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Moleculesof life

Most of the world's population is lactose intolerant because they lack the enzyme lactase as adults. There are different types of lactose intolerance, including primary lactase deficiency which is genetic and affects adults, secondary deficiency caused by intestinal injury, and congenital deficiency present from birth. Lactose intolerance is caused by a lactase deficiency rather than an immune response like milk allergy.

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Chapter 3: The Molecules of Life 0
Introduction: Got Lactose? Most of the world’s population cannot digest milk-based foods They are lactose intolerant, because they lack the enzyme lactase This illustrates the importance of biological molecules, such as lactase, to functioning living organisms Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
Types of Lactose Intolerance: Primary lactase deficiency  is genetic, only affects adults and is caused by the absence of a  lactase persistence  allele. It is the most common cause of lactose intolerance as a majority of the world's population lacks these alleles. Secondary lactase deficiency  is caused by injury to the  small intestine , usually in infancy, from acute  gastroenteritis ,  diarrhea ,  chemotherapy ,  intestinal parasites  or other environmental causes. Congenital lactase deficiency  is a very rare,  autosomal recessive  genetic disorder that prevents lactase expression from birth. It is particularly common in  Finland . Lactose intolerance is not an  allergy  because it is not an  immune response  but caused by lactase deficiency.  Milk allergy  is a separate condition with distinct symptoms
Would it be possible for ME to have lactose intolerance ?
 
FACT: Life’s Molecular Diversity is Based on the Properties of Carbon Diverse molecules found in cells are composed of carbon bonded to other elements Carbon-based molecules are called organic compounds By sharing electrons, carbon can bond to four other atoms By doing so, it can branch in up to four directions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Methane (CH 4 ) is one of the simplest organic compounds Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms to the carbon atom Each of the four lines in the formula for methane represents a pair of shared electrons Draw a Lewis Dot Diagram of Methane! Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structural formula Ball-and-stick model Space-filling model Methane The four single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.
Methane and other compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons Carbon, with attached hydrogens, can bond together in chains of various lengths A chain of carbon atoms is called a carbon skeleton Carbon skeletons can be branched or unbranched Therefore, different compounds with the same molecular formula can be produced These structures are called isomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
SREMOSI!!
A chain of carbon atoms is called a carbon skeleton Carbon skeletons can be branched or unbranched Therefore, different compounds with the same molecular formula can be produced These structures are called isomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carbon skeletons vary in length. Branching. Skeletons may be unbranched or branched. Butane Isobutane Propane Ethane Double bonds. 2-Butene Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. Cyclohexane Length. 1-Butene Benzene Skeletons may be arranged in rings. Rings.
Carbon skeletons vary in length. Propane Ethane Length.
Skeletons may be unbranched or branched. Butane Isobutane Branching.
Double bonds. 2-Butene Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. 1-Butene
Cyclohexane Benzene Skeletons may be arranged in rings. Rings.
Functional Groups,Molecular Geometry & the Properties of Organic Compounds Considerations: SIZE, SHAPE, POLARITY of the molecule A functional group affects a biological molecule’s function in a characteristic way Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds Compounds containing functional groups are hydrophilic (water-loving) This means that they are soluble in water, which is a necessary prerequisite for their roles in water-based life Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Major Functional Groups: The functional groups are Hydroxyl group —consists of a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen Carbonyl group —a carbon linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom Carboxyl group —consists of a carbon double-bonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group Amino group —composed of a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton Phosphate group —consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
You MUST know EVERYTHING on THIS slide!! This slide WILL be on the test… BTW… TEST on 12/14!!
 
 
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds An example of similar compounds that differ only in functional groups is sex hormones Male and female sex hormones differ only in functional groups The differences cause varied molecular actions The result is distinguishable features of males and females Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Estradiol Male lion Testosterone Female lion
Estradiol Female lion
Male lion Testosterone
Cells make a GINORMOUS # of large molecules from a small set of small molecules There are four classes of biological molecules Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Macromolecules Polymers Monomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Moving to Montana soon…going to become a Dental Floss Tycoon…..
Proteins are made from only 20 different amino acids, DNA is built from just four kinds of nucleotides http://www.blc.arizona.edu/molecular_graphics/dna_structure/dna_tutorial.html The monomers used to make polymers are universal Cells synthesize a HUGE number of polymers from a small group of monomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Monomers are bonded together to form polymers through dehydration reactions , which remove water… Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis , the addition of water… All biological reactions of this sort are mediated by ENZYMES , which speed up chemical reactions in cells SYNTHESIS &HYDROLYSIS… Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Unlinked monomer Short polymer
Unlinked monomer Short polymer Longer polymer Dehydration reaction
 
Hydrolysis A more betterer vid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_6bRcEVlcA
CARBS: Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates Carbohydrates range from small sugar molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides Sugar monomers are MONOSACCHARIDES , such as glucose and fructose These can bonded together to form POLYSACCHARIDES Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
Monosaccharides are the Simplest Carbos The carbon skeletons of monosaccharides vary in length Glucose, Galactose & Fructose are six carbons long Others monosaccharides have three to seven carbon atoms Monosaccharides are the main ENERGY INPUT for cellular respiration…. ATP!!! Monosaccharides are also used as raw materials to manufacture other organic molecules Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Glucose (an aldose) Fructose (a ketose)
Structural formula Abbreviated structure Simplified structure
3.5 Cells link two single sugars to form disaccharides Two monosaccharides (monomers) can bond to form a disaccharide in a dehydration reaction An example is a glucose monomer bonding to a fructose monomer to form sucrose, a common disaccharide… like in the video we just watched…. Other disaccharides: Maltose & Lactose Polysaccharides: Starch, Cellulose and then there was… http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2j8-eMxY_1Q&feature=related Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Glucose Glucose
Glucose Glucose Maltose
3.6 CONNECTION: What is high-fructose corn syrup and is it to blame for obesity? When you drink a soda, you are probably consuming a sweetener called high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) Because fructose is sweeter than glucose, glucose atoms produced from starch are rearranged to make the glucose isomer, fructose This is used to sweeten sodas So, if you overconsume sweeteners as well as fat and do not exercise, you may experience weight gain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides They can function in the cell as a storage molecule or as a structural compound Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Polysaccharides are wicked long chains of sugar units Starch is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers and found in plants Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose, which is hydrolyzed by animals when glucose is needed Cellulose is a polymer of glucose that forms plant cell walls Chitin is a polysaccharide used by insects and crustaceans to build an exoskeleton Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units Polysaccharides are HYDROPHILIC (water-loving) Cotton fibers, such as those in bath towels, are water absorbent Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Polysaccharides
Starch granules in potato tuber cells Glycogen granules in muscle tissue Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall Cellulose molecules Glucose monomer GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE Hydrogen bonds STARCH This is Mr. Edgar.
