nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda
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The 'NanoICT Strategic Research Agenda Version 1.0' outlines key interdisciplinary research areas within the field of nanotechnology, particularly focusing on nanoelectronics and the potential impact on future information and communication technologies. It identifies strategic priorities for research and development in areas such as carbon nanotubes, mono-molecular electronics, and nano electro-mechanical systems, while encouraging collaboration and information sharing among researchers. This agenda serves as a guiding document for both the scientific community and industry, aiming to advance knowledge and foster innovation in nano-scale technologies.
![Strategic Research Agendas
Mono-Molecular Electronics
2.3 Mono-Molecular Electronics precision. Depending on the substrate of choice the means
of imaging and manipulation will be different, namely STM
Marek Szymonski Jagiellonian University (Krakow, Poland) for conducting and semi-conducting surfaces or nc-AFM
and nanoICT Mono-Molecular Electronics Working Group. for insulators. Combining the standard scanning probe
techniques with new methods such as tip-enhanced
Introduction Raman spectroscopy will greatly increase measurement
precision.
Future information technologies undoubtedly require
radically new ideas and approaches in order to go A scanning tip induced manipulation of single molecules
beyond the conventional boundaries of ICT. Present has already been confirmed for various systems and
day, transistor-based technology soon will meet the limit may be considered the state-of-the-art, therefore the
of its miniaturization. It is dictated by the fact that there possibility of manufacturing molecular assemblies with
is a certain, minimum number of atoms on the surface the tip is at hand (see for example [4]). In this context,
of a semi-conductor required to define the structure of the technological challenge that remains to be tackled is
a transistor in a currently accepted form. the automation of the manipulation process to such a
degree that it will allow its industrial implementation.
Already in the second half of the 20th century concepts However, this task cannot be realized separately from
of using molecular devices instead of conventional ones other important issues concerning the single molecule
in hybrid electronics have appeared and been studied based devices, that will be discussed below.
since then(see for example famous Aviram and Ratner
paper [1]). There are also other ways of realizing desired molecular
assemblies on the surface. Namely, intensively studied
Recently a brand new modus operandi has been self-assembly process, or the idea of the on-surface-
proposed. Namely, the idea of integrating the chemistry. In the former case, either one would have to
elementary functions and interconnections required for modify/functionalize the surface in such a manner that
desired computation into a single molecule [2].This will guide the self-assembly or find the set of adsorption
proposal is not limited to computational tasks, i.e. parameters that lead to the formation of the desired
electronics and telecommunication, only. Atomic and nanostructure (see for example [5-7]).
molecular scale devices may be designed as mechanical
machines and transducers as well (see for example [3]). On the other hand, the concept of the on-surface-
chemistry requires a careful choice of the substrate that
Challenges of the single molecule based will play a role on the reaction platform and the
electronics reactants that will undergo a chemical change in the
assumed reaction and finally will form a desired
Here we focus on the concept of the single molecule structure or compound directly on the surface. The on-
electronics. The core of the single molecule electronics surface-chemistry approach depends strongly on the
is an idea to design a molecular processor that would be cross-pollination between physicists and chemists.
incorporated into the future nanoelectronic device,
interconnected with other elements of the system and Connecting to the outer world
especially with an output interface. A preliminary task,
that will not be discussed further, is the design and Next crucial aspect of the single molecule electronics is
synthesis of the molecule with desired properties. the ability to connect the molecular processor to the
Assuming that one possesses the molecular processor of outer world in order to benefit from its computational
advantageous features, several technical obstacles arise. properties. Successful communication between the
nano- and micro- environment of the molecular
Single molecule manipulation and imaging electronic device is a decisive parameter for this
approach. One has to realize not only interconnections
First of all, one has to master single molecule manipulation between elements of the whole instrument, but
and imaging on various substrates to a very high level of especially with a tool’s output interface. These two
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Mono-Molecular Electronics
types of interconnections would require different Therefore, the next critical issue emerges. In particular,
approaches, that may sometimes overlap. First, before very sophisticated molecular electronics systems
networking the molecular circuit elements may be are designed and fabricated, the role of the interaction
realized with use of molecular wires fabricated as between the molecule and its surroundings must be
described in the preceding section (see for example [7]). comprehended. Subsequently, one has to develop
However, from time to time one may need to provide not schemes for avoiding a strong coupling of molecules
only horizontal connections, but also transversal with the substrate on which they are deposited. Two
conductive bridges spanning two different levels of the separate approaches to achieve this goal have recently
substrate. Precisely controlled processes of creating such been undertaken.
a molecular interconnects inside of a device are of great
importance for future technological applications. Search One involves deposition of ultrathin insulating layers
for such processes is challenging and requires close between the conducting or semi-conducting substrate
cooperation of chemists, on one hand, that design and and the molecule. It has been shown that at least partial
synthesize molecules, and physicists, on the other hand, decoupling of the molecule in such a configuration is
that test their assembling properties. feasible [11]. The other approach is based on the design
and synthesis of molecules equipped with spacer groups
Second, connecting to the outer world would be based that in principle should increase the separation between
on molecular wires only to some extent. Namely, an active molecular board and the substrate.
molecules could be used to connect to some kind of nano-
metallic electrodes, that further evolve into A whole family of such molecules, namely, the Lander
micro-electrodes and allow addressing the device. molecules family has been already synthesized and
Fabrication of gold nanowires on InSb by means of examined on various templates [4, 12-14], being at the
thermally-assisted assembling process seems to be a moment regarded as prototypes of large organic
molecules consisting of a planar polyaromatic molecular
promising solution for such a task [8]. However, other
wire and equipped with spacer groups. Although much
realizations of the proposed scenario based on different
progress has been done in understanding the molecule-
materials are needed.
substrate interaction and some ideas of decoupling the
molecules from the surface have been tested, present
The final element of connecting the molecular processor
knowledge in this field is still far from being complete or
to the outer world will depend on the single molecule
even sufficient.
manipulation discussed before. Achieving a technologically
feasible route that integrates the manufacture nano- and
Conclusions
micro-metallic pads with assembling of molecular wires,
and deposition and positioning of all other molecular Presented analysis of the single molecule based
elements of the device is a very challenging, complex and approach to molecular electronics does not cover all
high-risk task. possible technical obstacles arising upon experimental
realization of that idea. However, highlighting only three
Device reliability issues, namely: the single molecule manipulation and
imaging, the outer world connection and device
Previously considered problems of positioning of the reliability, is enough to express the complexity and high-
molecule in the required place within the electronic circuit risk nature of that topic. On the other hand, the
or interconnecting it with metal electrodes, are not the successful realization of the single molecule based
only difficulties faced by single molecule based electronics. electronics will be a way to overcome current limitations
It is obvious that properties of the molecular processor in miniaturization.
would rely on its internal structure. Nevertheless, the
shape of the molecular orbital and the electronic structure Furthermore, it will not only result in an increase in
are very vulnerable to the interaction with the chemical computing power by orders of magnitude and therefore
surrounding of the molecule and may be changed by directly influence the development of ICT, but it will
interaction with it [9, 10]. That, in turn, implies alternation also open up the field of mechanical machines and
of the way the molecular processor operates as well. transducers to atomic and molecular scale devices. As
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Mono-Molecular Electronics
an added value, the knowledge gained during Molecules on Clean and Hydroxylated Rutile TiO2(110)
examination of the molecule-substrate interaction could Surfaces. ChemPhysChem. 2009, p. to appear.
be utilized in the field of surface functionalization, that
is a fundamental tool in making advanced materials of [5]. Kolodziej, J. J., et al. PTCDA molecules on an
desired bulk and surface properties and devices of InSb(001) surface studied with atomic force microscopy.
advantageous features. Nanotechnology. 2007, Vol. 18, pp. 135302-(1-6).
That in turn influences many areas of technology such [6]. Goryl, G., et al. High resolution LT-STM imaging of
as solar cell industry, ceramics, gas and biosensors, just PTCDA molecules assembled on an InSb(001) c(8 × 2)
to mention a few. Although all pointed issues are crucial surface. Nanotechnology. 2008, Vol. 19, pp. 185708-(1-
in developing single molecule based devices, one of 6).
them could be addressed in the FET 2011-12
Workprogramme, namely the device reliability issue. [7]. Tekiel, A., et al. Nanofabrication of PTCDA
Such a choice is dictated by the fact, that each molecular chains on rutile TiO2(011)-(2 x 1) surfaces.
development in that particular field will have the biggest Nanotechnology. 2008, Vol. 19, p. 495304.
potential to influence other research areas. Exploration
in that case could be realized by means of small projects [8]. Szymonski, M., et al. Metal nanostructures
<3M€ - 3 yrs. assembled at semiconductor surfaces studied with high
resolution scanning probes. Nanotechnology. 2007, Vol.
The other points, single molecule manipulation and 18, p. 044016.
imaging and the outer world connection, could be
studied jointly in later Workprogrammes depending on [9]. Such, B., et al. Influence of the local adsorption
the output of the projects devoted to the device environment on the intramolecular contrast of organic
reliability. Achieving technologically feasible route that molecules in noncontact atomic force microscopy. Appl.
integrates the manufacture of nano- and micro-metallic Phys. Lett. 2006, Vol. 89, p. 093104.
pads with assembling of molecular wires, and deposition
and positioning of all other molecular elements of the [10]. Kroger, J., et al. Molecular orbital shift of
device, is a very challenging, complex and high-risk task. perylenetetracarboxylic-dianhydride on gold. Chem.
Phys. Lett. 2007, Vol. 438, pp. 249-253.
Therefore, it should be realized as large projects: 4-6
M€ - 4-5 yrs. Moreover, as the aim would be to build a [11]. Such, B., et al. PTCDA molecules on a KBr/InSb
working prototype of single molecule based device and system: a low temperature STM study. Nanotechnology.
to prove its technological feasibility, the participation of 2008, Vol. 19, p. 475705.
high-tech companies in this research is necessary.
[12]. Grill, L., et al. Phys. Rev. B. 2004, Vol. 69, p.
References 035416.
[1]. Aviram, A. and Ratner, M. Molecular rectifiers. [13]. Otero, R., et al. Nat. Mater. 2004, Vol. 3, pp. 779-
Chem. Phys. Lett. 1974, Vol. 29, pp. 277-283. 782.
[2]. Joachim, C., Gimzewski, J. K. and Aviram, A. [14]. Rosei, F., et al. Science. 2002, Vol. 296, pp. 328-
Electronics using hybrid-molecular adn mono-molecular 331.
devices. Nature. 2000, Vol. 408, pp. 541-548.
[3]. Gao, L., et al. Constructing an Array of Anchored
Single-Molecule Rotors on Gold Surfaces. Phys. Rev.
Lett. 2008, Vol. 101, pp. 197209-(1-4).
[4]. Godlewski, S., et al. Adsorption of Large Organic
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Carbon Nanotubes
3.1 Carbon Nanotubes Electronic applications
Field emission (X-ray, Microwave, FEDs, Ionization,
W.I. Milne1, M. Mann1, J. Dijon2, P. Bachmann3, Electron microscopy), interconnects, vias, diodes, thin-
J. McLaughlin4, J. Robertson1, K.B.K. Teo5, A. film transistors, thin-film electrodes, network
Lewalter3, M. de Souza6, P. Boggild7, A Briggs8, transistors, single CNT transistors, thermal
K. Bo Mogensen7, J.-C. P. Gabriel9, S. Roche10 management, memory.
and R. Baptist11
Optical applications
1
Cambridge University, UK Absorbers, microlenses in LCs, optical antennae,
2
CEA, Grenoble, France lighting.
3
Philips Research Laboratories, Aachen, Germany
4
University of Ulster, UK Electromechanical applications
5
AIXTRON, Germany NEMS (resonators), sensors, nanofluidics, bio-medical.
6
Sheff ield University, UK
7
TU, Denmark Energy applications
8
Oxford University, UK Fuel cells, supercapacitors, batteries, solar cells.
9
CEA-LETI, Grenoble, France (Formely, Nanomix Inc. USA)
10
CEA-INAC, Grenoble, France Blue sky
11
CEA-LETI, France Spintronics, quantum computing, SET, ballistic transport.
1. Introduction
KeyWords
There has been extensive research into the properties,
Growth synthesis and possible applications of carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes, multiwall, singlewall, nanofibres (all (CNTs) since they came to prominence following the
the words in a and the subtopics), cap structure, Iijima paper [1] of 1991 [2]. Carbon nanotubes are
catalysts, adhesion, mechanism, modelling. composed of sp2 covalently-bonded carbon in which
graphene walls are rolled up cylindrically to form tubes.
Post-growth modification The ends can either be left open, which is an unstable
Doping & functionalization, dispersion and separation, configuration due to incomplete bonding, they can be
purification, annealing, cap opening/closing, bonded to a secondary surface, not necessarily made
graphitization. of carbon, or they can be capped by a hemisphere of
sp2 carbon, with a fullerenelike structure [3].
Properties/Characterization
Defects, electron transport, phonons, thermal In terms of electrical properties, singlewalled CNTs can
properties/conductivity, wetting, stiction, friction, be either semiconducting or metallic and this depends
mechanical, chemical properties, optical, toxicity, upon the way in which they roll up, as illustrated in
structural properties, contacts. Figure 1. Multi-walled CNTs are non-semiconducting (i.e.
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Carbon Nanotubes
semimetallic like graphite) in nature. Their diameters 2. Catalyst preparation
range from 2 to 500 nm, and their lengths range from
50 nm to a few mm. Multi-walled CNTs contain several The catalyst metals most commonly used for nanotube
concentric, coaxial graphene cylinders with interlayer growth are Fe, Ni and Co [10]. There are several routes
spacings of ~0.34 nm [5]. This is slightly larger than the to the production of catalyst nanoparticles, the two
single crystal graphite spacing which is 0.335 nm. main methods being the wet catalyst method and the
coalescence of thin catalyst films. The wet catalyst
Studies have shown that the inter-shell spacing can range method involves the deposition of metal nitrate/
from 0.34 to 0.39 nm, where the inter-shell spacing bicarbonate colloids onto a surface (shown in Figure
decreases with increasing CNT diameter with a 2a). On drying, the salt in the solution crystallizes to
pronounced effect in smaller diameter CNTs (such as form small islands of the metal salt. The salt is reduced
those smaller than 15 nm) as a result of the high curvature to a metal oxide by heating or calcinations and the oxide
in the graphene sheet [6,7]. As each cylinder has a is then reduced by H2 and/or thermal decomposition
different radius, it is impossible to line the carbon atoms resulting in the formation of metallic catalyst islands
up within the sheets as they do in crystalline graphite. from which the CNTs grow [11,12]. The wet colloid
Therefore, multi-walled CNTs tend to exhibit properties of method produces an uneven distribution of catalyst
turbostratic graphite in which the layers are uncorrelated. particles, but does have a significant cost advantage over
For instance, in highly crystallized multi-walled CNTs, it has vacuum techniques such as sputtering and evaporation.
been shown that if contacted externally, electric current is
generally conducted through only the outermost shell [8],
though Fujitsu have been able to contact the inner walls
with resistances of 0.7 κΩ per multi-walled CNT [9]. This
position paper summarizes state-of-the-art CNTs
dependent on the nature of the desired end-structure. It
also summarizes possible electrical, electronic and
photonic applications of carbon nanotubes (excluding
bulk material composite applications).
Figure 1. (top) A graphene sheet rolled up to obtain a sin-
glewalled CNT. (bottom) The map shows the different single-
walled CNT conf igurations possible. Were the graphene
sheet to roll up in such a way that the atom at (0,0) would
also be the atom at (6,6), then the CNT would be metallic.
Likewise, if the CNT rolled up so that the atom at (0,0) was
also the atom at (6,5), the CNT would be semi-conducting.
The small circles denote semiconducting CNTs and the large
Figure 2. Methods of producing nano-sized catalysts for na-
circles denote non-semiconducting CNTs. Two thirds of CNTs
notube growth [13-16].
are semi-conducting and one third metallic [4].
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Carbon Nanotubes
The most commonly used form of catalyst preparation using ferrocene and xylene by CVD with the Fe
for devices is coalescence (shown in figure 2c). A thin contained within the ferrocene as the catalyst. This
film (of thickness typically less than 10 nm) of Fe, Co or produces the best MWNTs if no patterning is required.
