of
all people, not just those within the urban jurisdiction. The second is
an understanding of the finite nature of many natural resources (or
the ecosystems from which they are drawn) and of the capacities of
ecosystems in the wider regional and international context to absorb
or break down wastes. This means setting limits on the rights of city
enterprises or consumers to use scarce resources and to generate
non-biodegradable wastes. These wastes include greenhouse gases:
global warming would bring many problems for urban centres—
especially for the many major cities that are ports or on low-lying
coastal areas—through sea-level rises and an increased instability of
weather patterns.

Perhaps the most important implication of this global
awareness for cities in the wealthier countries is the role of urban
authorities in promoting the needed unlinking of high living standards
from high levels of resource use and waste generation. Many cities
have taken the first step, especially those that have developed their
own “Local Agenda 21s” (modelled on the sustainable development
plan produced at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992). As yet,
however, support for these plans has rarely emerged at national
levels of government. Contributed By: David Satterthwaite
Microsoft ® Encarta


Climate Change Society
Climate Change Society: What affect will climate change have on our society as we know it? This
question poses considerable analytical problems for governments around the world. We all watched the events
of Hurricane Katrina unfold on our TV screens as the storm developed over the Gulf of Mexico. We saw how this
storm intensified and struck the coast of the USA with the ferocity unparalleled in recorded memory. These
events unfolded before our eyes and we were shocked at the aftermath, where we saw civil society breakdown
into what some called total anarchy. Now imagine the same event only 10 times worse, that is what the world
could be facing if the trends in climate change continue.

We are increasingly a coastal species, 44% of the
world's population (6.75 billion) or 2.9 billion people live within 150
km (ca.100 miles) of the coast. This is more people than inhabited
the entire planet in 1950. In 1995 alone, an estimated 50 million
people migrated to the coastal zones of the United States.

Mass migration to the coasts will continue in the decades
ahead. Most of this population growth is concentrated in large
coastal cities. As coastal population grows, along with the activities
that accompany this growth, the coastlines are radically altered. Clearing, land reclamation, and channelling for
flood and tidal waters destroy coastal wetlands. Port development, road building, coastal construction, tourist
resorts and the mining of beach sand for construction material obliterate shorelines. These activities often
increase coastal erosion and damage habitats, for example, seagrass beds are destroyed by boat propellers and
coral reefs poisoned, often away from the development site.

Much of our scientific research has focussed on trying to
understand the way that Climate Change and Global Warming
affects the planet. Recently, we are also turning our attention to the
human cost that these changes are having on our society. One
area of research that has attracted considerable attention has been
what effect weather has on crime and social disorder. We are also
beginning to understand the connection between biodiversity and
human well-being, particularly as ecosystems change as a result of
human activities.

If the predictions of Global Warming and Climate Change
are correct then society will have to develop adaptation and
mitigation strategies to combat these dramatic changes. Hurricane
Katrina provides us with a window into the aftermath of extreme
weather events and allows us to look other social problems such
as crime, health, and mental health enabling us address these
issues.

Finally, when considering ' climate change society ', what do we think about the moral responsibility of
various nations towards climate change, and does this vary between countries?


The UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon and many others are convinced we are confronting a climate
emergency to which we must respond. Climate Change Society.

What is global warming?

Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when greenhouse
gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earth’s
atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take
the change, so they die.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the sun’s heat and light is trapped in the
earth’s atmosphere. This is like when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is
out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car, by going through the
windows, but it can’t get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the earth. The heat and light can
get through the atmosphere, but it can’t get out. As a result, the temperature rises.

The sun’s heat can get into the car through the windows but is then trapped. This makes what ever the
place might be, a greenhouse, a car, a building, or the earth’s atmosphere, hotter. This diagram shows the heat
coming into a car as visible light (light you can see) and infrared light (heat). Once the light is inside the car, it is
trapped and the heat builds up, just like it does in the earth’s atmosphere.

Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The greenhouse effect makes the
earth appropriate for people to live on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it would be
burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun would be down. We would not get the sun’s heat and
light to make the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the summer, it would be burning
because the sun would be up with no atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be exposed to
all the light and heat.

Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people living on it, if there gets to be too
many gases, the earth can get unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will die. They would die
because there would be less food (plants like corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen
because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would cause us to have less food to eat, but it would
also limit the food that animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we need to survive (like
cows) we would even have less food. Gradually, people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.

What are greenhouse gasses?
Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earth’s atmosphere that collect heat and light from the sun.
With too many greenhouse gasses in the air, the earth’s atmosphere will trap too much heat and the earth will
get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants would die because the heat would be too strong.


What is global warming doing to the environment?

Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming makes the sea rise, and when the
sea rises, the water covers many low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and
people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them to die. When they die, the animals lose
a source of food, along with their habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happens than
plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two sources of food, plant food and
animal food. They may also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This
would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so
on.

The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Many things that are happening to
the ocean are linked to global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused from global warming,
is harming and killing algae in the ocean.

Algae is a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A producer is something that
makes food for other animals through photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to
many consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the producers.) One kind of a
consumer is small fish. There are many others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals.
Fewer algae is a problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea.

Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and plants. It is killing algae, but it is
also destroying many huge forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain
gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe out


whole forests. This happens because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and
trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.

What causes global warming?

Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global warming is electrical pollution.
Electricity causes pollution in many ways, some worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are burned to
create electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and animals. Some examples of fossil fuels are oil and
petroleum. Many pollutants (chemicals that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent into the air when fossil fuels
are burned. Some of these chemicals are called greenhouse gasses.

We use these sources of energy much more than the sources that give off less pollution. Petroleum,
one of the sources of energy, is used a lot. It is used for transportation, making electricity, and making many
other things. Although this source of energy gives off a lot of pollution, it is used for 38% of the United States’
energy.

What are people doing to stop global warming?

People are doing many things to try to stop global warming. One thing people are doing is carpooling.
Carpooling is driving with someone to a place that you are both going to. This minimizes the amount of
greenhouse gases put into the air by a car.

Another thing that people are doing is being more careful about leaving things turned on like the
television, computer, and the lights. A lot of people are taking time away from the television, and instead, they
are spending more time outdoors. This helps our planet out a lot. Now, more people are even riding busses,
walking to school, and riding their bikes to lower the amount of greenhouse gases in the air. Planting trees and
recycling also helps. If you recycle, less trash goes to the dump, and less trash gets burned. As a result, there
are fewer greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere.

Watch what you buy. Many things, such as hairspray and deodorant, now are made to have less of an
impact on the atmosphere. Less greenhouse gasses will rise into the air, and global warming will slow down.

What is the government doing to stop global warming?

The government is doing many things to help stop global warming. The government made a law called
The Clean Air Act so there is less air pollution. Global warming is making people get very bad illnesses that
could make them disabled, very sick, and sometimes even die. The Clean Air Act is making many companies
change their products to decrease these problems. Part of the law says that you may not put a certain amount of
pollutants in the air. Hairspray and some other products, like foam cups, had this problem. Making and using
these products let out too much volatile organic compounds (VOC’s), ozone-destroying chemicals
(chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), and related chemicals (such as CO2) into the air. Now, almost all of these
products have a label on them telling people what this product can do to the environment and many people. By
2015 all products listed on the Clean Air Act will have this label on them:


The Global Carbon Cycle
The global carbon cycle can be divided into two categories: the geological, which operates over
large time scales (millions of years), and the biological - physical, which operates at shorter time scales
(days to thousands of years) and as humans we meddle with both categories.