Starch granules in potato tuber cells Glucose monomer STARCH
Glycogen granules in muscle tissue GLYCOGEN
Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall Cellulose molecules CELLULOSE Hydrogen bonds
LIPIDS Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
LIPIDS: Fats, Waxes & Oils -mostly ENERGY storage molecules Lipids are water insoluble HYDROPHOBIC , or water fearing) compounds that are important in energy storage They contain 2X as much Energy as a polysaccharide Fats are lipids made from glycerol and fatty acids Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules Fatty acids link to glycerol by a dehydration reaction A fat contains one glycerol linked to three fatty acids Fats are often called triglycerides because of their structure Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Fats
Fatty acid Glycerol
 
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules Some fatty acids contain double bonds This causes kinks or bends in the carbon chain because the maximum number of hydrogen atoms cannot bond to the carbons at the double bond These compounds are called unsaturated fats because they have fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens are called saturated fats Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats and are an important component of all cells For example, they are a major part of cell membranes, in which they cluster into a bilayer of phospholipids The hydrophilic heads are in contact with the water of the environment and the internal part of the cell The hydrophobic tails band in the center of the bilayer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Water Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic heads Water
3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions Steroids are lipids composed of fused ring structures Cholesterol is an example of a steroid that plays a significant role in the structure of the cell membrane Good cholesterol vid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjv5OnbcjE8&feature=related In addition, cholesterol is the compound from which we synthesize sex hormones Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
Anabolic steroids pose health risks Anabolic steroids are synthetic variants of testosterone that can cause a buildup of muscle and bone mass They can be sold as prescription drugs and used to treat certain diseases They may also be abused with serious consequences, such as liver damage that can lead to cancer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
Proteins: Essential to Structures & Functions of Life A protein is a polymer built from various combinations of 20 amino acid monomers Proteins have unique structures that are directly related to their functions Enzymes , proteins that serve as metabolic catalysts, regulate the chemical reactions within cells Structural proteins provide associations between body parts and contractile proteins are found within muscle Defensive proteins include antibodies of the immune system, and signal proteins are best exemplified by the hormones Receptor proteins serve as antenna for outside signals, and transport proteins carry oxygen Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Proteins, (polymer), are synthesized from amino acids, (monomers), bonded by peptide bonds Amino acids , the building blocks of proteins, have an amino group and a carboxyl group Both of these are covalently bonded to a central carbon atom Also bonded to the central carbon is a hydrogen atom and some other chemical group symbolized by R Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carboxyl group Amino group
Amino acids are classified as HYDROPHOBIC or HYDROPHILIC Some amino acids have a nonpolar R group and are hydrophobic Others have a polar R group and are hydrophilic, which means they easily dissolve in aqueous solutions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Leucine (Leu) Hydrophobic Serine (Ser) Hydrophilic Aspartic acid (Asp)
Amino acid monomers are linked together to form polymeric proteins This is accomplished by an enzyme-mediated dehydration synthesis reaction This links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next amino acid The covalent linkage resulting is called a peptide bond Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carboxyl group Amino acid Amino group Amino acid
Carboxyl group Amino acid Amino group Amino acid Peptide bond Dipeptide Dehydration reaction
Protein’s specific shape determines its function A polypeptide chain contains hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked by peptide bonds The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to assume a particular shape The shape of a protein determines its specific function Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Groove
Groove
If for some reason a protein’s shape is altered, it can no longer function Denaturation will cause polypeptide chains to unravel and lose their shape and, thus, their function Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt concentration and pH Food Science vid… http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IL_Df5ouUc Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.14 A protein’s shape depends on four levels of structure A protein can have four levels of structure Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Primary structure, (1 o ), of a protein is its unique amino acid sequence The correct amino acid sequence is determined by the cell’s genetic information The slightest change in this sequence affects the protein’s ability to function Sickle Cell Anemia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UpwV1tdxcs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protein secondary structure, (2 o ), results from coiling or folding of the polypeptide Coiling results in a helical structure called an alpha helix Folding may lead to a structure called a pleated sheet Coiling and folding result from hydrogen bonding between certain areas of the polypeptide chain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
 
Collagen Polypeptide chain
The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein is called its tertiary structure, (3 o ) Tertiary structure generally results from interactions between the R groups of the various amino acids Disulfide bridges are covalent bonds that further strengthen the protein’s shape Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Quaternary Structure: Two or more polypeptide chains (subunits) associate, (4 o ) Collagen is an example of a protein with quaternary structure Its triple helix gives great strength to connective tissue, bone, tendons, and ligaments Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Four Levels of Protein Structure Amino acids Primary structure
Four Levels of Protein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet
Four Levels of Protein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Tertiary structure
Four Levels of Protein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Tertiary structure Transthyretin, with four identical polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure
Amino acids Primary structure
Amino acids Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet
Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Tertiary structure
Transthyretin, with four identical polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure
Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) and RNA ( ribonucleic acid ) are composed of monomers called nucleotides Nucleotides have three parts A five-carbon sugar called ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA A phosphate group A nitrogenous base Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Phosphate group Nitrogenous base (adenine) Sugar
Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides DNA nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) RNA also has A, C, and G, but instead of T, it has uracil (U) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.16 Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides A nucleic acid polymer, a polynucleotide, forms from the nucleotide monomers when the phosphate of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of the next nucleotide The result is a repeating sugar-phosphate backbone with protruding nitrogenous bases Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sugar-phosphate backbone Nucleotide
Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides Two polynucleotide strands wrap around each other to form a DNA double helix The two strands are associated because particular bases always hydrogen bond to one another A pairs with T, and C pairs with G, producing base pairs RNA is usually a single polynucleotide strand GTCA Song…Biorad http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bF2QalUj1Y Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Base pair
A particular nucleotide sequence that can instruct the formation of a polypeptide is called a gene Most DNA molecules consist of millions of base pairs and, consequently, many genes These genes, many of which are unique to the species, determine the structure of proteins and, thus, life’s structures and functions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution Mutations are alterations in bases or the sequence of bases in DNA Lactose tolerance is the result of mutations In many people, the gene that dictates lactose utilization is turned off in adulthood Apparently, mutations occurred over time that prevented the gene from turning off This is an excellent example of human evolution Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Short polymer Monomer Hydrolysis Dehydration Longer polymer
 
 
 
 
Sucrose
 
Temperature (°C) 0 20 Rate of reaction Enzyme A 100 Enzyme B 40 60 80
You should now be able to Discuss the importance of carbon to life’s molecular diversity Describe the chemical groups that are important to life Explain how a cell can make a variety of large molecules from a small set of molecules Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain their functions Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and explain their functions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to Describe the chemical structure of proteins and their importance to cells Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids and how they relate to inheritance Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Essential Questions: Essential Questions What are organic compounds? What can carbon form so many different kinds of macromolecules? How is the arrangement of electrons on Carbon related to the diversity of organic compounds formed by carbon? What is a chemical formula? …a structural formula? …an isomer? What are the four major types of macromolecules in living systems? What distinguishes the four different types of macromolecules from each other? Describe the four levels of structural organization in proteins and give an example of each. What are the functional groups in molecules and why are they important? What’s in a food label and how can I read it? Which foods have the greatest energy yield per gram and why? How is chemical energy released and stored in an organism? How the macromolecules we ingest processed in our bodies? What is an enzyme/ Are all proteins enzymes/? Why? Why not? Explain What is the “Lock & Key” model? …the “Induced Fit” model? What are several factors that affect the way an enzyme functions? Explain how each factor affects enzyme function according to the Induced Fit Model

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Moleculesof life

  • 1.
    Chapter 3: TheMolecules of Life 0
  • 2.