Ni is deposited onto a substrate by evaporation, sputter For surface-attached growth, Ni, Fe and Co are the
coating or electroplating. Upon heating, the thin film most commonly used catalysts, but the quality of the
breaks up (known as dewetting) to form nanoislands as resultant MWNTs depends on the research group and
a result of increased surface mobility and the strong there is little to discriminate between them for CVD
cohesive forces between the metal atoms [17,18]. CNT processes.
growth then nucleates from these nanoislands. When
grown on silicon and polycrystalline substrates, barrier However, for plasma-enhanced CVD (PE-CVD), most
layers such as ITO, SiO2 and TiN are required to prevent groups tend to favour Ni catalyst since they produce the
diffusion of catalyst into the substrate [19]. straightest MWNTs with the greatest control over
growth rate.
2(a) Catalyst for SWNT growth
2(c) Placement/patterning of catalyst
CNT growth is affected by the catalyst and thus different
catalysts are required to produce different CNT For device-based applications it is desirable to position
structures. Metal underlayers also affect resultant CNT the catalyst on the substrate where CNTs are required
growth [20]. Typical catalysts favoured for SWNT to grow. The most desirable positioning method is by
growth are an Al/Fe/Mo triple layer 10 nm, 1 nm and lithographical means, where optical or electron beam
0.1 nm thick respectively with the Mo layer on top [21]. lithography exposes spin-coated resist followed by
This produces dense, vertically-aligned, SWNTs grown development, catalyst deposition and lift-off, which
attached to the substrate. For epitaxial growth on leaves behind catalyst deposited on developed areas.
quartz, only a thin layer of Fe is required. Resasco [22] CNTs can then be grown in-situ where desired for
uses a Co catalyst in the patented CoMoCat process on device fabrication. This has been done most effectively
a silica substrate with a high purity, low diameter by Teo et al. [28], where single, vertically aligned
distribution of SWNTs as a result. MWNTs were grown single Ni catalyst dots deposited
on silicon (as shown in figure 3).
Others use Ni as a SWNT catalyst. The use of ferritin
as the catalyst reported by Dai [23] and Rogers [24], or Many others have used this process to demonstrate
of polyoxometallates [25] enables tighter control of the positional growth of CNTs [29,30]. Very large scale
catalyst particle size and thus the CNT diameter. For integration of SWNTs at the 100 mm wafer level were
electronic applications, when the substrate is to play an reported in 2001 using deep UV lithography [31] and
insulating role, particular attention needs to be paid to using a more standard available lithography process in
the quality of the substrate as well as to the thermal 2003 [32]. Porous substances such as alumina have been
treatment of the wafer in order to minimize the used to grow CNTs with catalyst deposited in the pores.
diffusion of catalyst into the substrate and to keep The resultant CNTs grow with the support of the pore
leakage current low. Dubosc et al. [26] have walls that act as a template for growth [34]. Pores can
demonstrated the use of electrochemical deposition of also either be etched into silicon [35] or milled with a
Ni catalyst with the resultant CNT growth focused ion beam [36].
indistinguishable from catalyst deposited by other
methods. Catalyst can also be positioned by imprinting, where
catalyst deposited on templated silicon is pressed onto
2(b) Catalyst for MWNTs a substrate [37]. Laser interferometry can also be used
to position catalyst but only for array-like structures and
Catalyst thicknesses required for MWNT growth tend with a spacing no greater than the size of the dot [38].
to be much greater than that for SWNT growth The use of nanosphere lithography for self-assembly of
because catalyst thickness correlates with CNT nanotube arrays have also been demonstrated by Ren et
diameter. Ajayan [27] reported the growth of MWNTs al [39].
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Carbon Nanotubes
European Position: Bernier and Loiseau optimised developed by Smalley [41], in which the diameter of the
catalysts for arc production. grown CNT can be controlled by temperature. A
composite graphite target made of Ni and Co produces
The USA with CoMoCat and HipCo as well as Hata in the best CNTs with a yield of 70%. This is, however, the
Japan with supergrowth have dominated the most expensive common production process. The
optimisation of catalysts for mass production CVD highest purity CNTs nucleate from catalysts in a fluidized
growth. Europe has made significant contributions to bed and are currently sold by Thomas Swan [42]. The
low T growth as well as controlled, patterning for multi- process produces high-quality CNTs, inexpensively in
walled CNT growth. large quantities [43]. In Windle’s group CNTs are also
grown in a continuous flow furnace. The nanotubes are
created rapidly by injecting ethanol and ferrocene into a
furnace at 1,200º C. An aerogel then starts to stick to
the cooler wall in the furnace to form fibres. A spindle
then winds the aerogel fibres into a thread, at several
centimetres per second. The result is an extremely fine,
black thread consisting of aligned CNTs [44]. Nanocyl
also produce purified singlewalled nanotubes [45].
(ii) Vertically aligned single-walled CNTs
Water/oxygen/ethanol assisted growth provides
Figure 3. (a) Array of MWCNTs of height 5 μm and separation amongst the longest vertically-aligned CNT mats
5 μm[28] (b) Individual MWCNT grown in a micropore etched produced and has been carried out by a number of
into SiO2 using a self alignment method [33]. groups including Maruyama and Dai [46], but it is Hata
who can produce the longest CNTs with a carbon purity
3. Growth
of 99.98%. The process uses ethylene as the carbon
source gas with a small amount of water vapour
The quality of grown carbon nanotubes is subjective, since
incorporated into a hydrogen flow process. However,
their quality depends on the structures required. Some
there is little control over growth rate because the
applications require high purity and crystallinity; others
mechanism is not clearly understood [47].
require tight dimensional control, whilst others might
require high packing densities and/or alignment.
(iii) Horizontally aligned single-walled CNTs
Consequently, the state of the art depends on the type of
structure required. The latest research indicates that, Horizontally-aligned SWNTs have been grown on
contrary to prior understanding, carbon nanotubes do not epitaxial surfaces such as sapphire and quartz with
follow a vapour liquid solid (VLS) growth model, but rather varying densities. The growing CNTs follow the crystal
a vapour solid solid (VSS) model. Hofmann et al. [40] have planes with a great degree of alignment. The process is
observed growth of both single and multi-walled carbon standard CVD but the substrate needs to be annealed
nanotubes in-situ in an environmental electron microscope. for surface reconstruction before growth. Among the
In all cases, the catalyst particle remains solid, with crystalline best, Tsuji’s group have grown on sapphire [48] and the
structure clearly observed. This indicates that growth Rogers group, who have grown on quartz [24] (figure 4).
primarily occurs through surface diffusion rather than the
Dai et al. have grown horizontally-aligned CNTs with the
bulk diffusion proposed by Baker [10].
use of electric fields (figure 4). However, the fields only
align metallic CNTs. Semiconducting CNTs are not
3(a) Single-walled CNTs
affected by the field. Gas flows have also been used to
control the horizontal alignment of SWNTs, but the
(i) State of the art for bulk single-walled growth
flow needs to be very high and the degree of
The highest quality single-walled CNTs (in terms of alignment is poor compared with methods mentioned
defects) are produced by laser ablation, a process above [49]. Most recently Hata has used a vertical
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Carbon Nanotubes
alignment and then by dipping in alcohol the tubes get orientated and resemble spaghetti. However, under
aligned in plane by capillary forces when he pulls up certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a
the substrate from the liquid [50]. plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will maintain a
vertical growth direction resulting in a dense array of
(iv) Challenges for SWNTs tubes resembling a carpet or forest. For this, the
ferrocene-catalyzed growth of Ajayan produces
The key challenges with SWNTs concern control of
MWNTs with the best control over diameter, height
chirality during growth. For applications such as
and with the greatest degree of alignment [56].
transistors, all grown CNTs need to be
semiconducting (and preferably of identical chirality)
whilst for interconnects, all CNTs need to be metallic.
Control of diameter is related to this issue. The
possibility of using very long CNTs cut into many
pieces has been discussed as a possibility for chirality
control in CNT devices, by using the pieces to act as
catalysts for identical tubes. However, the chirality of
some CNTs has been found to change along long
CNTs (being caused by structural defects [51]).
Returning to interconnects, a higher density (of ~
1013 tubes/cm-3) than that achieved so far is required Figure 4. (a-d) CNTs grown along quartz crystal planes by
if it is to replace copper. The yield of SWNTs grown the Rogers group [24]. Reprinted with permission from
with templates is very low and must be solved if it is Coskun Kocabas, Moonsub Shim, and John A. Rogers. J. Am.
to be seriously considered as a method for growing Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 4540-4541. Copyright (2006) Americal
SWNTs. Also, for SWNT growth to be combined Chemical Society, (e) Horizontally aligned CNTs grown by
with CMOS, the temperature needs to be reduced to Dai’s group using f ield to align the CNTs [49]. Reused with
~ 400 ºC. permission from Yuegang Zhang, Applied Physics Letters,
To a certain extent the chirality problem has been 79, 3155 (2001). Copyright 2001, American Institute of
overcome by using devices based on random network Physics.
of nanotubes instead. This approach was first brought
to light by Snow and co-workers in 2003 [52] although In plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition
it was patented by Nanomix in June 2002 [53]. (PECVD), the applied plasma creates a sheath above
the substrate in which an electric field perpendicular
3(b) Multi-walled CNTs to the substrate is induced. The deposition gases are
broken down by a combination of heat and plasma
Though Endo started the injection process, for bulk and vertically aligned CNTs grow following the
growth, the best CNTs are again grown by Thomas induced field. For vertically- aligned arrays of single or
Swan (as a result of rigorous qualification by Raman and multiple MWNTs, Teo et al. [57] are able to control
TEM) and Windle’s group in Cambridge, though diameter (σ = ±4.1%) and height (σ = ±6.3%) by
Hyperion [54] are the leading suppliers of nanofibres placing the catalyst by lithographical means and by
using a similar process to Thomas Swan. So-called Endo- positioning the substrate on a driven electrode and
fibres 150 nm in diameter can also be purchased from within the plasma sheath during a PECVD process.
Showa Denko. Bayer produce narrower “Baytubes” 5- Both CVD and PECVD hold a number of advantages
20 nm in diameter [55], but these are impure and need over other synthesis methods. For tip growth,
to be purified. nanotube length increases with deposition pressure,
and linearly with deposition time up to certain
(i) Vertically aligned (including crowding) lengths [58]. The diameter is controlled by the
thickness of the catalyst deposited and the position of
There is typically no alignment of CNTs with the the CNTs can be controlled by controlling the catalyst
CVD process. The grown CNTs are often randomly position. For instance, lithographical techniques can
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Carbon Nanotubes
be employed to deposit catalyst dots to control the
position of grown CNTs that can be employed in field
emission devices [28]. This results in much more
control over the dimensions of the CNTs and
removes the need to purify and separate CNTs
grown by other methods.
(ii) Challenges for multi-walled CNTs
Some of the challenges for MWNT growth are
identical to that of SWNT growth. Growth
temperature needs to be reduced if CNTs are to be
employed in CMOS. Raman spectra of MWNTs
grown by CVD/PECVD at low temperatures show
them to be highly defective. Post-annealing processes
can increase graphitization, but these are typically at Figure 5. Dense forest of Small diameter MWCNT from left
temperatures much higher than circuitry can to right: a) Patterned layer on a 200mm layer b) 50μm high
withstand. There is also the question of contact forest on conductive layer of TiN c) close view of the material
resistance that is often quite high and variable. This with individual CNT making bundles of 60nm of diameter
needs to be addressed with still further improvements (courtesy of CEA-LITEN).
on dimensional control.
European Position: Europe led the way with research
in arc deposition but commercialisation was limited.
More recently Nanocyl [45], Thomas Swan [42], and
Arkema [59] and Bayer [55] have made significant
contributions to up scaling CVD and recently AIXTRON
[60] and Oxford Instruments [61] have begun to provide
large area PECVD capability.
The leading universities in Europe will include Cambridge
Figure 6. images showing the growth of CNT carpets grown
Univ., Dresden and EPFL. Growth of MWNTs on large
by an aerosol-assisted process.
wafers (200mm) is now routinely done at various
locations for microelectronics applications (see for For CNTs grown by arc discharge and laser, various
example, images of CVD reactors at CEA-Grenoble in techniques have been employed to purify, given the best
figure5). The aerosol-assisted CCVD process allowing samples are only 70% pure (using laser ablation), with
the production of carpets of aligned nanotubes is the remainder made up of amorphous carbon. CNTs are
produced at CEA-Saclay in the group of Martine Mayne first dispersed by sonification [63]. The gas-phase
(and can be seen in figure 6). method developed at the NASA Glenn Research Center
to purify gramscale quantities of single-wall CNTs uses a
4. Post growth modification modification of a gas-phase purification technique
reported by Smalley and others [64], by combining high-
CVD generally produces the poorest quality CNTs with temperature oxidations and repeated extractions with
the greatest number of defects. When the growth nitric and hydrochloric acid. This procedure significantly
process ends, power is shutdown and the substrate reduces the amount of impurities such as residual
allowed to cool, but this often results in the deposition catalyst, and nonnanotube forms of carbon within the
of amorphous carbon around the CNT. This can be CNTs, increasing their stability significantly. Once the
removed either by hydrogen or ammonia plasma, or a CNTs are separated, the use of a centrifuge enables the
rapid thermal annealing process that also increases the isolation of certain chiralities of SWNTs, particularly
graphitization, conductivity and contact of the CNT [62]. (6,5) and (7,5) as shown by Hersam’s group at North
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Carbon Nanotubes
Western University [65]. This method seems to be the De Jonge et al. [100] demonstrated this happens for
way forward for scalable chirality separation. currents as low as 80 nA per tube. The chemical inertness
and low surface energy of the graphitic structure of the
European Position: The US lead the way in novel CNT is not conducive to functionalization. Recent
techniques based on density differentiation but in progress in solubilisation has facilitated chemical
Europe, Krupke, Knappes and co-workers at Karlsruhe functionalization of SWNTs for various applications such
pioneered the dielectrophoresis method. as catalysis, catalysts support, sensors, gas storage,
highperformance composites, biological and
5. Doping organic/inorganic compounds [101-111]. Most
functionalization methods involve strong acid treatment
Conventional doping by substitution of external of the CNT producing extensive nanotube breakage. A
impurity atoms in a semiconductor is unsuited for CNTs, class of functionalization reactions that does not involve
since the presence of an external atom breaks the ideal acid treatment is the direct addition to the π-electrons of
symmetry properties in the CNT. Theoretically, the CNT [112,113]. The main approaches for
substitutional doping by nitrogen (n-type) and boron (p- functionalization can be grouped into the following
type) has been widely examined [66-71]. Adsorption of categories:
gases such as H2, O2, H2O, NH3, NO2 have been
reported in [72-75]. More appropriate doping strategies (a) the covalent attachment of chemical groups through
which conserve the mean free path of the charge reactions onto the π-conjugated skeleton of CNT;
carriers involve physisorption of alkali metal atoms [76-
91]. Alkali-metal atoms located outside or inside the tube (b) the non-covalent adsorption or wrapping of various
act as donor impurities [92,93] while halogen atoms, functional molecules; and Within category (a) reports of
molecules, or chains act as acceptors [76,84,94,95]. fluorination [1 15], atomic hydrogen [1 aryl groups
14,1 16],
Fullerenes or metallofullerenes, encapsulated inside CNTs, [117], nitrenes, carbenes, and radicals [118], COOH
allow good structural stability and have been used to tune [119,120], NH2 [121] N-alkylidene amino groups [122],
alkyl groups [123] and aniline [124] amine and amide [125]
the band gap and/or Fermi level of the host tube [96-99].
have been reported. Within category (b) are included
grafting of biomolecules such as bovine serum albumine
“Doping” by physisorption of molecules, lies at the heart
[126-128] or horse spleen ferritin [129], poly-Llysine, a
of a growing field of chemical sensors, but there are issues
polymer that promotes cell adhesion [130,131],
with stability.
Streptavidin [132] and biotin at the carboxylic sites of
oxidized nanotubes [133] and polymers [134-139].
European Position: In Europe Maurizio Prato’s group
in Trieste is the most successful in this area. European Position: Haddon and co-workers in the US
were early leaders and Carroll and co-workers in Wake
6. Oxidation/Functionalization Forrest University applied functionalization to devices. In
Europe Hirsch in Erlangen has made major
CNTs can be oxidized by various means. Refluxing in acids contributions and Coleman and co-workers at TCD
such as nitric or sulphuric, or with potassium manganate have furthered our knowledge in this area.
adds functional groups to the CNTs that alter the wetting
angle. 7. Properties/Characterization
The caps of CNTs can be opened either by physical means
or more commonly, by chemical means, in which the cap CNTs typically have a Young’s Modulus ~10 times that
is opened by heating CNTs in the presence of a oxidizing of steel [140] and an electrical conductivity many times
gas such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. that of copper [141]. Some important properties of
CNTs are listed in table 1.