The global carbon cycle refers to the movements of carbon, as it exchanges between reservoirs
(sinks), and occurs because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean
contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but the deep ocean part of this pool
does not rapidly exchange with the atmosphere. Below in the diagram, you can get some idea where and
how carbon is stored in the whole Earth system. The global carbon cycle is usually thought to have four
major carbon sinks interconnected by pathways of exchange. These sinks are;

the atmosphere,

the terrestrial biosphere (which usually includes freshwater systems and non-living organic material, such
as soil carbon),

the oceans (which includes dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota),

and the sediments (which includes fossil fuels ).

Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2). Although it is
a very small part of the atmosphere overall (approximately 0.04% and rising fast), it plays an important role
in supporting life. Other gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons
(the latter is one we introduced and are still adding to). These are all greenhouse gases whose
concentration in the atmosphere are increasing, and contributing to the rising average global surface
temperature.


Global Carbon Cycle - Sinks and Storage

Carbon is taken up from Earth's system in several ways:

1. When the sun is shining, plants perform photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the process. Deforestation and land clearing pose serious problems to
the carbon cycle, and obliterating this sink means more carbon is forced into the atmosphere.

2. At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and CO2 is more
soluble. Cold ocean temperatures favour the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere whereas warm
temperatures can cause the ocean surface to release carbon dioxide. With seas warming this means CO2
is not so easily absorbed, and remains in the atmosphere. This is coupled to the ocean's thermohaline
circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean's interior. During times when
photosynthesis exceeded respiration, organic matter slowly built up over millions of years to form coal and
oil deposits. All of these biologically mediated processes represent a removal of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and storage of carbon in geologic sediments.

3. In upper ocean areas of high productivity, organisms form tissue containing carbon, and some
also form carbonate shells or other hard body parts. Apart from trees in forests, phytoplankton in the
Earth's oceans are very important organisms that soak up carbon. The seas contain around 36000
gigatonnes of carbon, and again and in warmer seas, organisms cannot produce carbonate shells at the
same rate, and increasingly acidic seas dissolve shells, or make it difficult to create shelly material. This
means of course that carbon dioxide is not being taken up as quickly through this process and more
carbon remains in the atmosphere, propelling global warming.

4. As shelled organisms die, bits and pieces of the shells fall to the bottom of the oceans and
accumulate as sediments. Only small amounts of residual carbon from plankton settle out to the ocean
bottom but over long periods of time these represent a significant removal of carbon from the atmosphere.

Global Carbon Cycle - Sources

Carbon can be released back into the system in many different ways:

1. Through the respiration performed by plants and animals.

2. Through the decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down the carbon
compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is present, or
methane if not. The melting permafrost is releasing large amounts of methane, which contributes to global
warming at a rate 21 more times than carbon dioxide.

3. Through combustion of biomass which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing carbon
dioxide (as well as other things, like smoke). Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products, and
natural gas releases millions of tonnes of carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for millions of
years. Fires also consume biomass and organic matter to produce carbon dioxide (along with methane,
carbon monoxide, smoke), and the vegetation that is killed but not consumed by the fire decomposes over
time adding further carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Wildfires and forest fires are likely to increase as
land masses dry out with higher rates of evaporation.

4. Production of cement. A component, lime, is produced by heating limestone, which produces a
substantial amount of carbon dioxide, and impacting upon the global carbon cycle.


5. At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is
released back into the atmosphere.

6. Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism are part of the global carbon cycle and release gases
into the atmosphere. These gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. Find out how
volcanic gases are measured here.

Environmental Issues in Indonesia
For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been
exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists
of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali;
another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more
marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of
subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical
resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the
use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains--at least in the Greater Sunda Islands--permitting
irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by
road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.
Each of these patterns of ecological and economic adaptation experienced tremendous
pressures during the 1970s and 1980s, with rising population density, soil erosion, river-bed siltation,
and water pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling.
Marine pollution
n the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those
engaged in allied activities--roughly 5.6 million people--began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by
declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern
Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the
virtual disappearance of the terburuk fish in some areas. Effluent from fertilizer plants in Gresik in
northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of
Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa
Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The
danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.
The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland,
as well. Soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and
into the sea. Silt deposits covered and killed once-lively coral reefs, creating mangrove thickets and
making harbor access increasingly difficult, if not impossible, without massive and expensive
dredging operations.
Although overfishing by Japanese and American "floating factory" fishing boats was
officially restricted in Indonesia in 1982, the scarcity of fish in many formerly productive waters
remained a matter of some concern in the early 1990s. As Indonesian fishermen improved their
technological capacity to catch fish, they also threatened the total supply.