    Introduction: GotLactose? Most of the world’s population cannot digest milk-based foods They are lactose intolerant, because they lack the enzyme lactase This illustrates the importance of biological molecules, such as lactase, to functioning living organisms Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 3.
  • 4.
    Types of LactoseIntolerance: Primary lactase deficiency  is genetic, only affects adults and is caused by the absence of a  lactase persistence  allele. It is the most common cause of lactose intolerance as a majority of the world's population lacks these alleles. Secondary lactase deficiency  is caused by injury to the  small intestine , usually in infancy, from acute  gastroenteritis ,  diarrhea ,  chemotherapy ,  intestinal parasites  or other environmental causes. Congenital lactase deficiency  is a very rare,  autosomal recessive  genetic disorder that prevents lactase expression from birth. It is particularly common in  Finland . Lactose intolerance is not an  allergy  because it is not an  immune response  but caused by lactase deficiency.  Milk allergy  is a separate condition with distinct symptoms
  • 5.
    Would it be possible for ME to have lactose intolerance ?
  • 6.
  • 7.
    FACT: Life’s MolecularDiversity is Based on the Properties of Carbon Diverse molecules found in cells are composed of carbon bonded to other elements Carbon-based molecules are called organic compounds By sharing electrons, carbon can bond to four other atoms By doing so, it can branch in up to four directions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 8.
    Methane (CH 4) is one of the simplest organic compounds Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms to the carbon atom Each of the four lines in the formula for methane represents a pair of shared electrons Draw a Lewis Dot Diagram of Methane! Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 9.
    Structural formula Ball-and-stickmodel Space-filling model Methane The four single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.
  • 10.
    Methane and othercompounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons Carbon, with attached hydrogens, can bond together in chains of various lengths A chain of carbon atoms is called a carbon skeleton Carbon skeletons can be branched or unbranched Therefore, different compounds with the same molecular formula can be produced These structures are called isomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 11.
  • 12.
    A chain ofcarbon atoms is called a carbon skeleton Carbon skeletons can be branched or unbranched Therefore, different compounds with the same molecular formula can be produced These structures are called isomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 13.
    Carbon skeletons varyin length. Branching. Skeletons may be unbranched or branched. Butane Isobutane Propane Ethane Double bonds. 2-Butene Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. Cyclohexane Length. 1-Butene Benzene Skeletons may be arranged in rings. Rings.
  • 14.
    Carbon skeletons varyin length. Propane Ethane Length.
  • 15.
    Skeletons may beunbranched or branched. Butane Isobutane Branching.
  • 16.
    Double bonds. 2-ButeneSkeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location. 1-Butene
  • 17.
    Cyclohexane Benzene Skeletonsmay be arranged in rings. Rings.
  • 18.
    Functional Groups,Molecular Geometry& the Properties of Organic Compounds Considerations: SIZE, SHAPE, POLARITY of the molecule A functional group affects a biological molecule’s function in a characteristic way Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 19.
    3.2 Characteristic chemicalgroups help determine the properties of organic compounds Compounds containing functional groups are hydrophilic (water-loving) This means that they are soluble in water, which is a necessary prerequisite for their roles in water-based life Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 20.
    Major Functional Groups:The functional groups are Hydroxyl group —consists of a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen Carbonyl group —a carbon linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom Carboxyl group —consists of a carbon double-bonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group Amino group —composed of a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton Phosphate group —consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 21.
    You MUST knowEVERYTHING on THIS slide!! This slide WILL be on the test… BTW… TEST on 12/14!!
  • 22.
  • 23.
  • 24.
    3.2 Characteristic chemicalgroups help determine the properties of organic compounds An example of similar compounds that differ only in functional groups is sex hormones Male and female sex hormones differ only in functional groups The differences cause varied molecular actions The result is distinguishable features of males and females Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 25.
    Estradiol Male lionTestosterone Female lion
  • 26.
  • 27.
  • 28.
    Cells make aGINORMOUS # of large molecules from a small set of small molecules There are four classes of biological molecules Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 29.
    Macromolecules Polymers Monomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Moving to Montana soon…going to become a Dental Floss Tycoon…..
  • 30.
    Proteins are madefrom only 20 different amino acids, DNA is built from just four kinds of nucleotides http://www.blc.arizona.edu/molecular_graphics/dna_structure/dna_tutorial.html The monomers used to make polymers are universal Cells synthesize a HUGE number of polymers from a small group of monomers Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 31.
    Monomers are bondedtogether to form polymers through dehydration reactions , which remove water… Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis , the addition of water… All biological reactions of this sort are mediated by ENZYMES , which speed up chemical reactions in cells SYNTHESIS &HYDROLYSIS… Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 32.
  • 33.
    Unlinked monomer Shortpolymer Longer polymer Dehydration reaction
  • 34.
  • 35.
    Hydrolysis A morebetterer vid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_6bRcEVlcA
  • 36.
    CARBS: Monosaccharides arethe simplest carbohydrates Carbohydrates range from small sugar molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides Sugar monomers are MONOSACCHARIDES , such as glucose and fructose These can bonded together to form POLYSACCHARIDES Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 37.
  • 38.
    Monosaccharides are theSimplest Carbos The carbon skeletons of monosaccharides vary in length Glucose, Galactose & Fructose are six carbons long Others monosaccharides have three to seven carbon atoms Monosaccharides are the main ENERGY INPUT for cellular respiration…. ATP!!! Monosaccharides are also used as raw materials to manufacture other organic molecules Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 39.
    Glucose (an aldose)Fructose (a ketose)
  • 40.
    Structural formula Abbreviatedstructure Simplified structure
  • 41.
    3.5 Cells linktwo single sugars to form disaccharides Two monosaccharides (monomers) can bond to form a disaccharide in a dehydration reaction An example is a glucose monomer bonding to a fructose monomer to form sucrose, a common disaccharide… like in the video we just watched…. Other disaccharides: Maltose & Lactose Polysaccharides: Starch, Cellulose and then there was… http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2j8-eMxY_1Q&feature=related Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 42.
  • 43.
  • 44.
    3.6 CONNECTION: What is high-fructose corn syrup and is it to blame for obesity? When you drink a soda, you are probably consuming a sweetener called high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) Because fructose is sweeter than glucose, glucose atoms produced from starch are rearranged to make the glucose isomer, fructose This is used to sweeten sodas So, if you overconsume sweeteners as well as fat and do not exercise, you may experience weight gain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 45.
  • 46.
    3.7 Polysaccharides arelong chains of sugar units Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides They can function in the cell as a storage molecule or as a structural compound Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 47.
    Polysaccharides are wickedlong chains of sugar units Starch is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers and found in plants Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose, which is hydrolyzed by animals when glucose is needed Cellulose is a polymer of glucose that forms plant cell walls Chitin is a polysaccharide used by insects and crustaceans to build an exoskeleton Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 48.
    Polysaccharides are longchains of sugar units Polysaccharides are HYDROPHILIC (water-loving) Cotton fibers, such as those in bath towels, are water absorbent Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Polysaccharides
  • 49.
    Starch granules inpotato tuber cells Glycogen granules in muscle tissue Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall Cellulose molecules Glucose monomer GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE Hydrogen bonds STARCH This is Mr. Edgar.
  • 50.
    Starch granules inpotato tuber cells Glucose monomer STARCH
  • 51.