Open-capped CNTs, unless functionalized, are unstable
structures because of dangling bonds. Cap closing of open- The properties of CNTs are determined by a number of
capped structures often occurs during field emission. methods. Electronic properties are determined by
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Carbon Nanotubes
adding contacts and the use of probe stations. It should CNTs [147,148]. More recently they have reported a
be noted that a drawback to this method is the CNT based Field Emission HDTV [149].
variability in contact quality that can cause significant
Over the last 10 years or so various companies
variance in measured attributes. Raman spectra are
including Philips, TECO Nanotech, ISE Electronics
used to characterize defects in the CNTs; the higher the
and especially Samsung (SAIT) [150] have worked on
Id:Ig ratio, the lower the number of defects. Also, radial
the use of CNTs for TV applications. SAIT
breathing modes can be used to characterize the
successfully produced demos of full colour
diameter distributions of the grown CNTs in a sample
39”diagonal TVs and this technology was transferred
[144,145].
to Samsung SDI for production in the mid 2000s.
However, no displays based on this technology are
The band structures of all single-walled CNTs can be
yet on the market. More work continues on Field
summarized using the Kataura plot [146].
Emission displays but the only recent major
announcements are on SEDs (Surfaceconduction
Electron-emitter Displays).
Formerly a collaboration between Toshiba and
Canon, the displays utilise emission from carbon but
not CNTs [151]. Legal disputes have prevented this
from coming to market thus far. Most recently, Sony
have announced a major investment in FEDs based
on a Spindt process. Teco Nanotech Co Ltd (a small
company based in Taiwan) also market three basic
CNT-based FEDs, the largest being 8.9” diagonal
[152]. CEA (France) continue to fund research in this
area, with typical displays produced shown in figure 7.
Table 1. Summary of main properties of CNTs [19].
8. Electronic applications
Various applications for CNTs in the ICT field have been
touted but in the near term only a few of these seem
feasible: their use in field emission applications and their
inclusion in the production of transparent conductors
and in interconnects and vias seem most probable. Figure 7. Two stages of development of CNT FED at CEA.
On the left: monochrome display with 350μm pixels, on the
8(a) Field emission right: color video display with 600μm pixels. On these
display the non uniformity from pixel to pixel is 5% while it
Field emission from CNTs can be applied to many is 3% with LCD displays and 2% for CRT (courtesy of CEA-
technologies because of their high-current-carrying LITEN).
capability, chemical inertness, physical strength and high
aspect ratio. The major applications are listed below. (ii) Microwave generators
(i) Field emission displays High power/frequency amplifiers for higher
bandwidth, more channels and microwave links are
Motorola in the early/mid 1990’s investigated the increasingly using the 30 GHz and above frequency
use of carbon based materials for Field Emission range. In order to satisfy the power (tens of Watts)
Displays including the use of diamond, DLC and and bandwidth requirements (30 GHz), satellites are
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Carbon Nanotubes
using travelling wave tubes (TWTs) based on thermionic (iii) X-ray Instruments
cathodes. Present day TWTs, however, are bulky and
Oxford Instruments have worked together with
heavy, and take up valuable space and weight budget in
NASA on CNT-based X-ray sources that employ field
a satellite, and any miniaturization of the current TWT
emission as the electron source, rather than
would give rise to cost savings in a satellite launch and
thermionic emission, which has much lower power
aid the implementation of microsatellites.Solid state
efficiency [156].
devices are not used in this high frequency regime
because the maximum power attained by solid state
devices today at 30 GHz is ~1 W.
Attempts have been made to replace the thermionic
cathode in a TWT with a Spindt tip cathode
delivering the dc electron beam. However, the bulk of
the TWT device is still there, since it is the tube (in
which the electron beam modulation takes place) that
is physically large. The most effective way to reduce
the size of a TWT is via direct modulation of the e-
beam, for example, in a triode configuration using
CNTs as the electron source.
Thales, in collaboration with Cambridge University
Engineering Department, have successfully
demonstrated a Class D (i.e. pulse mode/on-off)
operation of a carbon nanotube array cathode at 1.5
GHz, with an average current density of 1.3 A/cm2
and peak current density of 12 A/cm2 (see figure 8);
these are compatible with travelling wave tube
amplifier requirements (>1 A/cm2) [153].
Recently, they have also achieved 32 GHz direct Figure 8. Simulation of the coaxial resonant cavity (a
modulation of a carbon nanotube array cathode crosssection is shown) that was used to generate a high
under Class A (i.e. sine wave) operation, with over electric f ield (red) at the carbon-nanotube-array cathode
90% modulation depth. This unique ability to directly from the radiofrequency input; colour scale shows the applied
modulate or generate RF/GHz electron beams from macroscopic electric f ield in volts (105) per metre. White
carbon nanotube emitters is especially important for arrow, coaxial radiofrequency input; black arrow, emitted
microwave devices as it essentially replaces the hot electron beam, collected by an antenna; scale bar 10 mm. b)
cathode and its associated modulation stage [154]. Electron micrograph of the carbon-nanotube-array cold
cathode at a tilt of 45°. The carbon nanotubes have an
Other advantages that carbon nanotube cathodes average diameter of 49 nm, height of 5.5 μm and a spacing
offer include no heating requirement and the ability to of 10 μm; scale bar, 15 μm. Inset, photograph of 16 cathodes.
turn on or off instantly (for efficient operation). c) Representation of the equivalent electrical circuit, where E
Because of their small size, and their ability to is the applied electric field and I is the emitted current; CN,
generate and modulate the beam directly on demand carbon nanotube array. d) Measured average current density
without the need for high temperatures, CNT plotted against applied radiofrequency electric field using 1.5-
cathodes could be employed in a new generation of GHz sinusoidal input. The circled point corresponds to I=3.2
lightweight, efficient and compact microwave devices mA. The cavity-quality factor was 3,160 [153]. Reprinted by
for telecommunications in satellites or spacecraft. permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature, K.B.K.
Xintek have also been working on CNT-based Teo, E. Minoux, L. Hudanski, F. Peauger, J.-P. Schnell, L.
microwave amplifiers for the US Air Force [155]. The Gangloff, P. Legagneux, D. Dieumgard, G.A.J. Amaratunga
main problem at present is the limited modulation and W.I. Milne. "Microwave Devices: Carbon Nanotubes as
bandwidth associated with such devices. Cold Cathodes", Nature 437, 968 (2005), copyright 2005.
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Carbon Nanotubes
Their application is targeted towards lowpower use Gauges/Sensors
for a space mission to Mars (though high power
The Physical Metrology Division, Korea Research
would be more preferable), once again because of
Institute of Standards and Science are using the field
their low weight and fast response time.
emission effect of a carbon nanotube to characterize
Oxford Instruments have also developed and sold a new type of technology for detecting low pressure.
hand-held low power X-ray imagers which can be The fabricated low pressure sensor is of a triode type,
applied to medicine and for diagnostics in circuit consisting of a cathode (carbon nanotubes field
boards [157]. Zhou and co-workers at Xintek (see emitter arrays), a grid, and a collector.
figure 9) have developed a fast response, sharp-focus
The gauge has a triode configuration similar to that of
X-ray tube with quick pulsation [158]. MoXtek have
a conventional hot cathode ionization gauge but also
also produced similar devices [159].
has a cold emission source. Due to the excellent field
Challenges for these devices are in achieving high emission characteristics of CNT, it is possible to make
power with stability and reproducibility. a cost effective cold cathode type ionization gauge. For
an effective CNT cathode they used the screen-printing
(iv) Ionization for propulsion and detection
method and also controlled the collector and the grid
electric propulsion
potentials in order to obtain a high ionization current.
Replacing hollow and filament cathodes with field
They found that the ratio of the ionization current to
emitter (FE) cathodes could significantly improve the
the CNT cathode current changes according to the
scalability, power, and performance of some meso-
pressure in the chamber [165].
and microscale Electric Propulsion (EP) systems.
Miniaturised gas ionization sensors using
There is considerable interest now in microscale
carbon nanotubes
spacecraft to support robotic exploration of the solar
system and characterize the near- Earth environment. Ajayan et al. from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
The challenge is to arrive at a working, miniature have developed Ionization sensors work by
electric propulsion system which can operate at much fingerprinting the ionization characteristics of distinct
lower power levels than conventional electric gases [166]. They report the fabrication and successful
propulsion hardware, and meets the unique mass, testing of ionization microsensors featuring the
power, and size requirements of a microscale electrical breakdown of a range of gases and gas
spacecraft. Busek Company, Inc. (Natick, MA), has mixtures at carbon nanotube tips.
developed field emission cathodes (FECs) based on
The sharp tips of nanotubes generate very high electric
carbon nanotubes [160]. The non-thermionic devices
fields at relatively low voltages, lowering breakdown
have onset voltages about an order of magnitude
voltages several-fold in comparison to traditional
lower than devices that rely on diamond or diamond-
electrodes, and thereby enabling compact, battery-
like carbon films.
powered and safe operation of such sensors.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) falls under the
The sensors show good sensitivity and selectivity, and
programs headed by Professors Blandino and
are unaffected by extraneous factors such as
Gatsonis. Blandino’s research is largely focused on the
temperature, humidity, and gas flow. As such, the
study of colloid thrusters for small satellite propulsion,
devices offer several practical advantages over
and in the development of novel, earth-orbiting
previously reported nanotube sensor systems. The
spacecraft formations [161]. The Gatsonis activity also
simple, low-cost, sensors described here could be
includes modelling of plasma micropropulsion [162].
deployed for a variety of applications, such as
Groups from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory environmental monitoring, sensing in chemical
[163] and Brunel University [164] are studying Field processing plants, and gas detection for counter-
emission performance of macroscopically gated multi- terrorism.
walled carbon nanotubes for a spacecraft neutralizer.
McLaughlin and Maguire [167] at University of Ulster
report the use of CNT’s in order to decrease the turn-
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Carbon Nanotubes
on voltage associated with microplasmas and the
enhancement of emission spectra associated with gas
types. In particular the device focuses on mixed gas
types such as breath analysis and environmental
monitoring. The ability of low cost CNT structured
electrodes is key to improving performances related to
higher sensitivity and specificity of gases such as NOx.
Catalyst free growth techniques have been reported
using thermal CVD routes and the study is also looking
at the optimum CNT spacing and height required for
short time ionisation or FE applications to gas sensors.
The main driver at present is to improve the efficiency
which currently lies at around 1%.
Figure 9. Left, the x-ray tube current versus the gate voltage
(v) Backlighting measured with the anode voltage f ixed at 40 kV. It follows
Although their use in full colour TVs is still the classic Fowler—Nordheim relation. The distance between
problematical, the use of CNTs as electron emitters in the cathode and the gate is 150 μm. Right, X-ray image of
FE-based backlight units for AMLCDs is still under a normal mouse carcass (25 g) obtained using a CNT source-
investigation by various companies worldwide. Major based imaging system [158]. Reprinted with permission from
players in the TFT-LCD display industry, such as J Zhang, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76, 094301 (2005). Copyright
Samsung, Corning and LG Electronics (LGE), are keen 2005, American Institute of Physics.
to develop carbon-nanotube (CNT) backlight modules,
with Taiwan-based backlightmodule makers also ge’s papers [170] for their use in SEM/TEM sources are
interested in following suit [168]. In Korea Iljin also have summarized below:
several years of experience in this area [169].
Reduced Brightness/(Asr-1m-2V-1) 109
In theory, CNT backlight modules have a lower Energy Spread/eV 0.25 - 0.50
temperature, consume less power and are less Short-term stability % 0.2
expensive to produce than traditional backlight Running Temp/K 700 - 900
modules. It is a good candidate to eventually replace Vacuum Level/mBar < 2×10-8
CCFL (cold cathode fluorescent lamp) backlighting but
has strong competition from LEDs, which could be
iVirtual source size is analogous to the effective emitting area
much cheaper to produce. The challenges are again to
on the surface of the carbon nanotube in which the
improve the lifetime of the emitters and to reduce cost
advantage lies in this area being minimized.
to be competitive with other technologies.
(vi) Electron microscopy The CNTs act as a cold cathode source and the standard
manufacturing procedure is to add them to the tip of a
Electron microscopy demands a bright, stable, low- standard tungsten emitter. Several different methods of
noise electron source with a low kinetic energy spread attachment/growth have been attempted. Teo et al.
to maximise spatial resolution and contrast. Recent used a carbon glue to attach the CNT to the tungsten
research has investigated whether the carbon nanotube tip. Growth, rather than attachment is felt to be a better
can act as an improved electron source for this process. Riley et al. [171] have shown that a forest of
application and how it compares to the other electron highly efective CNTs can be grown on a tungsten tip by
sources available today. thermal chemical vapour deposition (TCVD), but in
Various groups from FEI, CUED, EMPA, El-Mul etc. order for electron beam equipment to work effectively,
Have researched the optimum way to produce CNTs there must be only a single source of electrons, hence
for use in microscopy. The most detailed analysis was a single CNT on each tungsten tip. Mann et al. [172]
carried out by De Jonge and co-workers and the field therefore used PECVD and describe how such a
emission properties of CNTs collated from all of de Jon procedure is scalable with the ability to grow a single
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Carbon Nanotubes
CNT on each W tip (shown in figure 10). It is also growing such dense arrays in vias of high aspect ratio is
possible to grow many tips simultaneously. El Mul has not so straightforward. Numerous groups worldwide
developed a silicon-based CNT microcathode in which are trying to optimise the process including CEA but
the CNT is grown in an etched pore [173]. Fujitsu [176] (see figure 11) have reported the most
significant advances and have recently reported that
Though the emission characteristics of the CNT have they have achieved a density of 9x1011 cm-2. They have
been found to be extremely promising with the also reported a resistivity of 379 μΩcm for a via 2 μm
attachment process has been essentially overcome. in diameter. A Microwave CVD method was employed
Progress is also being made in improving stability and to produce CNTs at temperatures compatible with
reproducibility. CMOS. However, much improvement is still required
before these become a practical proposition.
European Position for Field Emission and
Applications
From a display viewpoint Europe were very much
forerunners but then Samsung provided the more
recent display drive. As regards work on sources for
electron microscopy in Europe De Jonge and co
workers did some excellent work on characterisation of
single emitters as did Groning on arrays of emitters. Figure 10. Left, electron micrograph of a single CNT grown
Thales in collaboration with several universities have on a tungsten tip. Note that the growth is aligned with the
continued European interest in the design of high tungsten axis. Centre, a tungsten tip mounted in a suppres-
frequency CNT based sources. For X-ray sources sor module. Right, a CNT grown on a tungsten already
Oxford Instruments led the way and more recently mounted in the suppressor in situ.
Xintek in the US and Philips in Europe have expanded
the work. In backlighting as in Displays the Far East leads Problems include choice of catalyst, catalyst deposition,
the way. The leaders in the FE based propulsion area depositing top contacts, increasing the packing density
are in the US where the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and reducing the overall resistivity. The growth also
Pasadena, Busek Co., Inc. and the Worcester needs optimization for back-end processing and must
Polytechnic Institute (WPI) lead the way. In Europe the be carried out at low enough temperatures so as not to
main groups are from the Rutherford Appleton damage CMOS. If SWNTs are to be employed, the
Laboratory, Brunel University, the University of packing density of metallic tubes must be high enough
Groningen, and the University of Ulster. to justify replacing metal interconnects. For MWNTs,
for a sufficient current density, internal walls must also
8(b) Interconnects, vias contribute to conduction. Neither have as yet been
achieved.
In order to achieve the current densities/conductivity
needed for applications in vias, dense arrays of CNTs European Position: Infineon identified Vias as a
are required. Very dense arrays of nanotubes have been possible early application of CNTs in electronics, Intel in
grown by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) by various the US evaluated spun-on CNTs for contacts but more
groups, following Fan et al. [174]. They are called forests, recently Fujitsu. Japan lead the way.
mats or vertically-aligned nanotube arrays. They are
usually multi-walled and grown from Ni, Co or Fe 8(c) Transparent, conductive contacts/membranes
catalysts.