Deforestation and agricultural pollution
At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years, Papua
New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.[1] There are significantly large areas of forest in Indonesia that are
being lost as native forest is cleared by large multi-national pulp companies and being replaced by
plantations. In Sumatra tens of thousands of square kilometres of forest have been cleared often
under the command of the central government in Jakarta who comply with multi national companies[2]
to remove the forest because of the need to pay off international debt obligations and to develop
economically.[citation needed] In Kalimantan, between 1991 and 1999 large areas of the forest were
burned because of uncontrollable fire causing atmospheric pollution across South-East Asia.[3] Every
year, forest are burned by farmers (slash-and-burn techniques are used by between 200 and 500
million people worldwide)[4] and plantation owners. A major source of deforestation is the logging
industry, driven spectacularly by China and Japan.[5] Agricultural development programs in Indonesia
(transmigration program) moved large populations into the rainforest zone, further increasing
deforestation rates.
A joint UK-Indonesian study of the timber industry in Indonesia in 1998 suggested that
about 40% of throughout was illegal, with a value in excess of $365 million.[6] More recent estimates,
comparing legal harvesting against known domestic consumption plus exports, suggest that 88% of
logging in the country is illegal in some way.[7] Malaysia is the key transit country for illegal wood
products from Indonesia.[8]
Logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia, a
relatively undeveloped country, the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, behind only
China and the United States.[9] Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks, including old-
growth rainforest and peatlands. Efforts to curb global climate change have included measures
designed to monitor the progression of deforestation in Indonesia and incentivize national and local
governments to halt it. The general term for these sorts of programs is Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). New systems to monitor deforestation are being
applied to Indonesia. One such system, the Center for Global Development's Forest Monitoring for
Action [1] platform currently displays monthly-updating data on deforestation throughout Indonesia.
A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s
among the rice-growing peasants living in the plains and valleys. Rising population densities and the
consequent demand for arable land gave rise to serious soil erosion, deforestation due to the need
for firewood, and depletion of soil nutrients. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in some
areas and poisoned fish ponds. Although national and local governments appeared to be aware of
the problem, the need to balance environmental protection with pressing demands of a hungry
population and an electorate eager for economic growth did not diminish.
Major problems faced the mountainous interior regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi and
Sumatra. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, and even
desertification resulting from intensive commercial logging--all these threatened to create


environmental disasters. In 1983 some 30,000 km² of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10
billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was
made possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. Even discounting the
calamitous effects of the fire, in the mid-1980s Indonesia's deforestation rate was the highest in
Southeast Asia, at 7,000 km² per year and possibly as much as 10,000 km² per year. Although
additional deforestation came about as a result of the government-sponsored Transmigration
Program (transmigrasi) in uninhabited woodlands, in some cases the effects of this process were
mitigated by replacing the original forest cover with plantation trees, such as coffee, rubber, or palm.
In many areas of Kalimantan, however, large sections of forest were cleared, with little or no
systematic effort at reforestation. Although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only
selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. Because
commercial logging permits were granted from Jakarta, the local inhabitants of the forests had little
say about land use, but in the mid-1980s, the government, through the Department of Forestry,
joined with the World Bank to develop a forestry management plan. The efforts resulted in the first
forest inventory since colonial times, seminal forestry research, conservation and national parks
programs, and development of a master plan by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations.
The use of fires to clear land for agriculture has contributed to Indonesia being the world's
third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, after China and the United States.[1] Forest fires destroy
carbon sinks in old-growth rainforests and peatlands. Efforts to curb carbon emissions, known as
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), include monitoring of the
progression of deforestation in Indonesia and measures to increase incentives for national and local
governments to halt it. One such monitoring system is the Center for Global Development's Forest
Monitoring for Action[2] platform, which currently displays monthly-updating data on deforestation
throughout Indonesia.