    Glycogen granules inmuscle tissue GLYCOGEN
  • 52.
    Cellulose fibrils ina plant cell wall Cellulose molecules CELLULOSE Hydrogen bonds
  • 53.
    LIPIDS Copyright ©2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 54.
    LIPIDS: Fats, Waxes& Oils -mostly ENERGY storage molecules Lipids are water insoluble HYDROPHOBIC , or water fearing) compounds that are important in energy storage They contain 2X as much Energy as a polysaccharide Fats are lipids made from glycerol and fatty acids Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 55.
  • 56.
    3.8 Fats arelipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules Fatty acids link to glycerol by a dehydration reaction A fat contains one glycerol linked to three fatty acids Fats are often called triglycerides because of their structure Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Fats
  • 57.
  • 58.
  • 59.
    3.8 Fats arelipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules Some fatty acids contain double bonds This causes kinks or bends in the carbon chain because the maximum number of hydrogen atoms cannot bond to the carbons at the double bond These compounds are called unsaturated fats because they have fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens are called saturated fats Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 60.
    3.9 Phospholipids andsteroids are important lipids with a variety of functions Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats and are an important component of all cells For example, they are a major part of cell membranes, in which they cluster into a bilayer of phospholipids The hydrophilic heads are in contact with the water of the environment and the internal part of the cell The hydrophobic tails band in the center of the bilayer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 61.
    Water Hydrophobic tailsHydrophilic heads Water
  • 62.
    3.9 Phospholipids andsteroids are important lipids with a variety of functions Steroids are lipids composed of fused ring structures Cholesterol is an example of a steroid that plays a significant role in the structure of the cell membrane Good cholesterol vid: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjv5OnbcjE8&feature=related In addition, cholesterol is the compound from which we synthesize sex hormones Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 63.
  • 64.
    Anabolic steroids posehealth risks Anabolic steroids are synthetic variants of testosterone that can cause a buildup of muscle and bone mass They can be sold as prescription drugs and used to treat certain diseases They may also be abused with serious consequences, such as liver damage that can lead to cancer Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 65.
  • 66.
    Proteins: Essential toStructures & Functions of Life A protein is a polymer built from various combinations of 20 amino acid monomers Proteins have unique structures that are directly related to their functions Enzymes , proteins that serve as metabolic catalysts, regulate the chemical reactions within cells Structural proteins provide associations between body parts and contractile proteins are found within muscle Defensive proteins include antibodies of the immune system, and signal proteins are best exemplified by the hormones Receptor proteins serve as antenna for outside signals, and transport proteins carry oxygen Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 67.
    Proteins, (polymer), aresynthesized from amino acids, (monomers), bonded by peptide bonds Amino acids , the building blocks of proteins, have an amino group and a carboxyl group Both of these are covalently bonded to a central carbon atom Also bonded to the central carbon is a hydrogen atom and some other chemical group symbolized by R Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 68.
  • 69.
    Amino acids areclassified as HYDROPHOBIC or HYDROPHILIC Some amino acids have a nonpolar R group and are hydrophobic Others have a polar R group and are hydrophilic, which means they easily dissolve in aqueous solutions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 70.
    Leucine (Leu) HydrophobicSerine (Ser) Hydrophilic Aspartic acid (Asp)
  • 71.
    Amino acid monomersare linked together to form polymeric proteins This is accomplished by an enzyme-mediated dehydration synthesis reaction This links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next amino acid The covalent linkage resulting is called a peptide bond Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 72.
    Carboxyl group Aminoacid Amino group Amino acid
  • 73.
    Carboxyl group Aminoacid Amino group Amino acid Peptide bond Dipeptide Dehydration reaction
  • 74.
    Protein’s specific shapedetermines its function A polypeptide chain contains hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked by peptide bonds The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to assume a particular shape The shape of a protein determines its specific function Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Groove
  • 75.
  • 76.
    If for somereason a protein’s shape is altered, it can no longer function Denaturation will cause polypeptide chains to unravel and lose their shape and, thus, their function Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt concentration and pH Food Science vid… http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IL_Df5ouUc Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 77.
    3.14 A protein’sshape depends on four levels of structure A protein can have four levels of structure Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 78.
    The Primary structure,(1 o ), of a protein is its unique amino acid sequence The correct amino acid sequence is determined by the cell’s genetic information The slightest change in this sequence affects the protein’s ability to function Sickle Cell Anemia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UpwV1tdxcs Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 79.
    Protein secondary structure,(2 o ), results from coiling or folding of the polypeptide Coiling results in a helical structure called an alpha helix Folding may lead to a structure called a pleated sheet Coiling and folding result from hydrogen bonding between certain areas of the polypeptide chain Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 80.
  • 81.
  • 82.
    The overall three-dimensionalshape of a protein is called its tertiary structure, (3 o ) Tertiary structure generally results from interactions between the R groups of the various amino acids Disulfide bridges are covalent bonds that further strengthen the protein’s shape Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 83.
    Quaternary Structure: Twoor more polypeptide chains (subunits) associate, (4 o ) Collagen is an example of a protein with quaternary structure Its triple helix gives great strength to connective tissue, bone, tendons, and ligaments Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 84.
    Four Levels ofProtein Structure Amino acids Primary structure
  • 85.
    Four Levels ofProtein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet
  • 86.
    Four Levels ofProtein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Tertiary structure
  • 87.
    Four Levels ofProtein Structure Amino acids Primary structure Alpha helix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet Polypeptide (single subunit of transthyretin) Tertiary structure Transthyretin, with four identical polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure
  • 88.
  • 89.
    Amino acids Alphahelix Hydrogen bond Secondary structure Pleated sheet
  • 90.
    Polypeptide (single subunitof transthyretin) Tertiary structure
  • 91.
    Transthyretin, with fouridentical polypeptide subunits Quaternary structure
  • 92.
    Nucleic acids areinformation-rich polymers of nucleotides DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) and RNA ( ribonucleic acid ) are composed of monomers called nucleotides Nucleotides have three parts A five-carbon sugar called ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA A phosphate group A nitrogenous base Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 93.
    Phosphate group Nitrogenousbase (adenine) Sugar
  • 94.
    Nucleic acids areinformation-rich polymers of nucleotides DNA nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) RNA also has A, C, and G, but instead of T, it has uracil (U) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 95.
    3.16 Nucleic acidsare information-rich polymers of nucleotides A nucleic acid polymer, a polynucleotide, forms from the nucleotide monomers when the phosphate of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of the next nucleotide The result is a repeating sugar-phosphate backbone with protruding nitrogenous bases Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 96.
  • 97.
    Nucleic acids areinformation-rich polymers of nucleotides Two polynucleotide strands wrap around each other to form a DNA double helix The two strands are associated because particular bases always hydrogen bond to one another A pairs with T, and C pairs with G, producing base pairs RNA is usually a single polynucleotide strand GTCA Song…Biorad http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bF2QalUj1Y Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 98.
  • 99.
    A particular nucleotidesequence that can instruct the formation of a polypeptide is called a gene Most DNA molecules consist of millions of base pairs and, consequently, many genes These genes, many of which are unique to the species, determine the structure of proteins and, thus, life’s structures and functions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 100.
    EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution Mutations are alterations in bases or the sequence of bases in DNA Lactose tolerance is the result of mutations In many people, the gene that dictates lactose utilization is turned off in adulthood Apparently, mutations occurred over time that prevented the gene from turning off This is an excellent example of human evolution Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 101.
    Short polymer MonomerHydrolysis Dehydration Longer polymer
  • 102.
  • 103.
  • 104.
  • 105.
  • 106.
  • 107.
  • 108.
    Temperature (°C) 020 Rate of reaction Enzyme A 100 Enzyme B 40 60 80
  • 109.
    You should nowbe able to Discuss the importance of carbon to life’s molecular diversity Describe the chemical groups that are important to life Explain how a cell can make a variety of large molecules from a small set of molecules Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain their functions Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and explain their functions Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 110.
    You should nowbe able to Describe the chemical structure of proteins and their importance to cells Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids and how they relate to inheritance Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 111.
    Essential Questions: EssentialQuestions What are organic compounds? What can carbon form so many different kinds of macromolecules? How is the arrangement of electrons on Carbon related to the diversity of organic compounds formed by carbon? What is a chemical formula? …a structural formula? …an isomer? What are the four major types of macromolecules in living systems? What distinguishes the four different types of macromolecules from each other? Describe the four levels of structural organization in proteins and give an example of each. What are the functional groups in molecules and why are they important? What’s in a food label and how can I read it? Which foods have the greatest energy yield per gram and why? How is chemical energy released and stored in an organism? How the macromolecules we ingest processed in our bodies? What is an enzyme/ Are all proteins enzymes/? Why? Why not? Explain What is the “Lock & Key” model? …the “Induced Fit” model? What are several factors that affect the way an enzyme functions? Explain how each factor affects enzyme function according to the Induced Fit Model

Editor's Notes

  • #2 General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension.
  • #3 When a lactose-intolerant person ingests milk-based foods, the person will experience nausea, cramps, and bloating.
  • #8 The ability to bond in four directions is called tetravalence. This is one facet of carbon’s versatility that makes large, complex molecules possible. One of the great advantages of life based on carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. 2. Students might need to be reminded about the levels of biological organization. The relationship between atoms, monomers, and polymers can be confusing as each is discussed. Consider noting these relationships somewhere in the classroom (such as on the board) where students can quickly glance for reassurance. Teaching Tips 1. One of the great advantages of carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) 2. Toothpicks and gumdrops (or any other pliable small candy) permit the quick construction of chemical models. Different candy colors can represent certain atoms. The model of the methane molecule in Figure 3.1 can thus easily be demonstrated (and consumed!).
  • #9 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. 2. Students might need to be reminded about the levels of biological organization. The relationship between atoms, monomers, and polymers can be confusing as each is discussed. Consider noting these relationships somewhere in the classroom (such as on the board) where students can quickly glance for reassurance. Teaching Tips 1. One of the great advantages of carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) 2. Toothpicks and gumdrops (or any other pliable small candy) permit the quick construction of chemical models. Different candy colors can represent certain atoms. The model of the methane molecule in Figure 3.1 can thus easily be demonstrated (and consumed!).
  • #10 Figure 3.1A Three representations of methane (CH 4 ). Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. 2. Students might need to be reminded about the levels of biological organization. The relationship between atoms, monomers, and polymers can be confusing as each is discussed. Consider noting these relationships somewhere in the classroom (such as on the board) where students can quickly glance for reassurance. Teaching Tips 1. One of the great advantages of carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) 2. Toothpicks and gumdrops (or any other pliable small candy) permit the quick construction of chemical models. Different candy colors can represent certain atoms. The model of the methane molecule in Figure 3.1 can thus easily be demonstrated (and consumed!).
  • #11 Hydrocarbons are the major components of petroleum. Hydrocarbons consist of the partially decomposed remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. 2. Students might need to be reminded about the levels of biological organization. The relationship between atoms, monomers, and polymers can be confusing as each is discussed. Consider noting these relationships somewhere in the classroom (such as on the board) where students can quickly glance for reassurance. Teaching Tips 1. One of the great advantages of carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) 2. Toothpicks and gumdrops (or any other pliable small candy) permit the quick construction of chemical models. Different candy colors can represent certain atoms. The model of the methane molecule in Figure 3.1 can thus easily be demonstrated (and consumed!).
  • #13 You may want to give an example of an isomer. Students can relate to the isomers glucose and galactose, because both are energy sources for organisms. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. 2. Students might need to be reminded about the levels of biological organization. The relationship between atoms, monomers, and polymers can be confusing as each is discussed. Consider noting these relationships somewhere in the classroom (such as on the board) where students can quickly glance for reassurance. Teaching Tips 1. One of the great advantages of carbon is its ability to form up to four bonds, permitting the assembly of diverse components and branching configurations. Challenge your students to find another element that might also permit this sort of adaptability. (Like carbon, silicon has four electrons in its outer shell.) 2. Toothpicks and gumdrops (or any other pliable small candy) permit the quick construction of chemical models. Different candy colors can represent certain atoms. The model of the methane molecule in Figure 3.1 can thus easily be demonstrated (and consumed!).
  • #14 Figure 3.1B Variations in carbon skeletons.
  • #15 Figure 3.1B Variations in carbon skeletons.
  • #16 Figure 3.1B Variations in carbon skeletons.
  • #17 Figure 3.1B Variations in carbon skeletons.
  • #18 Figure 3.1B Variations in carbon skeletons.
  • #19 Functional groups may participate in chemical reactions or may contribute to function indirectly by their effects on molecular shape. A drill with interchangeable drill bits is a nice analogy to carbon skeletons with different functional groups. The analogy relates the role of different functions with different structures. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. A drill with interchangeable drill bits is a nice analogy to carbon skeletons with different functional groups. The analogy relates the role of different functions to different structures.
  • #20 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. A drill with interchangeable drill bits is a nice analogy to carbon skeletons with different functional groups. The analogy relates the role of different functions to different structures.
  • #21 You may want to add the methyl group as a functional group because of its importance in methylating certain compounds. For example, a methyl group on DNA may affect expression of genes. Another example is the arrangement of methyl groups in male and female sex hormones to affect their shape and function. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. A drill with interchangeable drill bits is a nice analogy to carbon skeletons with different functional groups. The analogy relates the role of different functions to different structures.
  • #22 Table 3.2 Functional Groups of Organic Compounds.
  • #23 Table 3.2 Functional Groups of Organic Compounds.
  • #24 Table 3.2 Functional Groups of Organic Compounds.
  • #25 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. A drill with interchangeable drill bits is a nice analogy to carbon skeletons with different functional groups. The analogy relates the role of different functions to different structures.
  • #26 Figure 3.2 Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones.
  • #27 Figure 3.2 Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones.
  • #28 Figure 3.2 Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones.
  • #29 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. Train cars linking together to form a train is a nice analogy to linking monomers to form polymers. Consider adding that as the train cars are joined, a puff of steam appears—thus the reference to water production and a dehydration reaction when linking molecular monomers.
  • #30 Macromolecules are large and complex. A protein may consist of thousands of atoms that form a molecular colossus with a mass well over 100,000 daltons. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. Train cars linking together to form a train is a nice analogy to linking monomers to form polymers. Consider adding that as the train cars are joined, a puff of steam appears—thus the reference to water production and a dehydration reaction when linking molecular monomers.