As the use of ITO becomes ubiquitous and indium
It has been suggested that a nanotube density of at least becomes more scarce and thence more expensive there
1013 cm-2 was needed in order to produce the required is an ongoing search for alternative transparent
conductivity but recently Fujitsu have indicated that conducting contact materials. Initiated at Nanomix
5x1012 cm-2 would be acceptable [175]. However [178], various groups worldwide including those of
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Carbon Nanotubes
Rinzler, Roth, Chhowalla and Grüner have worked in the world's first 4-inch QVGA colour LCD display using
this area to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) in e.g. LCDs, CNT as the transparent conductive film. The CNT were
touch screens, and photovoltaic devices. deposited by spray coating [180].
There is still a need to increase conductivity whilst
maintaining a sufficiently high (~95%) transparency and
for some applications, roughness is a problem. Also,
most recently it has been pointed out by Fanchini et al.
[181] that CNT/Polymer films are anisotropic and suffer
from birefringent effects which may cause problems in
some of its most useful potential application areas such
Figure 11. Left, CNT vias grown in pores etched into silicon as OLEDs, Displays and PV. Gruner summarizes the
[177], © [2007] IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from M. work in this area well (figure 12).
Nihei et al., “Electrical Properties of Carbon Nanotube Via
Interconnects Fabricated by Novel Damascene Process”, European Position: US dominates this area through
Proceedings of IEEE/ IITC 2007. Right, CNTs grown in pores the work of Eikos Inc, Nanomix Inc., Grüner and co-
in Silicon. workers and Rinzler’s group in Florida. Chhowalla at
Rutgers has now carried on this work and Roth in
Nantero Inc. (Boston), Eikos Inc. Of Franklin, Stuttgart leads the way in Europe.
Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. (recently bought by
Arrowhead) of Silicon Valley, California are also 8(d) Thermal management
developing IP and transparent, electrically conductive
films of carbon nanotubes [179]. CNT films are There is also an increasing need to replace indium for
substantially more robust than ITO films mechanically, thermal interfaces in eg: CPUs, graphic processors and
potentially making them ideal for use in displays for (automotive) power transistors, as price and scarcity
computers, cell phones, PDAs and ATMs as well as in increase. Various companies and universities (such as
other plastic electronic applications. At SID2008, Ajayan’s group [183]) are working in this area but very
University of Stuttgart and Applied Nanotech presented little (if anything) has been published.
Current problems in using CNTs are insufficient packing
density and problems with graphitisation leading to a
reduction in conductivity.
European Position: Ajayan is the most notable
contributor to this research. Very little work has been
published by workers from the EU.
8(e) Transistors and diodes for logic
(i) Individual CNT-based transistors
Arguably this has been the electronic application on
which most research has focused. As shown in table
2. Martel et al. and Tans et al. first reported a bottom
Figure 12. The evolution of the mobility of the plastic FET gate individual single walled carbon nanotube field
devices over the past decades. The mobility of CNTN FETs effect transistor (SWNT-FETs) with an on/off ratio
is indicated by the bold cross towards the top right-hand cor- of ~105 and a mobility of 20 cm2/Vs in 1998
ner. Some application barriers are also indicated on the right [184,185]. Afterwards, Durkop et al. claimed a
side of the f igure [182]. G Gruner. J. Mater. Chem., 2006, mobility for bottom-gate SWNT-FET of >105 cm2/Vs
16, 3533 — 3539 — Reproduced by permission of the Royal So- with a subthreshold swing ~100 mV/decade [186].
ciety of Chemistry.
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Carbon Nanotubes
Table 2
This mobility is still the highest reported for bottom
gate CNT-FETs thus far. Meanwhile, top gate SWNT-
FETs were also attracting attention since such a
structure can be readily used for logic circuits. In 2002,
Wind et al. First demonstrated a top gate SWNT-FET
with an on/off ratio of ~106, a transconductance of
2300 S/m and a subthreshold swing of 130
mV/decade [187]. Rosenblatt et al. And Minot et al.
[188,189] using NaCl and KCl solutions as the top gate
SWNT-FETs showed a mobility of 1500 cm2/Vs, a
subthreshold swing of ~80 mV/decade and an on/off
ratio of 105. Yang et al. [190] showed a very high
transconductance of 1000 S/m in a top gate device
(shown in figure 13, together with a bottom gate
device). Javey et al. Also demonstrated high
performance SWNT-FETs using high-k dielectric ZrO2
as the top gate insulator. Devices exhibited a mobility
of 3,000 cm2/Vs, a transconductance of 6000 S/m
and a subthreshold swing of ~70 mV/decade
respectively [191].
Several groups have also investigated vertical CNT-FETs
(wrap-around gate). Choi et al. reported the first
vertical MWNT-FET with a best conductance of 50 mS
in 2003 [192] but this only works at low temperatures.
Maschmann et al. demonstrate a vertical SWNT-FET in
2006 [193]. Their devices exhibited a good ohmic
Figure 13. SWNT-FET transistor characteristics with diffe- SWNTmetal contact, but the gate effect is not as
rent contacts. Top, Pd makes and ohmic contact which re- efficient as either the top gate or bottom gate SWNT-
sults in p-type conduction. Centre, Ti contacts result in strong FETs. SWNTFET always exhibit p-type operation when
ambipolar behaviour. Bottom, Al makes a Schottky contact contacted ohmically, but n-type SWNT-FETs are also
which results in n-type conduction but with a strong leakage needed for fabrication of logic circuits. Derycke et al.
current. claimed both annealing (removal of oxygen) and doping
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Carbon Nanotubes
(e.g. potassium) can convert a p-type SWNT-FET into European Position: The state-of-the-art transistors
a n-type and a logic inverter was demonstrated (dependent on characteristics) are those produced by
[194,195]. Javey et al. and Chen et al. reported that the groups of Avouris at IBM and in Europe, Bourgoin
using different metal electrodes (e.g. Al) they could also at CEA, Saclay, Ecole Polytechnique and Dekker at
obtain n-type SWNT-FETs with a ring oscillator also Delft University of Technology.
fabricated [196,197].
(ii) Network CNTs
In order to overcome the various
problems with individual CNT
transistors, numerous groups have
concentrated on the production of
transistors manufactured from CNT
networks or even CNT/ Polymer
mixtures. In 2002, the first report (a
patent) for transistors based on
random network of nanotubes and its
use in chemical sensors was deposited
by Nanomix Inc. [198], followed in
2003 by the disclosure of their
integration onto a 100 mm Si wafer
[199]. First public disclosure was made in 2003 by
Figure 14. (a) Transfer curves from a transistor that uses alig-
Snow et al. [200] who demonstrated a SWNT thin
ned arrays of SWNTs transferred from a quartz growth subs-
film transistor with a mobility of >10 cm2/Vs and a
trate to a doped silicon substrate with a bilayer dielectric of
subthreshold swing of 250 mV/decade with an
epoxy (150 nm)/SiO2 (100 nm). The data correspond to mea-
on/off ratio of 10. In 2007, Kang et al. grew highly
surements on the device before (open triangles) and after
dense, perfectly aligned SWNT arrays on a quartz
(open circles) an electrical breakdown process that eliminates
substrate which was then transferred to a flexible
metallic transport pathways from source to drain. This process
plastic substrate (PET). The SWNTFETs were
improves the on/off ratio by a factor of more than 10,000.
fabricated on the PET substrate and exhibited a
mobility of 1000 cm2/Vs and a transconductance of
(b) Optical (inset) and SEM images of a transistor that uses
3000 S/m [201]. The Rogers group has exhibited
interdigitated source and drain electrodes, in a bottom gate
state-ofthe-art network transistors for on-off ratio
conf iguration with a gate dielectric of HfO2 (10 nm) on a
and mobility (see figure 14). Grenoble have also
substrate and gate of Si. The width and length of the chan-
investigated this and have made a small chip of 75
nel are 93 mm and 10 μm, respectively. The box indicated
such transistors.
by the dashed blue lines in the optical image inset delineates
the region shown in the SEM image [201]. Reprinted by per- The interest of the networks comes from the fact
mission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature (London), that if the average nanotube length is small compared
Seong Jun Kang, Coskun Kocabas, Taner Ozel, Moonsub to the distance between source and drain, more than
Shim, Ninad Pimparkar, Muhammad A. Alam, Slava V. Rot- one tube is needed to make the connection. Hence
kin, John A. Rogers, Nature (London), 2, 230 (2007), copy- the probability of having an electrical path made only
right 2007. of metallic tubes is ~(1/3)n where n is tne number of
tubes needed to make the junction. Secondly, the
Challenges for the future include controlling the
on/off ratio increases since, even if two tubes are
chirality, improving the yield of working devices,
metallic, their contact is not metallic [202].
improving the reproducibility of the contact, ensuring all
CNTs are semiconducting, improving the uniformity of Finally, even a single defect is enough to open a
the devices, controlling their positioning, and bandgap in a metallic tube, turning it into a
developing a process that can be scaled up to mass- semiconductor [203]. This means that controlling the
production. number of defects is an important challenge to
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Carbon Nanotubes
overcome. Note that the first transparent CNT Additionally, amplified spontaneous emission noise
based transistor made on a flexible substrate was suppression has been demonstrated with CNT-based
achieved by transferring a CNT random network and saturable absorbers, showing great promise for this
its contact from its initial silicon substrate onto a technology for multi-channel, all-optical signal
polyimine polymer [204]. regeneration in fibre telecom systems [216].
Challenges include justifying the research to industry
European Position: Rogers in the USA produces
due to the limited market potential.
the state of the art thin Film transistors and in
Europe, apart from some preliminary work in
European Position: There are 5 major research
Universities little seems to be happening.
groups working on CNT saturable absorber applications
around the world: Sakakibara at National Institute for
9. Optical applications
Advanced Industrial science and Technology (AIST),
9(a) Saturable absorbers
The band gap of semiconducting CNTs depends on their
diameter and chirality, i.e. the twist angle along the tube
axis [205]. Thus, by tuning the nanotube diameter it is
easy to provide optical absorption over a broad spectral
range [206]. Single-walled CNTs exhibit strong saturable
absorption nonlinearities, i.e. they become transparent
under sufficiently intense light and can be used for
various photonic applications e.g in switches, routers
and to regene-rate optical signals, or form ultra-short
laser pulses [207-209]. It is possible to achieve strong
saturable absorption with CNTs over a very broad
spectral range (between 900 and 3000 nm [210]). CNTs
also have subpicosecond relaxation times and are thus
ideal for ultrafast photonics [211,212]. CNT saturable
absorbers can be produced by cheap wet chemistry and
can be easily integrated into polymer photonic systems.
This makes a CNT-based saturable absorber very
attractive when compared to existing technology, which
utilises multiple quantum wells (MQW) semiconductor
saturable absorbers and requires costly and complicated
molecular beam epitaxial growth of multiple quantum
wells plus a post-growth ion implantation to reduce
relaxation times [213]. Additionally, the MQW saturable
absorbers can operate only between 800 and 2000 nm,
a much narrower absorption bandwidth.
The major laser systems mode-locked by CNT saturable
absorbers demonstrated so far (see figure 15) includes Figure 15. Top, Experimental setup of the Er/Yb:glass laser.
fibre lasers, waveguide lasers and solid-state lasers, OC: output coupler; M1-M4: standard Bragg-mirrors; CNT-
generating sub-ps pulses in a broad spectral range SAM: Saturable absorber mirror based on carbon nanotubes;
between 1070 and 1600 nm [214]. The shortest pulse LD: pigtailed laser diode for pumping the Er/Yb:glass (QX/Er,
of about 68 fs was achieved with a solid state Er3+ glass Kigre Inc., 4.8 mm path-length). Bottom, background-free
laser by using a CNT-polyimide composite [215]. autocorrelation. The solid line is a sech2 f it with a corres-
ponding FWHM pulse-duration of 68 fs [215].
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Carbon Nanotubes
Tsukuba, Japan, Maruyama and Yamashita at Tokyo 9(c) Antennae
University & Set in Alnair Labs, and Yoshida at Tohoku
University and in Europe. Dr. E. Obraztsova in the Ren at Boston College has demonstrated the use of a
Institute for General Physics, Moscow, and Cambridge single multi-walled CNT to act as an optical antenna,
University Engineering are the major players. whose response is fully consistent with conventional
radio antenna theory [218]. The antenna has a
9(b) Microlenses in LCs cylindrically symmetric radiation pattern and is
characterized by a multi-lobe pattern, which is most
Microlenses in liquid crystal devices have potential pronounced in the specular direction. Possible
applications in adaptive optical systems (where different applications for optical antennae include optical
focal lengths are required dependent on position), switching, power conversion and light transmission. One
wavefront sensors (which measure the aberrations in an particular application is the “rectenna”, which is the light
optical wavefront) and optical diffusers (which take a analogue of the crystal radio in which an antenna is
laser beam and redistribute it into any pattern desired). attached to an ultrafast diode. This could lead to a new
The use of sparse, MWCNT electrode arrays has been class of light demodulators for optoelectronic circuits,
used to electrically switch liquid crystals. or to a new generation of highly efficient solar cells.
The nanotubes act as individual electrode sites which European Position: Early stages of research in the
produce an electric field profile, dictating the refractive Dept of Engineering at Cambridge University in
index profile within the liquid crystal cell (see figure 16). collaboration with Queen Mary College, London and
The refractive index profile then acts to provide a series ALPS (Electric), Japan.
of graded index profiles which form a simple lens
structure. By changing the electric field applied, it is 9(d) Lighting
possible to tune the properties of this graded index
structure and hence form an electrically reconfigurable There is ongoing work on the use of CNTs for low
micro-optical array [217]. energy lighting applications. The use of CNTs as electron
emitters to stimulate phosphors has been reported by
The problems for the lenslets come mostly from the various groups and the replacement of metallic filaments
alignment of the LC and the limited aperture of the with carbon CNTs/Fibres has been investigated by
lenslets. More generally, for the kinoform or modal groups mostly in China. Carbon nanotube bulbs made
hologram, the problem is to be able to individually from CNT strands and films have been fabricated and
address each CNT. Growing them onto a TFT or a VLSI their luminescent properties, including the lighting
circuit would be ideal (such as an LCOS backplane). efficiency, voltage-current relation and thermal stability
have been investigated.
The results show that a CNT bulb has a comparable
spectrum of visible light to a tungsten bulb and its
average efficiency is 40% higher than that of a tungsten
filament at the same temperature (1400-2300 K). The
Figure 16. Left, Simulated electrical field profile surrounding nanotube filaments show both resistance and thermal
the single carbon nanotube (10 μm high) with an applied stability over a large temperature region. No obvious
field of 1V m—1. Right, Defocus of the nanotube lenslet array damage was found on a nanotube bulb held at 2300 K
at 40x. a) Defocused image of the array at 0 V μm—1 ap- for more than 24 hours in vacuum, but the cost needs
plied f ield. b) Array brought into focus with 2.1 V μm—1 ap- to be significantly reduced and the lifetime significantly
plied f ield [217]. increased for this to be considered seriously as an
option.
European Position: The Engineering Department in
Cambridge as far as we know, are the only group in European Position: Mostly in the Far East but
Europe working in this area. Bonnard et al at EPFL have worked in this area.
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Carbon Nanotubes
10. Electromechanical and sensor applications is oversupplied and they frequently have to be sold at a
loss, making it difficult for any new technology to break
10(a) NEMS in. In addition, several other major companies are
developing their own non-volatile memory technologies
Recently Amaratunaga et al [219] demonstrated novel with PRAM perhaps the leading contender at present.
non volatile and volatile memory devices based on PRAM, FRAM, MRAM and RRAM are all large
vertically aligned MWCNTs (see figure 17). companies.
Nanoelectromechanical switches with vertically aligned With Nantero’s relatively small size, market penetration
carbon nanotubes have been produced. However, is a big issue.
Nantero are the market leaders in this area and have
created multiple prototype devices, including an array of European Position: Nantero are the world leaders
ten billion suspended nanotube junctions on a single but in Europe ETH, TU Denmark, Cambridge Univ.
silicon wafer [220]. Nantero's design for NRAM™ Engineering in collaboration with Samsung and Thales
involves the use of suspended nanotube junctions as plus numerous other groups are making significant
memory bits, with the "up" position representing bit contributions.
zero and the "down" position representing bit one. Bits
are switched between states through the application of 10(b) Sensors
electrical fields.