Flood
A flood is an overflow or accumulation of an expanse of water that submerges land.[1] In
the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may
result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or
breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its normal boundaries.[2] While the size
of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is
not a significant flood unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a village,
city or other inhabited area.
Floods can also occur in rivers, when the strength of the river is so high it flows out of the
river channel, particularly at bends or meanders and causes damage to homes and businesses along
such rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other
bodies of water, since time out of mind, people have lived and worked by the water to seek
sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near water.
That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived
value of living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding.
The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic
languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float). The
specific term "The Flood," capitalized, usually refers to the great Universal Deluge described in the
Bible, in Genesis, and is treated at Deluge.

What Causes the Greenhouse Effect?


Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is
deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet's surface and is
reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by "greenhouse gases" such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth's atmosphere, they regulate our
climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the
average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit),
far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect?

While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too
much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

Burning natural gas, coal and oil -including gasoline for automobile engines-raises the level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.

Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.

Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly
to the enhanced greenhouse effect and "global warming" that is currently under way.

Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place,
which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber
or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.

Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat,
transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming
occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually
increases the temperature of the Earth's surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly

Today, the increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just
how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this: During the entire 20th century, the average
global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).

Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will
increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

Not All Scientists Agree


While the majority of mainstream scientists agree that global warming is a serious problem that is growing
steadily worse, there are some who disagree. John Christy, a professor and director of the Earth System
Science Center at the University of Alabama in Huntsville is a respected climatologist who argues that global
warming isn't worth worrying about.

Christy reached that opinion after analyzing millions of measurements from weather satellites in an effort to
find a global temperature trend. He found no sign of global warming in the satellite data, and now believes that
predictions of global warming by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the 21st century are
incorrect.

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

The Effects of Global Warming

Scientists agree that even a small increase in the global temperature would lead to significant climate and
weather changes, affecting cloud cover, precipitation, wind patterns, the frequency and severity of storms, and
the duration of seasons.

Rising temperatures would raise sea levels as well, reducing supplies of fresh water as flooding occurs along
coastlines worldwide and salt water reaches inland.

Many of the world’s endangered species would become extinct as rising temperatures changed their habitat.

Millions of people also would be affected, especially poor people who live in precarious locations or depend on
the land for a subsistence living.

Certain vector-borne diseases carried by animals or insects, such as malaria, would become more widespread
as warmer conditions expanded their range.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions are the Biggest Problem

Currently, carbon dioxide accounts for more than 60 percent of the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by the
increase of greenhouse gases, and the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing by more than
10 percent every 20 years.

If emissions of carbon dioxide continue to grow at current rates, then the level of the gas in the atmosphere
will likely double, or possibly even triple, from pre-industrial levels during the 21st century.

Climate Changes are Inevitable

According to the United Nations, some climate change is already inevitable because of emissions that have
occurred since the dawn of the Industrial Age.

While the Earth’s climate does not respond quickly to external changes, many scientists believe that global
warming already has significant momentum due to 150 years of industrialization in many countries around the
world. As a result, global warming will continue to affect life on Earth for hundreds of years, even if
greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and the increase in atmospheric levels halted.

What is Being Done to Reduce Global Warming?


To lessen those long-term effects, many nations, communities and individuals are taking action now to reduce
term individuals
greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming by reducing dependence on fossil fuels, increasing the
use of renewable energy, expanding forests, and making lifestyle choices that help to sustain the environment.

Whether they will be able to recruit enough people to join them, and whether their combined efforts will be
enough to head off the most serious effects of global warming, are open questions that can only be answered
by future developments.

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