  • #31 As an example of the universality of monomers, the amino acids in your student’s proteins are the same ones found in a bacterium’s or plant’s proteins. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. Train cars linking together to form a train is a nice analogy to linking monomers to form polymers. Consider adding that as the train cars are joined, a puff of steam appears—thus the reference to water production and a dehydration reaction when linking molecular monomers.
  • #32 The bulk of the organic material we ingest is in the form of polymers that are much too large to enter our cells. Within our digestive tract, various enzymes attack the polymers, speeding up hydrolysis. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. General biology students might not have previously taken a chemistry course. The concept of molecular building blocks that cannot be seen can be abstract and difficult to comprehend for such students. Concrete examples from our diets and good images will increase comprehension. Teaching Tips 1. Train cars linking together to form a train is a nice analogy to linking monomers to form polymers. Consider adding that as the train cars are joined, a puff of steam appears—thus the reference to water production and a dehydration reaction when linking molecular monomers.
  • #33 Figure 3.3A Dehydration reactions build a polymer chain.
  • #34 Figure 3.3A Dehydration reactions build a polymer chain.
  • #35 Figure 3.3B Hydrolysis breaks a polymer chain.
  • #36 Figure 3.3B Hydrolysis breaks a polymer chain.
  • #37 Monosaccharides have molecular formulae that are multiples of CH 2 O. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The abstract nature of chemistry can be discouraging to many students. Consider starting out this section of the lecture by examining the chemical groups on a food nutrition label. Candy bars with peanuts are particularly useful, as they contain significant amounts of all three sources of calories (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). 2. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. If your lectures will eventually include details of glycolysis and aerobic respiration, this is a good point to introduce the basic concepts of glucose as fuel. Just introducing this conceptual formula might help: eating glucose + breathing in oxygen -> water + usable energy (used to build ATP) + heat + exhaling CO 2 .
  • #38 Figure 3.4A Bees with honey, a mixture of two monosaccharides.
  • #39 Monosaccharides, particularly glucose, are major nutrients for cells. Glucose is the starting compound for an important metabolic pathway called cellular respiration. If your lectures will eventually include details of cellular respiration (glycolysis or aerobic respiration), this is a good point to introduce the basic concepts of glucose as fuel. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The abstract nature of chemistry can be discouraging to many students. Consider starting out this section of the lecture by examining the chemical groups on a food nutrition label. Candy bars with peanuts are particularly useful, as they contain significant amounts of all three sources of calories (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). 2. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. If your lectures will eventually include details of glycolysis and aerobic respiration, this is a good point to introduce the basic concepts of glucose as fuel. Just introducing this conceptual formula might help: eating glucose + breathing in oxygen -> water + usable energy (used to build ATP) + heat + exhaling CO 2 .
  • #40 Figure 3.4B Structures of glucose and fructose.
  • #41 Figure 3.4C Three representations of the ring form of glucose.
  • #42 Sucrose is the sugar (disaccharide) we keep around the kitchen to sweeten coffee or use for dozens of other things. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The abstract nature of chemistry can be discouraging to many students. Consider starting out this section of the lecture by examining the chemical groups on a food nutrition label. Candy bars with peanuts are particularly useful, as they contain significant amounts of all three sources of calories (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). 2. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. Learning the definitions of word roots is invaluable when learning science. Learning the meaning of the prefix word roots “mono” (one), “di” (two), and “poly” (many) helps to distinguish the structures of various carbohydrates.
  • #43 Figure 3.5 Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction.
  • #44 Figure 3.5 Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction.
  • #45 The population of the United States eats more sweetener made from corn than from sugarcane or beets, gulping it down in drinks as well as in frozen food and baked goods. Even ketchup is laced with it. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. The widespread use of high-fructose corn syrup can be surprising to students. Consider asking each student to bring to class a product label that indicates the use of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) as an ingredient. 2. Consider an assignment for students to access the Internet and find reliable sources that discuss high rates of sugar consumption in the modern diet. The key, of course, is in the quality of the resource. Consider limiting their search to established nonprofit organizations (American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, etc.) and peer-reviewed journals.
  • #46 Figure 3.6 HFCS, a main ingredient of soft drinks and processed foods.
  • #47 Animals and plants store sugars for later use. Plants store starch while animals store glycogen. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. A simple exercise demonstrates the enzymatic breakdown of starches into sugars. If students place an unsalted cracker in their mouths, holding it in their mouths while it mixes well with saliva, they might soon notice that a sweeter taste begins to emerge. The salivary enzyme amylase begins the digestion of starches into disaccharides, which may be degraded further by other enzymes. These disaccharides are the source of the sweet taste. 2. The text notes that cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. Ask your students why this is true. 3. The cellophane wrap often used to package foods is a biodegradable material derived from cellulose. Consider challenging students to create a list of other cellulose-derived products (such as paper.) 4. An adult human may store about a half kilogram of glycogen in the liver and muscles of the body, depending upon recent dietary habits. A person who begins dieting might soon notice an immediate weight loss of 2–4 pounds (1–2 kilograms) over several days, reflecting reductions in stored glycogen, water, and intestinal contents (among other factors).
  • #48 Most mammals, including humans, do not have enzymes necessary to digest cellulose. Thus the energy in the glucose monomers is not available. Cows have solved this problem by harboring prokaryotes (bacteria) in their rumen that hydrolyze the cellulose of grass and hay to glucose monomers. The glucose can be used for energy as well as building blocks for other nutrients that nourish the cow. Likewise, termites cannot digest cellulose in wood, but the bacteria in their guts can, and so provide a meal for themselves as well as the termites The text notes that cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. Ask your students why this is true. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. A simple exercise demonstrates the enzymatic breakdown of starches into sugars. If students place an unsalted cracker in their mouths, holding it in their mouths while it mixes well with saliva, they might soon notice that a sweeter taste begins to emerge. The salivary enzyme amylase begins the digestion of starches into disaccharides, which may be degraded further by other enzymes. These disaccharides are the source of the sweet taste. 2. The text notes that cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. Ask your students why this is true. 3. The cellophane wrap often used to package foods is a biodegradable material derived from cellulose. Consider challenging students to create a list of other cellulose-derived products (such as paper.) 4. An adult human may store about a half kilogram of glycogen in the liver and muscles of the body, depending upon recent dietary habits. A person who begins dieting might soon notice an immediate weight loss of 2–4 pounds (1–2 kilograms) over several days, reflecting reductions in stored glycogen, water, and intestinal contents (among other factors).
  • #49 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Consider reinforcing the three main sources of calories with food items that clearly represent each group. Bring clear examples to class as visual references. For example, a can of Coke or a bag of sugar for carbohydrates, a tub of margarine for lipids, and some beef jerky for protein (although some fat and carbohydrates might also be included). Teaching Tips 1. A simple exercise demonstrates the enzymatic breakdown of starches into sugars. If students place an unsalted cracker in their mouths, holding it in their mouths while it mixes well with saliva, they might soon notice that a sweeter taste begins to emerge. The salivary enzyme amylase begins the digestion of starches into disaccharides, which may be degraded further by other enzymes. These disaccharides are the source of the sweet taste. 2. The text notes that cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. Ask your students why this is true. 3. The cellophane wrap often used to package foods is a biodegradable material derived from cellulose. Consider challenging students to create a list of other cellulose-derived products (such as paper.) 4. An adult human may store about a half kilogram of glycogen in the liver and muscles of the body, depending upon recent dietary habits. A person who begins dieting might soon notice an immediate weight loss of 2–4 pounds (1–2 kilograms) over several days, reflecting reductions in stored glycogen, water, and intestinal contents (among other factors).