CNTs for sensing is one of their most interesting
In theory the NRAM chip would replace two kinds of electronic applications. Both SWCNTs and MWCNTs,
memory. While cell phones, for example, use both flash functionalised and unfunctionalised, have been
chips and SRAM or DRAM chips, NRAM would investigated. They have been used as gas, chemical and
perform both functions. However the memory market biological sensors and Nanomix Inc was the first to put
on the market an electronic device that integrated
carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform (in May 2005
they produced a hydrogen sensor) [221]. Since then,
Nanomix has taken out various other sensing patents
e.g. for carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, glucose, DNA
detection etc [222]. The next product to become
available should be a breath analyzer detecting NO as a
marker of asthma. More recently workers in Cambridge
and Warwick University in collaboration with ETRI,
South Korea have integrated CNTs onto SOI substrates
to produce smart gas sensors (see figure 18) [223]. The
CNTs have been locally grown on microheaters allowing
back end deposition at T ~700 ºC.
Numerous other groups worldwide continue to
Figure 17. Left, a schematic diagram showing a cross-section investigate CNTs for sensing because of their ease of
of a switch fabricated by Jang et al.. Both contacts and ca- functionality and high surface area. Dekker and his
talyst were deposited with e-beam lithography. Right, an group are focusing on biosensors and electrochemical
electron micrograph showing the grown CNTs acting as a sensors using carbon nanotubes.There are very many
switch [219]. Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Pu- problems to overcome in bringing this technology to the
blishers Ltd: Nature Nanotechnolog , J.E. Jang, S.N. Cha, market. Reproducibility of the CNT growth, processing
Y.J. Choi, D.J. Kang, T.P. Butler, D.G. Hasko, J.E. Jung, J.M. as well as variable behaviour once integrated in a sensor
Kim and G.A.J. Amaratunga. "Nanoscale Memory Cell can result in poor selectivity and sensitivity. In some
Based on a Nanoelectromechanical Switched Capacitor", devices, defects play a key role, in others, the
Nature Nanotechnology 3, 26 - 30 (2008), copyright 2008. source/drain metal-nanotube contact is key.
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Carbon Nanotubes
10(c) CNT’s in biotechnology and medical
devices research
Definition: Nanomedicine, for the purpose of this
section is defined as the application of nanotechnology
to achieve breakthroughs in healthcare. It exploits the
improved and often novel physical, chemical and
biological properties of materials at the nanometer
scale. Nanomedicine has the potential to enable early
detection and prevention, and to essentially improve
diagnosis treatment and follow-up of diseases. This
document addresses the overall roadmaps associated
with nanomedicine and in particular identifies the role
of CNT’s. The key issues associated with CNT’s related
to nanomedicine is mainly related to the following
issues:
• Some of the main challenges are linked to
industrialisation. There is no conventional
manufacturing method that creates low cost CNTs.
Desirable properties are robustness, reproducibility,
uniformity and purity.
• Reproducible production relating to surface defects;
Figure 18. Top, structural cross-sectional layout of the sensing surface chemistry, size (hight and diameter;
area of the chip. Bottom, microscopic images of carbon na- morphology; type etc.
notubes grown locally on ultrathin membranes incorporating
a tungsten heater [223]. Reprinted by permission from IOP • The ability to functionalise the surface with
Publishing Ltd. M.S. Haque, K.B.K. Teo, N.L. Rupesinghe, appropriate chemistries.
S.Z. Ali, I. Haneef, S. Maeng, J. Park, F. Udrea, and W.I. • The ability to produce arrays; periodicity; catalyst
Milne. "On-chip Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes using freeor tailored catalyst grown from self-assembly.
CMOS Microhotplates", Nanotechnology 19, 025607 (2007).
Author and Publisher are acknowledged. • To produce lost cost routes to manufacture in the
case of disposable or competitive devices.
Also, both the nanotube-nanotube junction or even
amorphous carbon remaining on the nanotube can play • The ability to integrate into microfluidic systems;
a significant role in the detection scheme [224]. Indeed, CMOS circuitry or flexible substrate systems.
there are many possible sensing mechanisms, hence a
fundamental understanding of them is required to A clear set of studies are required to resolve all the issue
enable good optimisation and reproducibility of the of biocompatibility and nanotoxicity associated with the
sensors. use, manufacture and purchase of CNT’s of all forms.
In the next ten years, the development of biosensors
Although Nanomix has already raised $34 millions they and importantly, nanotechnology, will allow the design
have yet to deliver a significant, high volume product to and fabrication of miniaturised clinical laboratory
the market. However, progress in these areas continues analysers to a degree were it is possible to analyse
to be made globally. several laboratory measurements at the bedside with as
little as 3μL of whole blood. The use of quantum dots;
European Groups Many companies and research self-assembly; multifunctional nanoparticles, nano-
institutions are carrying out work in this area, with templates and nano-scale fabrication including
THALES, Dekker (Delft), being the most successful. nanoimprinting will have a major impact on the design
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Carbon Nanotubes
and development of much improved highly sensitive and This has been done by incorporating the nanotubes in
rapid diagnostics; thus allowing accurate drug delivery the stationary phase of mainly gas chromatography
integration. Nanoenabled high throughput analysis will columns to take advantage of their high surface-to-volume
also reduce the time it takes to bring a new drug ratio and better thermal and mechanical stability
delivery platform to market. compared to organic phases, which make them ideal for
especially temperature programmed separations
Nanomix is attempting to put such a device on the [226,227,231]. The carbon nanotubes, in the form of
market in the next 12-18 months, with its NO sensor powder, is hard to pack directly in the columns due to its
which is applied to monitoring asthma. marked tendency for aggregation and hence channel
blockage [226,227,232] so the CNTs have typically either
10(d) Nanofluidics been incorporated in a monolithic column [233]
immobilized on the inner channel wall [234] (or deposited
The interest in taking advantage of the unique properties on the surface of beads that subsequently were packed)
of carbon nanotubes in nanofluidic devices has increased [235]. A major complication of these methods, beside
tremendously in the last couple of years. The carbon that they are manual and very labor intensive, is that they
nanotubes can either be used directly as a nanofluidic rely on the necessity of forming uniform CNT
channel in order to achieve extremely small and smooth suspensions, which is difficult, since CNTs are insoluble
pores with enhanced flow properties [225] or be in aqueous solutions and most organic solvents [226]. It
embedded into existing fluidic channels to take advantage is therefore typically required to either dynamically or
of their hydrophobic sorbent properties and high surface- covalently modify the CNTs to avoid aggregation [227].
to-volume ratio for improving chemical separation
systems [226,227].By integrating vertically aligned carbon These problems can be overcome by direct growth of the
nanotubes into silicon nitride [228] and polymer CNTs on a surface, in e.g. microfluidic channels
membranes [229,230] respectively, it has been possible [236,237,238] so they are anchored to the channel wall
to study the flow of liquids and gases through the core of and therefore unable to from aggregates. This also allows
carbon nanotubes. a much higher CNT concentration without clogging the
fluidic devices. Growing of CNTs in microfluidic systems
The flow rates were enhanced with several orders of has the additional benefit that lithography can be used
magnitude, compared to what would be expected from for the pattern definition, which should make it possible
continuum hydrodynamic theory [225]. The reason for to make much more uniform and therefore more efficient
this is believed to be due to the hydrophobic nature of the columns [239].A major limitation of this application is also
inner carbon nanotube sidewall, together with the high the lack of low cost CNT deposition equipment, since it
smoothness, which results in a weak interaction with the is necessary to use vertically aligned CNTs that are
water molecules, thereby enabling nearly frictionless flow attached to the surface to avoid aggregation and to
through the core of the tubes. This effect is resemble benefit from the high uniformity of the nanostructures.
transport through transmembrane protein pores, such as
aquaporins, where water molecules line up in a single file European Position: Montena Components of Switzerland
with very little interaction with the sidewall. are in competition with Maxwell Technologies in this area.
This application of carbon nanotubes is envisioned to 1 Energy applications
1.
result in novel ultrafiltration and size-based exclusion
separation devices, since the pores size is approaching the 11(a) Fuel cells
size of ion channels in cells [225]. The carbon nanotube
membranes are, however, fabricated by CVD and this Carbon nanotubes can be used to replace the porous
application is therefore suffering from the lack of large carbon in electrode-bipolar plates in proton exchange
scale cost-effective CNT depositing equipment. In the last membrane fuel cells, which are usually made of metal or
couple of years CNTs have also been investigated as a graphite/carbon black. The CNTs increase the
sorbent material for improving both the resolution and conductivity and surface area of the electrodes which
sensitivity of chemical separations [226,227]. means that the amount of platinum catalyst required can
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Carbon Nanotubes
be reduced [240]. The state of the art in this area is the European Position: Leader in Europe is Beguin et al.
mixing of CNTs and platinum catalyst particles reported [241] who have used multi-walled CNTs mixed with
by F. Chen et al. of Taiwan. polymers to create capacitance values of 100-330 F/g.
Europe also has a strong industrial; input in this area with
Whilst CNTs reduce the amount of platinum required, it companies such as Maxwell (formerly Montena,
is only a small percentage, which means that the cost of Switzerland).
the fuel cell remains high. Also, CNTs are comparable in
price to gold, meaning the saving is minimal. 11(c) Batteries
European Position: The leaders in this area are the The outstanding mechanical properties and the high
Taiwanese groups. The European leaders are linked to S surface-to-volume ratio make carbon nanotubes
Roth (Max Planck Institute, Stuttgart). potentially useful as anode materials [242] or as additives
[243] in lithium-ion battery systems. The CNTs give
11(b) Supercapacitors mechanical enhancement to the electrodes, holding the
graphite matrix together. They also increase the
Electric double-layer capacitors, or supercapacitors have conductivity and durability of the battery, as well as
energy densities 1000 times greater than typical increasing the area that can react with the electrolyte.
electrolytic capacitors. This occurs because they use the Sony produce the best CNT enhanced lithium-ion
high surface area of porous carbon or nanotubes, and batteries. The main problem is the high cost of CNTs.
the narrow thickness of the electrochemical double layer Recently, a so-called paper battery has been developed,
as the capacitor separation. Supercapacitors allow where CNTs are used as electrodes which are attached to
inverters in electric trains to transform between voltages. cellulose immersed in an electrolyte. The technology is
They allow electric vehicles to have greater acceleration cheap, the batteries are flexible and no harmful chemicals
than from simple batteries. They would allow smoothing are required [244]. The main problem with this is the high
of power supplies on mobile phones. production cost of the battery, which needs to be
reduced for mass production. The ambition is to print the
Experimental devices replace the activated charcoal batteries using a roll-to-roll system.
required to store the charge with carbon nanotubes,
which have a similar charge storage capability to charcoal European Position: Although much of the innovation
(which is almost pure carbon) but are mechanically in this are has been carried out in the US and the Far
arranged in a much more regular pattern that exposes a East, in Europe there are various groups notably in
much greater suitable surface area. The figures of merit Germany contributing in this area.
are energy density, related to the capacitance per unit
volume of the carbon, and thereby the surface area of 11(d) Solar cells
the porous carbon, and secondly the power density,
related to the series resistance. There has been much research into incorporating
carbon nanotubes into solar cells. One application is the
Activated carbon is close to the theoretical surface area dispersion of CNTs in the photoactive layer.
of carbon layers already, so going to nanotubes does not Amaratunga [245] has observed enhancement of the
gain so much. But nanotubes have lower electrical photocurrent by two orders of magnitude with a 1.0%
resistance than porous carbon, so there is a gain in power by weight single-walled CNT dispersion. However, the
density. In order to gain in energy density, development power efficiency of the devices remains low at 0.04%
is towards hybrid CNT-polymer supercapacitors, using suggesting incomplete exciton dissociation at low CNT
polypyrrole etc. Ionic displacement within the Ppy acts as concentrations. At higher concentrations, the CNTs
a pseudo capacitance/battery. The weakness of short-circuit the device. More recently, a polymer
supercapacitors in electric vehicle applications is that they photovoltaic device from C60-modified SWCNTs and
must be priced against conventional batteries which are P3HT has been fabricated [246]. P3HT, a conjugated
very low in price. polymer was added resulting in a power conversion
efficiency of 0.57% under simulated solar irradiation (95
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mW cm-2). An improved short circuit current density The target set by the US Department of Energy is 6% by
was attributed to the addition of SWCNTs to the weight hydrogen by 2010. Whilst most groups have
composite causing faster electron transport via the found hydrogen uptake to be in the 1-2% region [252],
network of SWCNTs. amongst the highest reported are Gundish et al. [253] at
3.7% and Dai’s group [254] at 5.1%. It should be noted
Further optimization is required to improve the that Hirschler and Roth found most values to be false
efficiency still further. Furthermore, photoconversion [255], for example due to Ti take up during sonication.
efficiencies of 1.5% and 1.3% have been achieved with
SWCNTs deposited in combination with light harvesting From a more fundamental point of view, since the
CdS quantum dots and porphyrins, respectively [247]. average adsorption energy of hydrogen on CNTs is not
significantly different from its value on amorphous
CNTs have also been developed as a replacement for carbon. It is mainly the surface area which plays a crucial
transparent conductive coatings to replace ITO which is role. Hence 5.8% was achieved a long time ago on
becoming more expensive as supply runs out. Studies super-high surface area activated carbon [256].
have demonstrated SWCNT thin films can be used as
conducting, transparent electrodes for hole collection European Position: Over the last 10 or so years there
inOPV devices with efficiencies between 1% and 2.5% have been numerous groups worldwide working in this
confirming that they are comparable to devices area; especially in the USA, Japan and China. Europe too
fabricated using ITO [248,249]. has made a significant investment, notably through
groups in Germany, France, Greece (theoretical work)
Finally, CNTs have been investigated for application in and the UK but still the DoE 6% target remains elusive.
dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). CNT networks can act
as a support to anchor light harvesting semiconductor 12. Future/Blue Sky
particles. Research efforts along these lines include
organizing CdS quantum dots on SWCNTs. Other 12(a) Spintronics
varieties of semiconductor particles including CdSe and
CdTe can induce charge-transfer processes under visible Spin transport has been demonstrated over lengths of
light irradiation when attached to CNTs [250]. The hundreds of nanometers in CNTs [257], and the limit
SWNTs facilitate electron transport and increase the may be much longer. The Kondo effect has been
photoconversion efficiency of DSSCs. Other researchers demonstrated [258], and Fano resonances have been
fabricated DSSCs using the sol-gel method to obtain found [259]. Spin blockade has been demonstrated in a
titanium dioxide coated MWCNTs for use as electrodes double dot structure [260].
[251].
Problems to overcome include the production of
European Position: Although much of the work in uniform, defect-free SWNTs, free from paramagnetic
this area has been driven by the USA and Japan impurities, and with a single chiral index and fabrication
significant input on both the incorporation of the CNTs of reproducible devices with uniform contacts.
as part of the active layer and in transparent contact
materials has been made in universities across the European Position: Hitachi, Cambridge Laboratory,
European community. the Cavendish Lab Charles Smith, in collaboration with
Andrew Briggs at Oxford are the leaders in the field;
11(e) Hydrogen storage Others include Delft (Leo Kouwenhoven) and the Niels
Bohr Institute, Copenhagen.
CNTs have been suggested as potential candidates for
hydrogen storage. However, the reported hydrogen 12(b) Quantum computing
uptake varies significantly from group to group, with the
mechanism not clearly understood. Current methods Arrays of qubits have been created in the form of
involve compressing the CNTs into pellets which are then endohedral fullerenes in SWNTs, to make so-called
subjected to hydrogen at high pressure. peapod [261]. The interactions between the spins have
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Carbon Nanotubes
been characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance, Monte Carlo simulations including electron-phonon
showing transitions from exchange narrowing to spin- interactions yield mobility values similar to those under
spin dephasing. ballistic transport (~ 104 cm2/Vs) in semiconducting
tubes of radii up to ~ 2 nm [271]. It is worth noting
Theoretical architectures have been developed for global though that onset of ambipolar conduction in CNTFETs
control of qubits [262]. The spin properties of N@C60 has been found to be modified by phonon scattering
have been shown to make it one of the strongest [272]. Monte Carlo simulations have also revealed
candidates for condensed matter quantum computing steady-state velocity saturation due to optical phonon
[263]. scattering and negative differential mobility at high
electric fields [273].
Quantum memories have been demonstrated, in which
information in the electron spin is transferred to the Regarding other scattering mechanisms, by using a k.p
nuclear spin, and subsequently retrieved. In this system approximation, Ando and co-workers provided an
the gate operation times is of order 10 ns, and the elegant proof of the suppression of back scattering for
storage time is in excess of 50 ms, which clearly needs to impurities with smooth potential range, much larger
be improved. Problems to overcome include the than the lattice constant [274]. However the nature of
development of the technology for single spin read out disorder in nanotube-based materials and devices is
in CNTs and the demonstration of entanglement using more complex, including topological defects, chemical
peapods. impurities, vacancies, etc..
European Position: Oxford leads the world in The impact of such defects can strongly jeopardize initial
peapods for quantum computing, in collaboration with good ballistic capability of otherwise clean nanotubes,
Princeton (Steve Lyon), Nottingham (Andrei and its study is therefore genuinely relevant. Several
Khlobystov), Cambridge (Charles Smith), EPFL (Laszlo advanced computational scheme based on first
Forro), There is also activity in Berlin (Wolfgang principles (see reference [273]) allow a realistic
Harneit), at L. Néel Institute in Grenoble and at CEMES- description of scattering potentials, with quantitative
CNRS in Toulouse [264]. estimation of associated elastic mean free paths and
charge mobilities.
12(c) Ballistic transport
Additionally, even though transport in CNTs can be
Owing to their perfect geometry, carbon nanotubes are considered largely ballistic, CNTFETs have been
expected to exhibit ballistic transport for most radii demonstrated to be Schottky barrier FETs [275]. Even
encountered in experimentation [265]. However, undoped CNTFETs, with zero-Schottky-barrier contacts
backscattering due to electron-phonon interactions has are limited by voltage-controlled tunnelling barriers,
been demonstrated in single-wall carbon nanotubes at presented by the body of the CNT, at the source and
biases of several volts [266]. This scattering is drain [276]. As a result, the current is strongly controlled
nonetheless only manifested in relatively low-energy by the CNT diameter, chirality, contact geometry/
electrons in devices of lengths of several hundred type/thickness and oxide thickness, all of which
nanometers [267]. modulate the barriers and present problems such as
ambipolar conduction.
The mean free path for acoustic phonon scattering in
CNTs is long (~ 1 micron) and hence its impact on the Both inter and intraband tunnelling needs to be taken
drain current for a 50 nm channel length is negligible into account when modelling the transport.
[268,269]. The mean free path for optical scattering is Furthermore, a correct treatment requires taking into
about 10 nm and the energy of emission is ~ 0.16 eV account quantum confinement around the tube
[270]. The injected hole can be backscattered near the circumferential direction, quantum tunnelling through
drain, but the likelihood of it scattering back to the Schottky barriers at the metal/nanotube contacts,
source is small on account of the higher Schottky quantum tunnelling and reflection at barriers in the
barriers encountered at the drain [6]. nanotube channel. Limitations in predicting CNTFET
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Carbon Nanotubes
transport arise both from theory and experiment. To metallic island in which electrons are confined.
date there has not been any demonstration of the Therefore, it is sometimes compared with a natural
relationship of the electrical property of a CNTFET to atom, where electrons are confined in the Coulomb
its physical structure. Notwithstanding limitations of potential on a much smaller scale. When the discrete
experimental techniques, limitations of theory include levels and the shell structure are clearly formed, the
many-body effects in the atomistic modelling of the quantum dot is called an artificial atom. In the SWCNT
CNT and the dependence of transport modelling on QD, electrons are confined in the axial direction as well
“fitting” parameters. as the circumference direction.
The main remaining challenges is to better understand Single electron transistor (SET) operation in single-
high-bias transport regimes because of their relevance in walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) to estimate the
device performances (high flow of current densities), as length of ballistic conduction in laser-synthesized
well as the possible control of Schottky-Barrier features SWNTs has been investigated. The devices were
by a proper choice of metal contacts/nanotubes fabricated by an alternating current-aligned method and
characteristics/ environment exposure/chemical the SWNTs were sidecontacted to the electrodes.
functionalization, and so forth. Furthermore, the
performances of nanotubebased vias also need to be At 5 K, Coulomb oscillation and Coulomb diamonds
increased by optimised control of tube growth were observed and the Coulomb island length, i.e., the
processes. In that respect, sophisticated computational ballistic conduction length, was calculated to be about
modelling tools and expertise are clearly essential 200-300 nm. Whilst many groups have published work
factors to allow the indepth exploration of transport in this area, as far as it can be ascertained, this is the
properties and device performance optimization. only report of a true SET action in CNTs [278].
European Position: In Europe, several groups have European Position: Major efforts have been made in
brought key contributions [277] to the fields of Japan including work in various companies such as
modelling carbon nanotubes physical (and transport) Toshiba, Hitachi, NEC and NTT. The work in Europe
properties, mainly in Belgium (Jean-Christophe Charlier tends to be at the more fundamental/University level.
at University of Louvain), France with Xavier Blase
(Institut Néel, Grenoble) and Stephan Roche (CEA 13. Conclusions
Grenoble, France), and Spain with Angel Rubio
(University of San Sebastian). CNTs have many unique and indeed useful properties
for applications in the ICT area. Research into CNTs will
These scientists are leading the international community continue for at least the next several years especially
in several fields from ab-initio computation of growth into quantum effects and associated behaviour, as well-
processes, electronic and vibrational properties, to the characterized, high-quality SWCNTs become more
simulation of quantum transport in nanotubes-based available.Although CNTs are still being touted for
materials and devices. Several other European groups various industrial applications, much more investment is
are also contributing to the field of device simulation necessary for them to reach commercial viability. The
such as Giuseppe Iannaconne in Pisa (Italy), USA and Japan lead in this development but Europe has
Kosina/Selberherr at TU Vienna, Giovanni Cuniberti at made significant impact in many areas despite the fact
TU-Dresden in Germany, to cite a few. This community that investment in Europe is but a fraction of that in the
expert in theory and simulation is extremely important other major high-tech industrial zones.
to sustain experimental efforts and device optimisation.
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Carbon Nanotubes
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Carbon Nanotubes
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Carbon Nanotubes
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Carbon Nanotubes
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
orientation can also significantly improve carrier Non-Equilibrium Green Function Method, in which carrier
mobility. Moreover, alternative geometries, such as transport is treated using the full quantum Green function
double-gated devices, in which the channel doping level formalism. In the second category one can include the
is relatively low, must be evaluated within the Monte Carlo Solvers, that model carrier transport via the
perspective of an industrial integration. In particular, the Boltzmann equation. This equation is solved in a stochastic
subsequent effects of the high-k gate dielectric and of way, using a classical description of the free fly of the
the double-gate geometry on channel mobility must be electrons but a quantum description of the interactions.
clearly quantified. The currently available high-level NEGF [1] and MC
solutions [2] are still in the development phase, and no
Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) refers to ready-to-use industrial solutions are available so far to
the use of computer simulations to develop and meet the requirements of the 32 nm node and beyond.
optimize semiconductor devices. State-of-the-art
commercial TCAD device simulators are currently From the point of view of technology development
working using the Drift-Diffusion (DD) approximation support, the Monte Carlo simulators should be able to
of the Boltzmann transport equation. Quantum effects provide reliable electrical results on a regular basis for 32
are accounted for using the Density Gradient nm MOS devices. However the need for full-band Monte-
approximation, that works well for traditional bulk Carlo codes together with band structure solvers that
devices, but that can be unreliable for advanced devices account for strain and are capable of dealing with new
such as the double-gated-MOS structure or for new materials must be highlighted. Indeed, some commercial
materials. Moreover, emerging materials also 3D Schroedinger solvers [1] combined with NEGF solvers
significantly challenge the conventional DD-based tools, start being available. These solvers can be used to model
mostly due to a lack of appropriate models and ballistic quantum transport in advanced devices with
parameters. It becomes urgent to develop new strong transverse confinement. However, they do not
physically-based models with a view of integrating them include any inelastic scattering mechanism, and thus are
into a standardized simulation platform that can be not suitable for the calculation of transport properties in
efficiently used in an industrial environment. For this the 32 nm node devices and near-future nodes.
purpose, tight collaborations between world-class
universities and research institutions, CAD vendors and On the other hand, high-level device simulation tools are
industrial partners must be established. at an early stage of development in universities and
research institutions. These codes generally include
Within the framework of these collaborations, there will advanced physical models, such as strain-dependent band
be the best chances of success, both in terms of structure and scattering mechanisms, and should provide
academic model development and theoretical accurate predictions in complex nano-systems. However,
achievements, but also in terms of concrete such simulation tools are in general difficult to use in an
implementations and benchmarks of new models in industrial environment, in particular because of a lack of
TCAD tools. Innovative concepts based on nano- documentation, support and graphical user interface,
materials or molecular devices, new models and although an increasing number of academic codes are now
simulation tools would provide our ICT industries a including graphic tools [3,4]. Taking advantage of these
competitive advantage for device development and ongoing research projects, it should be possible to
optimization in terms of time-cycle and wafer-costs. integrate such high-level codes into industrial TCAD tools
or to use them to obtain calibrated TCAD models useful
Commercial v.s. academic quantum-transport for the industry. Concerning this latter point, the quantum
solvers drift-diffusion-based solution must be “customized”, in
order to make fast and accurate simulations of advanced
In response to the industrial need of new simulation tools, devices possible. For instance, the effect of the high-k gate
a class of quantum and transport solvers is emerging. dielectric stack on device performance must be addressed
These commercial state-of-the-art solvers can be divided with a particular attention to its impact on carrier
into two categories. In the first category, one can find the transport properties. This is definitely one of the most
quantum-transport solvers, such as those based on the challenging issues in semiconductor industry at present.
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
Efficient modelling tools, as well as accurate physics (linear with current), leading to a progressive
highlights, would certainly bring a significant competitive degradation of the signal-to-noise power ratio.
advantage for the development and the optimization of
the 32 nm CMOS technology and for future technologies, Disorder has demonstrated all of its disruptive power
including molecular devices. on nanodevices in the case of single-electron transistors:
as a result of their extreme charge sensitivity, stray
Importance of modelling variability charges, randomly located in the substrate, are sufficient
to completely disrupt their operation.
Near the end of the current edition of the International
Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) in Fluctuations associated with the granularity of charge
2018, transistors will reach sub-10 nm dimensions [5]. In and spatial disorder are fundamental roadblocks that
order to maintain a good control of the electrical affect any effort towards handling information on an
characteristics, new transistor architectures have to be increasingly small scale.
developed. It is widely recognized that quantum effects
and intrinsic fluctuations introduced by the discreteness It is thus of strategic importance to develop device
of electronic charge and atoms will be major factors simulation tools that are capable of efficiently exploring
affecting the scaling and integration of such devices as the extremely large parameter space induced by such
they approach few-nanometer dimensions [6-11]. variability and evaluate the actual performance limits of
new nanodevices. Strategies to decrease the amount of
For instance, in conventional one-gate nanotransistors, naturally occurring disorder or to cope with it need to
variations in the number and position of dopant atoms be devised as emerging devices are developed into new
in the active and source/drain regions make each nano- technologies aiming at the limits of the downscaling
transistor microscopically different from its neighbours process.
[12-16]. In nanowire MOS transistors the trapping of one
single electron in the channel region can change the cur- Integration between material and device
rent by over 90% [17,18]. Interface roughness of the simulation
order of 1-2 atomic layers introduces variations in gate
tunnelling, quantum confinement and surface/bulk Both for decananometric MOSFETs and for most
mobility from device to device. The inclusion of new emerging devices, the distinction between material and
materials such as SiGe will induce additional sources of device simulation is getting increasingly blurred, because
fluctuations associated with random variations in the at low dimensional scales the properties of the material
structure, defects, strain and inelastic scattering [19,20]. sharply diverge from those of the bulk or of a thin film
These intrinsic fluctuations will have an important impact and become strongly dependent on the detailed device
on the functionality and reliability of the corresponding geometry. Such a convergence should start being
circuits at a time when fluctuation margins are shrinking reflected also in research funding, because, at the
due to continuous reductions in supply voltage and dimensional scale on which research is currently
increased transistor count per chip [7,8]. focused, a project cannot possibly take into
consideration only one of these two aspects. This was
The problem of fluctuations and disorder is actually not the case until a few years ago, when a material could
more general and affects fundamental aspects of be investigated within the field of chemistry or material
information storage and processing as device size is science and then parameters were passed on to those
scaled down. The presence of disorder limits the active in the field of device physics and design, who
capability of patterning by introducing a spatial variance: would include them in their simulation tools.
when the pattern size approaches the spatial variance,
patterns are unavoidably lost. An analogous problem Fortunately, the nanoelectronics simulation community
exists as a result of time fluctuations (shot noise) is not starting from scratch in terms of atomic scale
associated with the granularity of charge: as current materials computations. Computational physics and
levels are reduced, the signal power decreases faster quantum chemistry researchers have been developing
(quadratically with current) than the shot noise power sophisticated programs, some with on the order of mil-
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
lions of lines of source code, to explicitly calculate the Codes using atomic orbitals were initially developed
quantum mechanics of solids and molecules from first within the Quantum Chemistry community, although
principles. Since quantum mechanics determines the recently have also become popular within the Materials
charge distributions within materials, all electrical, Physics community. Quantum Chemistry codes rely
optical, thermal and mechanical properties, in fact any heavily on the expansion of the atomic orbitals in terms
physical or chemical property can in principle be of Gaussian functions. This is mainly due to the fact that,
deduced from these calculations. with the use of Gaussians, the four-center-integrals
associated with Coulomb and exchange interactions
However, these programs have not been written with become analytic and easy to calculate. H wever, within
nanoelectronics TCAD needs in mind, and substantial the framework of Density Functional Theory, due to
Figure 1. Codes such as SIESTA can be used for the ab-initio simulation of relatively large structures.
theoretical and computational problems remain before non-linear dependence of the exchange - correlation
their application in process and device modeling reaches energy and potential with the density, the evaluation of
maturity. However, the coupling of electronic structure such contributions to the energy and Hamiltonian has to
theory programs to information technology simulations be necessarily performed numerically and the advantage
is occurring now, and there is nothing to suggest this of using Gaussian functions is mainly lost. This has
trend will not continue unabated. Quantum electronic opened the route for the use of other types of localized
structure codes come in essentially two flavours: those basis sets optimized to increase the efficiency of the
using plane wave expansions (or real-space grids) and calculations. For example, localized basis orbital can be
those using basis sets of atomic orbitals to span the defined to minimize the range of the interactions and,
electronic wave functions. Plane wave codes are suitable therefore, to increase the efficiency of the calculation,
for solid state calculations and have been mainly the storage, and the solution of the electronic
developed within the Solid State Physics community. Hamiltonian [21].
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
In particular, so-called order-N or quasi-order-N
methodologies have been developed over the last two
decades that, using the advantages of such local
descriptions, allow for the calculation of the electronic
structure of very large systems with a computational cost
that scales linearly or close to linearly with the size of
the system [22,23]. This is in contrast with traditional
methods that typically show a cubic scaling with the
number of electrons in the system. Order-N schemes
are particularly powerful and robust for insulators and
large biomolecules. However, the design of efficient and
reliable order-N methods for metallic systems is still a
challenge.
The most widely used codes for ab initio simulations of
solids and extended systems rely on the use of the
Density Functional Theory, rather than on Quantum
Chemistry methods. Many of them have been developed
in Europe, and some of them are commercial, although
their use is mostly limited to the academic community.
Among the commercial code, we can cite the plane-wave
codes VASP [24] and CASTEP [25], and the Hartree-
Fock/DFT code CRYSTAL [26] that utilizes Gaussian
basis functions. Other widely used plane-wave codes are
the public domain CP2K [27] and Abinit [28]. Abinit is
distributed under GNU license and has become a very
complete code with a rapidly growing community of
developers. Among the most popular DFT codes using
local atomic orbitals as a basis set we can mention the
order-N code SIESTA [21,29], which uses a basis set of
numerical atomic orbitals, and Quickstep [30], that uses
a basis set of Gaussian functions.
One of the reasons why codes using basis sets of atomic
orbitals have recently become very popular is that they
provide the ideal language to couple with transport codes
based on Non-Equilibrium-Green’s functions (NEGFs) to
study transport properties in molecular junctions and
similar systems. Using the local language implicit behind
the use of atomic orbitals (with tight-binding-like
Hamiltonians) is trivial to partition the system in different
regions that can be treated on different fotings. For
example, it becomes relatively simple to combine
information from a bulk calculation to describe the
electrodes with information obtained from a simulation
that explicitly considers the active part of the device.