  • #50 Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
  • #51 Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
  • #52 Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
  • #53 Figure 3.7 Polysaccharides
  • #55 Lipids are generally not big enough to be macromolecules. They are grouped together because they mix poorly, if at all, with water. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets. 2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world. Teaching Tips 1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity! 2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25  25  56.25 kg of carbohydrate  75 kg  131.25 kg, an increase of 31.25%) 3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats.
  • #56 Figure 3.8A Water beading on the only coating of feathers.
  • #57 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets. 2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world. Teaching Tips 1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity! 2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25  25  56.25 kg of carbohydrate  75 kg  131.25 kg, an increase of 31.25%) 3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats.
  • #58 Figure 3.8B A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol.
  • #59 Figure 3.8C A fat molecule made from glycerol and three fatty acids.
  • #60 Most animal fat is saturated fat. Saturated fats, such as butter and lard, will pack tightly together and will be solid at room temperature. Plant and fish fats are usually unsaturated fats. They are usually liquid at room temperature. Olive oil and cod liver oil are examples. Peanut butter, margarine, and many other products are hydrogenated to prevent lipids from separating out in liquid (oil) form. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students may struggle with the concept that a pound of fat contains more than twice the calories of a pound of sugar. It might seem that a pound of food would potentially add on a pound of weight. Other students may have never understood the concept of calories in the diet, simply following general guidelines of avoiding fatty foods. Furthermore, fiber and water have no caloric value but add to the weight of food. Consider class discussions that explore student misconceptions about calories, body weight, and healthy diets. 2. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world. Teaching Tips 1. The text in Module 3.8 notes the common observation that vinegar and oil do not mix in this type of salad dressing. A simple demonstration can help make this point. In front of the class, mix together colored water and a yellow oil (corn or canola oil work well). Shake up the mixture and then watch as the two separate. (You may have a mixture already made ahead of time that remains separated; however, the dye may bleed between the oil and the water.) Placing the mixture on an overhead projector or other well-illuminated imaging device makes for a dramatic display of hydrophobic activity! 2. The text notes that a gram of fat stores more than twice the energy of a gram of polysaccharide, such as starch. You might elaborate with a simple calculation to demonstrate how a person’s body weight would vary if the energy stored in body fat were stored in carbohydrates instead. If a 100-kg man carried 25% body fat, he would have 25 kg of fat in his body. Fat stores about 2.25 times more energy per gram than carbohydrate. What would be the weight of the man if he stored the energy in the fat in the form of carbohydrate? (2.25  25  56.25 kg of carbohydrate  75 kg  131.25 kg, an increase of 31.25%) 3. Margarine in stores commonly comes in liquid squeeze containers, in tubs, and in sticks. These forms reflect increasing amounts of hydrogenation, gradually increasing the stiffness from a liquid, to a firmer spread, to a firm stick of margarine. As noted in the text, recent studies have suggested that unsaturated oils become increasingly unhealthy as they are hydrogenated. Public attention to hydrogenation and the health risks of the resulting trans fats are causing changes in the use of products containing trans fats.
  • #61 The phospholipid bilayer provides the cell with a structure that separates the outside from the inside of the cell. The integrity of the membrane is necessary for life functions. Because of the nature of the phospholipid, many molecules cannot move across the membrane without help. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world. Teaching Tips 1. Before explaining the properties of a polar molecule such as a phospholipid, have students predict the consequences of adding phospholipids to water. See if the class can generate the two most common configurations: (1) a lipid bilayer encircling water (water surrounding the bilayer and contained internally) and (2) a micelle (polar heads in contact with water and hydrophobic tails clustered centrally). 2. The consequences of steroid abuse will likely be of great interest to your students. However, the reasons for the damaging consequences might not be immediately clear. As time permits, consider noting the diverse homeostatic mechanisms that normally regulate the traits affected by steroid abuse.
  • #62 Figure 3.9A Section of a phospholipid membrane.
  • #63 Unfortunately, a high level of cholesterol in the blood can lead to atherosclerosis. This is a heart disease that results when deposits form in the arteries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen. The deposits block blood flow, and a heart attack results. Both saturated fats and trans fats promote higher levels of cholesterol. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students might struggle to extrapolate the properties of lipids to their roles in an organism. Ducks float because their feathers repel water instead of attracting it. Hair on our heads remains flexible because of oils produced in our scalp. Examples such as these help connect the abstract properties of lipids to concrete examples in our world. Teaching Tips 1. Before explaining the properties of a polar molecule such as a phospholipid, have students predict the consequences of adding phospholipids to water. See if the class can generate the two most common configurations: (1) a lipid bilayer encircling water (water surrounding the bilayer and contained internally) and (2) a micelle (polar heads in contact with water and hydrophobic tails clustered centrally). 2. The consequences of steroid abuse will likely be of great interest to your students. However, the reasons for the damaging consequences might not be immediately clear. As time permits, consider noting the diverse homeostatic mechanisms that normally regulate the traits affected by steroid abuse.
  • #64 Figure 3.9B Cholesterol, a steroid.
  • #65 There are several important adverse consequences to steroid use to gain an athletic edge. Sports organizations and the public have come out against their use as a means to enhance performance. Athletic governing bodies prohibit their use. The consequences of steroid abuse will likely be of great interest to your students. However, the reasons for the damaging consequences might not be immediately clear. As time permits, consider noting the diverse homeostatic mechanisms that normally regulate the traits affected by steroid abuse.
  • #66 Figure 3.10UN Flexed biceps.
  • #67 Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of cells. Teaching Tips 1. Many analogies help students appreciate the diversity of proteins that can be made from just 20 amino acids. The authors note that our language uses combinations of 26 letters to form words. Proteins are much longer “words,” creating even more diversity. Another analogy is to trains. This builds upon the earlier analogy when polymers were introduced. Imagine making different trains about 100 cars long, using any combination of 20 types of railroad cars. Mathematically, the number of possible trains is 20 100 , a number beyond imagination.
  • #68 Teaching Tips 1. Many analogies help students appreciate the diversity of proteins that can be made from just 20 amino acids. The authors note that our language uses combinations of 26 letters to form words. Proteins are much longer “words,” creating even more diversity. Another analogy is to trains. This builds upon the earlier analogy when polymers were introduced. Imagine making different trains about 100 cars long, using any combination of 20 types of railroad cars. Mathematically, the number of possible trains is 20 100 , a number beyond imagination. 2. The authors note that the difference between a polypeptide and a protein is analogous to the relationship between a long strand of yarn and a sweater knitted from yarn. Proteins are clearly more complex!
  • #69 Figure 3.12A General structure of an amino acid.