Again Europe has taken the lead along this path. Two of
Figure 2. With the help of ab-initio calculations, the effect the most popular simulation tools for ballistic transport
of functionalization on graphene nanoribbon conductance using NEGFs combined with DFT have been developed
can be evaluated.
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
based on the SIESTA code: tranSIESTA [31] and Smeagol information but they are obtained from DFT calculations
[32]. In particular, tranSIESTA was developed by a for simple systems (mainly diatomic molecules) [36].
collaboration of Danish and Spanish research groups and, The parameters obtained in this way have proven to be
although there is a public domain version that will be transferable enough to provide a reasonable description
distributed with the latest version of the SIESTA code of systems like large molecules and even solids.
(siesta.3.0), it has also given rise to a commercial
simulation package called QuantumWise [33].
Electronic structure theory represents the lowest and
most sophisticated level of computation in our simulation
hierarchy. At this level there are many different degrees
of rigor and associated errors in the computations. The
most accurate results are provided by post-Hartree-Fock
Quantum Chemical methods. Unfortunately, they are
extremely demanding and not well suited for simulations
of solids and condensed matter systems. As already
mentioned, the most popular approach to study such
systems is Density Functional Theory, which provides a
good balance between the computational cost and the
accuracy of the results. However, even at the DFT level,
ab initio calculations are computationally too demanding
to perform realistic simulations of devices. Therefore, it
is necessary to develop more approximate methods Figure 3. Ultra-high-vacuum STM image of a substrate after
and, finally, to combine them in the so-called multi-scale the fabrication with single-atom manipulation, of a complete
approaches, in which different length scales are interconnection circuit for an OR gate, obtained by removing
described with different degrees of accuracy and detail. hydrogen atoms from a silicon hydride surface.
An interesting intermediate stage between DFT The ability to treat varying length and time scales, within
calculations, which take into account the full complexity varying degrees of approximation, leads to the already
of the materials, and empirical models, which disregard mentioned requirement for a multi-scale approach to
most of the chemistry and structural details of the coupled materials/device simulation. Although a multi-
system, is provided by the tight-binding approaches. scale approach is more than ever needed at this stage,
Here a minimal basis of atomic orbitals is used to parameter extraction cannot be performed for a
describe the electronic structure of the system. As a generic material, but must be targeted for the particular
consequence, only the valence and lowest lying device structure being considered, especially for single-
conduction bands can be accurately treated. molecule transistors. There has to be a closed loop
Traditionally, the hopping and overlap matrix elements between the atomistic portion of the simulation and the
were considered empirical parameters that were higher-level parts, guaranteeing a seamless integration.
adjusted to describe the electronic band structure of the This convergence between material and device studies
material and its variation with strain. This has proven a also implies that a much more interdisciplinary approach
quite powerful approach to describe complex system than in the past is needed, with close integration
like, for example, quantum dots containing thousands between chemistry, physics, engineering, and, in a
or millions of atoms [34, 35]. growing number of cases, biology.
A very interesting variation of these methods has been To make an example, let us consider the simulation of a
developed in recent years: the so-called DFT-tight- silicon nanowire transistor: atomistic calculations are
binding. Here the tight-binding parameters (hoppings, needed to determine the specific electronic structure
overlaps and short-ranged interatomic repulsive for the cross-section of the device being investigated,
potentials) are not obtained by fitting to empirical then this information can be used in a full-band solver
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
for transport or parameters can be extracted for a involve the design of nanometer scale optical
simpler and faster transport analysis neglecting architectures with new properties that may differ
interband tunneling; then the obtained device considerably from those of their macroscopic
characteristics can be used for the definition of a higher- counterparts.
level model useful for circuit analysis. It is apparent that,
for example, the atomistic simulation is directly This requires the development of new numerical tools
dependent on the device geometry, and that, therefore, able to describe electromagnetic interactions and light
work on the different parts of the simulation hierarchy propagation at different length scales. They should be
has to be performed by the same group or by groups able to describe the electromagnetic field from the scale
that are in close collaboration. Indeed, the dependence of a few light wavelengths (already of the order of the
between results at different length scales sometimes whole micro-device) down to the nanometer scale
requires the combination of different techniques in the elements. These new tools should include a realistic
same simulation, not just the use of information from description of the optical properties including electro-
more microscopic descriptions to provide parameters and magneto-optical active nanostructures and
for mesoscopic or macroscopic models. Following the plasmonic elements which are expected to be key
previous example, the electronic properties of a silicon ingredients of a new generation of active optoelectronic
nanowire are largely determined by its geometry. components.
However, the geometry of the wire is determined by A mayor challenge of the “multi-physical” modelling will
the strain present in the region where it grows, which in be to simulate a full nanodevice where electronics,
turn is a function of the whole geometry of the device, mechanics and photonics meet at the nanoscale. For
its temperature and the mechanical constraints applied instance, the coupling between mechanical vibrations and
to it. Thus, a reliable simulation of such device can quantum conductance of single nanotubes has been
require, for example, a quantum mechanical description recently observed. The interaction of an optical field with
of the nanowire itself, coupled to a larger portion of a device takes place not only through the electromagnetic
material described using empirical interatomic properties, but also through the mechanical response
potentials, and everything embedded in an even much (radiation pressure forces). The physical mechanisms and
larger region described using continuum elastic theory.
Although still at its infancy, this kind of multi-scale
simulations has already been applied very successfully
to the study of quite different systems, like biological
molecules, crack propagation in mechanical engineering
or combustion processes [37, 38]. This is certainly one
of the most promising routes towards the simulation of
realistic devices.
Another example where multi-scale and multi-physics
simulations become essential is represented by the
effort to merge electronics with nanophotonics. The
integration of CMOS circuits and nanophotonic devices
on the same chip opens new perspectives for optical
interconnections (higher band widths, lower-latency
links compare with copper wires) as well as for the
possible role of photons in the data processing. These
involve the modelling of “standard” passive
components, such as waveguides, turning mirrors,
splitters and input and output couplers, as well as active
elements, such as modulators and optical switches.
Modelling of ultra-scaled optoelectronic components Figure 4. Functionalized graphene nanoribbons can be used
to detect organic molecules.
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
Figure 6. Functionalization of graphene nanoribbons.
involving the spin of the carriers have very recently metallic contact to inject spin-polarized electrons. Thus,
received a particularly strong attention. First, although it could be a way to circumvent the problem of
spin injection through ferromagnetic metal/ “conductivity mismatch” [47-49] which possibly limits
semiconductor interfaces remains a great challenge, the the current spin injection efficiency into a conventional
spectacular advances made in 2007 converting the spin semiconductor from a ferromagnetic metal. These
information into large electrical signals using carbon phenomena and the corresponding devices need to be
nanotubes [39] has opened a promising avenue for investigated using the appropriate models of relativistic-
future carbon-based spintronic applications. The further like electron transport in 2D graphene structures.
demonstration of spin injection in graphene [40] and the Additionally, the presence of spin states at the edges of
observation of long spin relaxation times and lengths zigzag GNRS has also been demonstrated [50-52], and
[41] have suggested that graphene could add some may be exploited for spintronics. Using first-principles
novelty to carbon-based spintronics. For instance, taking calculations, very large values of magnetoresistance have
advantage of the long electronic mean free path and been predicted in GNR-based spin valves [53,54].
negligible spin-orbit coupling, the concept of a spin field-
effect transistor with a 2D graphene channel has been Additionally, the potential for 3D based organic
proposed with an expectation of near-ballistic spin spintronics has been recently suggested by experimental
transport operation [42]. A gate-tunable spin valve has studies [55]. Organic spin valves have shown spin
been experimentally demonstrated [43]. Finally, a relaxation times in the order of the microsecond and
ferromagnetic insulator, such as EuO, may be used to spin tunnel junctions with organic barriers have recently
induce ferromagnetic properties into graphene, through shown magnetoresistance values in the same order of
the proximity effect [44] and also to control the spin magnitude as that of inorganic junctions based on Al2O3.
polarization of current by a gate voltage [45, 46]. This However, spin transport in these materials is basically
configuration does not make use of any ferromagnetic unknown, and many groups are trying to decipher the
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
impressive experimental complexity of such devices.
Organic materials, either small molecules or polymers, The related challenges for device fabrication need to be
will definitely allow large scale and low cost production observed from different perspectives. Indeed, recent
of alternative non volatile memory technologies, with experiments in 13C nanotubes reveal surprisingly strong
reduced power consumption. These new materials have nuclear spin effects that, if properly harnessed, could
therefore the potential to create an entirely new provide a mechanism for manipulation and storage of
generation of spintronics devices, and the diverse forms quantum information.
of carbon-based materials open novel horizons for This may help to overcome the performance limitations
further hybridization strategies and all-carbon of conventional materials and of the conventional
spintronics circuits, including logic and memory devices. technology for spin valve devices. The real potential of
graphene-based materials for FET and related
The performance of these spintronic devices relies spintronics applications thus requires advanced
heavily on the efficient transfer of spin polarization modelling methods, including ab initio techniques, and a
across different layers and interfaces. This complex precise description of spin degree of freedom.
transfer process depends on individual material
properties and also, most importantly, on the structural To date, the development of nanotubes and graphene
and electronic properties of the interfaces between the science have been strongly driven by theory and
different materials and defects that are common in real quantum simulation [57,58]. The great advantage of
devices. Knowledge of these factors is especially carbon-based materials and devices is that, in contrast to
important for the relatively new field of carbon based their silicon-based counterparts, their quantum
spintronics, which is affected by a severe lack of suitable simulation can be handled up to a very high level of
experimental techniques capable of yielding depth- accuracy for realistic device structures. The complete
resolved information about the spin polarization of understanding and further versatile monitoring of novel
charge carriers within buried layers of real devices. forms of chemically-modified nanotubes and graphene
will however lead to an increasing demand for more
In that perspective, it is noteworthy to remark that the sophisticated computational approaches, combining first
fantastic development of first principles non-equilibrium principles results with advanced order N schemes to
transport methods is progressively allowing for more tackle material complexity and device features, as
and more realistic assessment and anticipation on the developed in some recent literature [59].
true spintronics potential of carbon-based structures.
This aspect also stands as an essential point for providing The molecular scale and the end of the road
guidance and interpretation schemes to experimental
groups. As a matter of illustration, a few years ago it has Molecular electronics research continues to explore the
been theoretically shown that organic spin valves, use of single molecules as electron devices or for even
obtained by sandwiching an organic molecule between more complex functions such as logic gates [60].
magnetic contacts, could manifest large bias-dependent Experimentally and theoretically the majority of
magnetoresistance, provided a suited choice of research work focuses on single molecules between two
molecules and anchoring groups was made, which is metallic electrodes or on molecular tunnel junctions.
now confirmed by experiments [56]. Reproducibility of the measurements and accurate
predictions for currents across single molecule tunnel
Finally one also notes that in addition to the potential junctions remains a challenging task, although the results
for GMR in carbon-based materials, the spin of theory and experiment are converging [61]. To
manipulation and the realization of spin Qubits deserves achieve the goal of using molecular components for
a genuine consideration. Recent theoretical proposals computing or storage, or indeed for novel functions,
have shown that spin Qubits in graphene could be requires refinement of the theoretical techniques to
coupled over very long distances, as a direct better mimic the conditions under which most
consequence of the so-called Klein paradox inherent to experiments are performed and to more accurately
the description of charge excitations in terms of describe the electronic structure of the molecules
massless Dirac fermions. connected to the leads.
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
treatments, beyond standard DFT calculations.
Fortunately, part of the effects of screening can be
included using a simple non-local self-energy model that
basically contains image charge interactions that affect
differently the HOMO and LUMO levels [68].
Another interesting issue is that of the coupling of the
electrons with structural deformations and vibrational
modes. Within the framework of NEGF+DFT
calculations inelastic effects associated with the
excitation of localized vibration within the contact
region have been successfully included in recent years.
Most of the approaches rely on different perturbative
expansions or on the so-called self-consistent Born
approximation [69]. This allows for accurate simulations
of the inelastic signal in molecular junctions and,
therefore, the characterization of the path followed by
Figure 7. Molecule connected to seven atomic wires on a ionic
crystal. This setup is composed of 2025 atoms and more than
9700 atomic orbitals are needed to accurately calculate the
function of the molecule (from “Picotechnologies : des tech-
niques pour l'échelle atomique”, C. Joachim, A. Gourdon and
X. Bouju in Techniques pour l'ingénieur NM130, 1-16 (2009).
Most simulations of transport in molecular junctions to
date are based on the combination of the non-
equilibrium Green’s functions techniques with DFT
calculations [62,63]. Although this approach has proven
quite powerful, it also presents important shortcomings.
In particular, the transport calculation is based on the
Kohn-Sham spectrum as calculated using standard local
or semi-local exchange-correlation functionals. These
functionals usually give a reasonable description of the
electronic spectrum for the normal metals that
constitute the leads. However, they are known to be
much less reliable to predict the energy spectrum of
small molecules. This is extremely important, since the
relative position of the molecular levels and the Fermi
energy of the leads is crucial to determine the transport
characteristic. Some of the deficiencies of DFT to
describe localized levels can be corrected by including
the so-called self-interaction corrections [64]. Still, the Figure 8. Connection of a molecule to four atomic wires.
position of the molecular levels is also strongly Each wire has been fabricated (left panel) with f ive gold
influenced by the dynamical screening induced by the atoms deposited on the substrate; the molecule has then
metallic leads [65,66]. An accurate description of all been placed at the center of the device (right panel), slightly
these effects requires more elaborate theoretical modifying the structure of one of the wires.
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
the electrons by identifying which vibrations are excited and biophysical processes via molecular electronic circuits,
during the conduction process. Unfortunately, the self- and (ii) the exploitation of self-assembling and self-
consistent Born approximation does not allow recognition properties of many biomolecules as scaffolds
accounting for polaronic effects that are crucial to in the integration of nano- and sub-nanoscale devices, and
understand the electronic transport in flexible organic (iii) exploring the potential of arrays of biomolecules (like
molecules [70]. In these cases more sophisticated DNA and its artificial modifications) to serve as molecular
methods are necessary, the coupling of which to ab wires interconnecting different parts of molecular
initio DFT simulations is still an open question. electronic devices. Obviously, great challenges from both
the experimental and from the theoretical side exist on
Hence much of the work to date has focused on the the road to achieve such goals.
underlying physical mechanisms of charge transport
across molecules, whereas very little is understood in The theoretical understanding of the bio/inorganic
terms of the use of molecular components in complex, interface is in its infancy, due to the large complexity of
or even simple, circuits. This research area could also the systems and the variety of different physical
be categorized as in its infancy in that very little is known interactions playing a dominant role. Further, state of the
about time-dependent or AC responses of molecules in art simulation techniques for large biomolecular systems
tunnel junctions or other circuit environments. To are to a large degree still based on classical physics
exploit molecules in information processing, the use of approaches (classical molecular dynamics, classical statistical
multi-scale tools [71] as described previously are needed physics); while this can still provide valuable insight into
to embed molecular scale components between what many thermodynamical and dynamical properties of
are essentially classical objects: leads, drivers, and biomolecular systems, a crucial point is nevertheless
circuits. Further development of the simulations is missing: the possibility to obtain information about the
needed to accurately describe the transport processes electronic structure of the biomolecules, an issue which is
in molecular junctions and its coupling to structural essential in order to explore the efficiency of such systems
degrees of freedom and, in particular, to molecular to provide charge migration pathways. Moreover, due to
vibrations also in the time-dependent response of the the highly dynamical character of biomolecular systems -
molecules to external voltages and their interaction with seen e.g. in the presence of multiple time scales in the
light needs to be studied. atomic dynamics- the electronic structure is strongly
entangled with structural fluctuations. We are thus
Finally, to position a single molecule at the right place, confronting the problem of dealing with the interaction of
experimental equipment has to be developed with strongly fluctuating complex molecules with inorganic
accurate manipulation capabilities, as well as precision systems (substrates, etc).
electrical probes for four terminal measurements [72].
Further development of the simulation techniques is As a result, multi-scale simulation techniques are urgently
needed to describe the time-dependent response of required, which should be able to combine quantum-
molecules to external voltages and their interaction with mechanical approaches to the electronic structure with
light. As the size of molecules considered as a molecular dynamical simulation methodologies dealing
component remains quite large, adapted methods using with the complex conformational dynamics of biological
a scattering approach seem to be more relevant than objects. Conventional simulation tools of semiconducting
high-level NEGF or other sophisticated methods [73,74]. microdevices can obviously not deal with such situations.