  • #70 Teaching Tips 1. Many analogies help students appreciate the diversity of proteins that can be made from just 20 amino acids. The authors note that our language uses combinations of 26 letters to form words. Proteins are much longer “words,” creating even more diversity. Another analogy is to trains. This builds upon the earlier analogy when polymers were introduced. Imagine making different trains about 100 cars long, using any combination of 20 types of railroad cars. Mathematically, the number of possible trains is 20 100 , a number beyond imagination. 2. The authors note that the difference between a polypeptide and a protein is analogous to the relationship between a long strand of yarn and a sweater knitted from yarn. Proteins are clearly more complex!
  • #71 Figure 3.12B Examples of amino acids with hydrophobic and hydrophilic R groups.
  • #72 Teaching Tips 1. Many analogies help students appreciate the diversity of proteins that can be made from just 20 amino acids. The authors note that our language uses combinations of 26 letters to form words. Proteins are much longer “words,” creating even more diversity. Another analogy is to trains. This builds upon the earlier analogy when polymers were introduced. Imagine making different trains about 100 cars long, using any combination of 20 types of railroad cars. Mathematically, the number of possible trains is 20 100 , a number beyond imagination. 2. The authors note that the difference between a polypeptide and a protein is analogous to the relationship between a long strand of yarn and a sweater knitted from yarn. Proteins are clearly more complex!
  • #73 Figure 3.12C Peptide bond formation. As more and more amino acids are added, a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide results. The combination of amino acids is determined by expression of genes on DNA. Although there seems to be an unlimited number of combinations of 20 amino acids, the combinations are limited in an individual because of inheritance.
  • #74 Figure 3.12C Peptide bond formation. As more and more amino acids are added, a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide results. The combination of amino acids is determined by expression of genes on DNA. Although there seems to be an unlimited number of combinations of 20 amino acids, the combinations are limited in an individual because of inheritance.
  • #75 Because of the molecular structure of specific proteins on brain cells, endorphins bind to them. This gives us a feeling of euphoria and pain relief. Morphine, heroin, and other opiate drugs are able to mimic endorphins and bind to the endorphin receptors in the brain. Because of the euphoria that results, we become addicted. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The functional significance of protein shape is an abstract molecular example of form and function relationships, which might be new to some students. The binding of an enzyme to its substrate is a type of molecular handshake, which permits specific interactions. To help students think about form and function relationships, share some concrete analogies in their lives—perhaps flathead and Phillips screwdrivers that match the proper type of screws or the fit of a hand into a glove. Teaching Tips 1. Most cooking results in changes in the texture and color of food. The brown color of a cooked steak is the product of the denaturation of proteins. Fixatives such as formalin also denature proteins and cause color changes. Students who have dissected vertebrates will realize that the brown color of the muscles makes it look as if the animal has been cooked.
  • #76 Figure 3.13B Space-filling model of lysozyme.
  • #77 Excessive heat can also denature a protein. A good example is frying or boiling an egg. The proteins in the egg “white” become solid, white, and opaque upon denaturation. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The functional significance of protein shape is an abstract molecular example of form and function relationships, which might be new to some students. The binding of an enzyme to its substrate is a type of molecular handshake, which permits specific interactions. To help students think about form and function relationships, share some concrete analogies in their lives—perhaps flathead and Phillips screwdrivers that match the proper type of screws or the fit of a hand into a glove. Teaching Tips 1. Most cooking results in changes in the texture and color of food. The brown color of a cooked steak is the product of the denaturation of proteins. Fixatives such as formalin also denature proteins and cause color changes. Students who have dissected vertebrates will realize that the brown color of the muscles makes it look as if the animal has been cooked.
  • #78 For the BLAST Animation Alpha Helix, go to Animation and Video Files. Teaching Tips 1. Consider this assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonalds’ Big Mac or other fast-food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component.
  • #79 Sickle cell disease is manifested by an inability of hemoglobin in red blood cells to carry oxygen, the primary function of hemoglobin. This blood disorder is the result of change in a single amino acid. Teaching Tips 1. Consider this assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonalds’ Big Mac or other fast-food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component.
  • #80 Hydrogen bonding is an important component of the silk protein of a spider’s web. The many hydrogen bonds makes the web as strong as steel. Teaching Tips 1. Consider this assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonalds’ Big Mac or other fast-food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component.
  • #81 Figure 3.14UN01 Spider in web.
  • #82 Figure 3.14UN02 Collagen.
  • #83 Teaching Tips 1. Consider this assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonalds’ Big Mac or other fast-food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component.
  • #84 Misfolding of proteins cause diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Both are manifested by accumulations of misfolded proteins. Consider an assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonald’s Big Mac or other fast food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component. For the BLAST Animation Protein Primary Structure, go to Animation and Video Files. For the BLAST Animation Protein Secondary Structure, go to Animation and Video Files. For the BLAST Animation Protein Tertiary Structure, go to Animation and Video Files. For the BLAST Animation Protein Quaternary Structure, go to Animation and Video Files. Teaching Tips 1. Consider this assignment to review the organic molecules in our diets. Have students, working individually or in small groups, analyze a food label listing the components of a McDonalds’ Big Mac or other fast-food sandwich. Note the most abundant organic molecule class (perhaps by weight) found in each component.
  • #85 Figure 3.14A Primary structure.
  • #86 Figure 3.14A Primary structure. Figure 3.14B Secondary structure.
  • #87 Figure 3.14A Primary structure. Figure 3.14B Secondary structure. Figure 3.14C Tertiary structure.
  • #88 Figure 3.14A Primary structure. Figure 3.14B Secondary structure. Figure 3.14C Tertiary structure. Figure 3.14D Quaternary structure.
  • #89 Figure 3.14A Primary structure.
  • #90 Figure 3.14B Secondary structure.
  • #91 Figure 3.14C Tertiary structure.
  • #92 Figure 3.14D Quaternary structure.
  • #93 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #94 Figure 3.16A A nucleotide, consisting of a phosphate group, sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #95 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #96 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #97 Figure 3.16B Part of a nucleotide.
  • #98 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #99 Figure 3.16C DNA double helix.
  • #100 Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Module 3.16 is the first time the authors present the concept of transcription and translation, discussed extensively in later chapters. The basic conceptual flow of information from DNA to RNA to proteins is essential to these later discussions. Teaching Tips 1. The “NA” in the acronyms DNA and RNA stands for “nucleic acid.” Students often do not make this association without assistance.
  • #101 Mutations that lead to lactose tolerance are relativity recent events. The mutation was useful because it allowed people to drink milk when other foods were unavailable. In other words, it provided a survival advantage. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The evolution of lactose tolerance within human groups in East Africa does not represent a deliberate decision, yet this evolutionary change appears logical. Many students perceive adaptations as deliberate events with purpose. As students develop a better understanding of the mechanisms of evolution, it will be important to point out that mutations arise by chance, with the culling hand of natural selection favoring traits that convey advantage. Organisms cannot plan evolutionary change. Teaching Tips 1. When discussing the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA, consider challenging your students with the following questions based upon prior analogies. If the 20 possible amino acids in a polypeptide represent “words” in a long polypeptide sentence, how many possible words are in the language of a DNA molecule? (Four nucleotides, GCAT, are possible). Are these the same “words” used in RNA? (Answer: No. Uracil substitutes for thymine.)