The concept of a molecular logic gate has emerged
recently and specific approaches including quantum Thermoelectric energy conversion
Hamiltonian computing [75] will be used for a numerical
integration. The importance of research on thermoelectric energy
conversion is growing in parallel with the need for
Nano-bio-electronics alternative sources of energy. With the recent
developments in the field, thermoelectric energy
A further fundamental research line which emerged in generators have become a commercial product in the
parallel to the development of molecular electronics is market and their efficiencies are improving constantly,
bio-electronics. It mainly aims at (i) mimicking of biological but the commercially available products did not take the
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
advantage of nano-technology yet. In fact, Indeed, it has recently been shown that Si nano-wires
thermoelectricity is one of the areas in which nano-scale with rough surfaces can serve as high performance
fabrication techniques offer a breakthrough in device thermoelectric materials, since the edge roughness
performances.It was predicted theoretically that, suppresses phonon transport by a few orders of
lowering the device dimensions, it is possible to magnitude whereas the electronic transport is weakly
overcome the Wiedemann-Franz Law and enhance the affected from surface roughness in these wires. Similar
device performances significantly [76]. behavior is also reported for graphene nanoribbons
where edge disorder reduces lattice thermal
Quasi one-dimensional quantum wires [77], engineered conductivity while electrons in the first conduction
molecular junctions [78,79], superlattices of quantum plateau stay almost intact [82].
dots [80] are the other possible routes proposed for
achieving a high thermoelectric figure of merit, ZT. At the sub-band edges, however, the electronic mean
free path is discontinuous which yields a large increase
The thermoelectric figure of merit includes three of the Seebeck coefficient and ZT. Another criteria for
properties of the material, namely the electrical high ZT is to have a narrow distribution of the energy of
conductivity σ, Seebeck coefficient S, the thermal the electrons participating in the transport process [83].
conductivity κ=κel+κph with electronic and phononic In molecular junctions, it is shown that the Seebeck
contributions as well as the temperature T, ZT =σ S2 coefficient is maximized when the electrode-molecule
T/κ. In order to optimize ZT, an electron-crystal coupling is weak and the HOMO level is close to the
together with a phonon-glass behavior is required [81]. Fermi energy, these fulfill Mahan's criterion in the zero-
dimensional case [84]. The
weak coupling condition is
also in favor of the need of
reduced vibrational thermal
conduction. Therefore self-
assembled layers of molecules
between semiconducting
surfaces are supposed to yield
high ZT values.
These developments offer
new challenges for increasing
device performances and also
for the modelling of new
devices. An accurate
modelling of the disordered
structures or of the layered
structures of self-assembled
molecules between surfaces
requires a lot of improvements
Figure 9. Diffusion processes are of fundamental importance in many disciplines of physics, both from the methodological
chemistry and biology. A low diffusion rate may hinder progress in many issues related to and from the computational
technology and health improvement. For example high viscosity may prevent tailored che- point of view. Simulation of
mical reactions or work as an undesired barrier for targeted nano-engineered drug deli- these systems entails
very in bio-chips. The classical diffusion of a small particle in a fluid can be greatly consideration of very large
enhanced by the light field of two interfering laser beams. Langevin Molecular Dynamics number of atoms, of the order
simulations show that radiation pressure vortice, due to light interference, spin the parti- of 106 to 108. Therefore fully
cle out of the whirls sites leading to a giant acceleration of free diffusion. The effective vis- parallelized order - N methods
cosity can then be notably reduced by simply increasing the laser intensity. [Albaladejo et for both electronic and
al., Nano Letters 9, 3527 (2009)].
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
phononic computations are needed. Though important Finally, it should be stressed that the field is rich in
progress has been achieved in order-N electronic opportunities for the emergence of novel effects and
calculations, such methods are still lacking a proper concepts that go beyond the current prospects in the
description for the phonons. Adoption of the methods general area of electronics, the recent discovery of high
already developed for electrons to phonons is a first goal electronic mobilities in all-oxide heterostructures (i.e., at
to be achieved. the interfaces between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3) being a
remarkable example.
Multifunctional oxides
Quantum-mechanical simulation is playing a key role in the
Multifunctional oxides, ranging from piezoelectrics to progress in multifunctional oxides. This has been historically
magnetoelectric multiferroics, offer a wide range of physical the case, with many key contributions from the first-
effects that can be used to our advantage in the design of principles community to the understanding of ferroelectric,
novel nanodevices. For example, these materials make it magnetic and magnetoelectric bulk oxides [85,86]. This
possible to implement a variety of tunable and/or trend is just getting stronger in this era of nanomaterias,
switchable field effects at the nanoscale. Thus, a for two reasons: (i) there is greater need for theory to
magnetoelectric multiferroic can be used to control the explain the novel physical mechanisms at work in systems
spin polarization of the current through a magnetic tunnel that are usually very difficult to characterize experimentally,
junction by merely applying a voltage; or a piezoelectric and (ii) modern deposition techniques offer the unique
layer can be used to exert very well controlled epitaxial-like chance to realize in the laboratory the most promising
pressures on the adjacent layers of a multilayered theoretical predictions for new materials.
heterostructure, which e.g. can in turn trigger a
magnetostructural response. Thus, the importance of first-principles simulation for
fundamental research in functional oxides is beyond doubt,
These are just two examples of many novel applications and very recent developments, e.g. for the first-principles
that add up to the more traditional ones -- as sensors, study of the basic physics of magnetoelectrics [87],
actuators, memories, highly-tunable dielectrics, etc. -- that ferroelectric tunnel junctions [88] or novel oxide
can now be scaled down to nanometric sizes by means of superlattices [89], clearly prove it.
modern deposition techniques. In fact, nanostructuring of
different types, ranging from the construction of oxide The contribution from simulations to resolve more applied
nanotubes to the more traditional multi-layered systems, is problems (e.g, that of the integration with silicon) is, on
opening the door to endless possibilities for the the other hand, just starting, and its progress will critically
engineering/combination of the properties of this type of depend on our ability to develop novel multi-scale
compounds, which are strongly dependent on the system's simulation methods that can tackle the kinetics of specific
size and (electrical, mechanical) boundary conditions. growth processes (from pulse-laser deposition to sputtering
methods under various oxygen atmospheres) directly. This
The current challenges in the field are plenty, from the is a major challenge that will certainly generate a lot of
more technical to the more fundamental. At the level of activity in the coming couple of decades.
the applications, the outstanding problems include the
integration of these materials with silicon or the Major current deficiencies of TCAD
identification of efficient and scalable growth techniques
for complex oxide heterostructures. A clear gap, which has in part been addressed in the
previous sections, has formed in the last few years
At a more fundamental level, there is a pressing need to between what is available in the TCAD market and what
identify new systems and/or physical mechanisms that can would actually be needed by those working on the
materialize some of the most promising concepts for the development of advanced nanoscale devices. As already
design of devices; for example, we still lack a robust room- mentioned, classical TCAD tools have not been
temperature magnetoelectric multiferroic system that can upgraded with realistic quantum transport models yet,
be integrated in real devices, we still have to understand suitable for the current 32 nm node in CMOS
the main factors controlling the performance of a technology or for emerging technologies, and, in
ferroelectric tunnel junction, etc. addition, there are some fields of increasing strategic
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
importance, such as the design of photovoltaic cells, for operations, but last generation GPUs, such as the
which no well-established TCAD platforms exist. FireStream 9170 by AMD, are advertised as capable of
handling double precision in hardware, although at a
Bottom-up approaches, which, if successful, could somewhat reduced rate (possibly by a factor of 5).
provide a solution to one of the major bottlenecks on Another impressive feature of GPU computation is the
the horizon, i.e. skyrocketing fabrication costs, are not extremely high energy efficiency, of the order of 5
supported by any type of TCAD tools as of now. This Gigaflops/W in single precision or 1 Gigaflop/W in
may be due to the fact that bottom-up approaches are double precision, an aspect of growing importance
still in their infancy and have not been demonstrated in considering the costs for supplying power and air
any large-scale application, but the existence of suitable conditioning to computing installations.
process simulation tools could, nevertheless, facilitate
their development into actual production techniques. The latest GPU hardware opens really new perspectives
Sophisticated tools that have been developed within for simulation of nanodevices, also in "production
research projects are available on the web, mainly on environments," because GPU based systems could be
academic sites, but they are usually focused on specific easily standardized and provided to end-users along with
problems and with a complex and non-standardized the simulation software. Overall, this is a field that
user interface. deserves investing some time and effort on the part of
the device modelling community, because it could result
An effort would be needed to coordinate the research in a real breakthrough in the next few years.
groups working on the development of the most
advanced simulation approaches, the TCAD companies Overview of networking for modelling in
and the final users, in order to define a common Europe and the United States
platform and create the basis for multi-scale tools
suitable to support the development of nanoelectronics In the United States, the network for computational
in the next decade. nanotechnology (NCN) is a six-university initiative
established in 2002 to connect those who develop
New computational approaches simulation tools with the potential users, including those
in academia, and in industries. The NCN has received a
The development of highly parallel and computationally funding of several million dollars for 5 years of activity.
efficient graphic processors has recently provided a new
and extremely powerful tool for numerical simulations. One of the main tasks of NCN is the consolidation of
Modern Graphic Processing Units (GPU) approach a the nanoHUB.org simulation gateway, which is currently
peak performance of a Teraflop (1012 floating point providing access to computational codes and resources
operations per second) thanks to a highly parallel to the academic community. According to NCN survey
structure and to an architecture focusing specifically on [23], the total number of users of nanoHUB.org
data processing rather than on caching or flow control. reached almost 70.000 in March 2008, with more than
This is the reason why GPUs excel in applications for 6.000 users having taken advantage of the online
which floating point performance is paramount while simulation materials.
memory bandwidth in not a primary issue. In particular,
GPU hardware is specialized for matrix calculations The growth of the NCN is likely to attract increasing
(fundamental for 3D graphic rendering), which do attention to the US computational nanotechnology
represent also the main computational burden in many platform from all over the world, from students, as well
types of device simulations. as from academic and, more recently, industrials
researchers. In Europe an initiative similar to the
As a result, speed ups of the order of 30 - 40 have been nanoHUB, but on a much smaller scale, was started
observed, for tasks such as the simulation of nanoscale within the EU funded “Phantoms network of
transistors, with respect to state-of-the-art CPUs. Up excellence” and has been active for several years; it is
to now the main disadvantage was represented by the currently being revived with some funding within the
availability, in hardware, only of single-precision nanoICT coordination action. (www.europa.iet.unipi.it)
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
In a context in which the role of simulation might widely used techniques and with a large body of
become strategically relevant for the development of references.
nanotechnologies, molecular nanosciences,
nanoelectronics, nanomaterial science and This review has been written by experts in the fields of
nanobiotechnologies, it seems urgent for Europe to set computational modelling; most of them have strongly
up a computational platform infrastructure similar to contributed to the development of European excellence
NCN, in order to ensure its positioning within the in recent years, and have been leading EU-initiative over
international competition. The needs are manifold. First, FP5, FP6 and FP7. Although more efforts will be needed
a detailed identification of European initiatives and to bridge different communities from ab initio
networks must be performed, and de-fragmentation of development to device simulation, such initiatives need
such activities undertaken. A pioneer initiative has been to be supported considering that contributors of this
developed in Spain through the M4NANO database report are overviewing promising methodologies to fill
(www.m4nano.com) gathering all nanotechnology- the gap between scientific communities, establishing
related research activities in modelling at the national some framework for further promoting European-
level. based networking activities and coordination.
This Spanish initiative could serve as a starting point to Past, present and future European advances in
extend the database to the European level. Second, clear computational approaches.
incentives need to be launched within the European
Framework programmes to encourage and sustain This novel initiative should be able to bridge advanced
networking and excellence in the field of computational ab-initio/atomistic computational approaches to
nanotechnology and nanosciences. To date, no structure ultimate high-level simulation tools such as TCAD
such as a Network of Excellence exists within the ICT models that are of crucial importance in software
programme, although the programme NMP supported companies. Many fields such as organic electronics,
a NANOQUANTA NoE in FP6, and infrastructural spintronics, beyond CMOS nanoelectronics,
funding has been provided to the newly established ETSF nanoelectromechanical devices, nanosensors,
(European Theoretical Spectroscopy Facility, nanophotonics devices definitely lack standardized and
www.etsf.eu). This network mainly addresses optical enabling tools that are however mandatory to assess
characterization of nanomaterials, and provides an open the potential of new concepts, or to adapt processes
platform for European users, that can benefit from the and architectures to achieve the desire functionalities.
gathered excellence and expertise, as well as The European excellence in these fields is well known
standardized computational tools. There is also a and in many aspects overcomes that of the US or of
coordinated initiative focused on the specific topic of Asian countries. Within the framework of a new
electronic structure calculations, the Psi-k network initiative, specific targets should be addressed in relation
(www.psi-k.org). with the modelling needs reported by small and medium
sized software companies active in the development of
An initiative similar to the American NCN would be commercial simulation tools, such as
needed in Europe, within the ICT programme that
encompasses the broad fields of devices and QUANTUM WISE (www.quantumwise.com)
applications or, better, in conjunction between the ICT SYNOPSYS (www.synopsys.com)
and the NMP programme, since the full scope from NANOTIMES (www.nanotimes-corp.com)
materials to devices and circuits should be addressed. SILVACO (www.silvaco.com)
Other initiatives such as the “Report on multiscale NEXTNANO3 (www.nextnano.de)
approaches to modelling for nanotechnology” [90] TIBERCAD (www.tibercad.org)
intends to provide an overview, albeit limited and
certainly not exhaustive, of relevant aspects of modelling Similarly, larger companies such as STMicroelectronics,
at the nanoscale, pointing out some important issues Philips, THALES, IBM, INTEL make extensive usage of
that are still open and affording the reader that is not commercial simulation tools to design their
yet active in the field with an introduction to several technological processes, devices and packaging. The
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
sustainable development of the computational The combination of these two factors makes it clear that
simulation software industry, including innovative the time is ripe for a new generation of software tools,
materials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, semiconducting whose development is of essential importance for the
nanowires, molecular assemblies, organics, magnetic competitiveness and sustainability of European ICT
material) and novel applications (spintronics, industry, and which requires a coordinated effort of all
nanophotonics, beyond CMOS nanoelectronics), could the main players.
therefore be crucial to foster industrial innovation in the
next decade. References
Conclusions [1] Sparta is part of the Synopsys TCAD suite;
http://193.204.76.120/ISETCADV8.0/PDFManual/da
Recent advances in nanoscale device technology have ta/Sparta.pdf
made traditional simulation approaches obsolete from
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of a new multiscale modelling hierarchy, to support the products/vwf/atlas/3D/quantum3D/
design of nanodevices and nanocircuits. This lack of
adequate modeling tools is apparent not only for [3] www.nextnano.de
emerging devices, but also for aggressively scaled
traditional CMOS technology, in which novel geometries [4] www.tibercad.org
and novel materials are being introduced. New
approaches to simulation have been developed at the [5] http://public.itrs.net
academic level, but they are usually focused on specific
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There is therefore a need for integration of advanced pp.95-101, Florence, Italy, 2002.
modelling tools into simulators that can be proficiently
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include advanced physical models and at the same time CMOS near the limits of scaling", Solid-State Electron.
be able to cope with variability and fluctuations, which 46, 315 (2002).
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further device down scaling. [8] K. Takeuchi, R. Koh and T. Mogami, "A study of the
threshold voltage variation for ultra-small bulk and SOI
In addition, as dimensions are scaled down, the CMOS", IEEE Trans. Electron Dev 48, 1995 (2001).
distinction between material and device properties
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observed any more, and atomistic treatments are study of threshold voltage fluctuation due to statistical
needed. There is therefore a convergence between variation of channel dopant number in MOSFET’s", IEEE
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also in the formulation of research projects.
[10] A. Asenov, A. R. Brown J. H. Davies, S. Kaya†, and
Furthermore, new materials, such as carbon, bio- G. Slavcheva, "Simulation of Intrinsic Parameter
molecules, multifunctional oxides, are emerging, with an Fluctuations in Decananometre and Nanometre scale
impressive potential for device fabrication and with MOSFETs", IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 50, 1837
completely new requirements for simulation. A unique (2003).
opportunity is now surfacing, with powerful new
modelling approaches being developed and new low- [11] P. A. Stolk, F. P. Widdershoven, D. B. M. Klaassen,
cost computational platforms (such as GPUs) with an "Device modeling of statistical dopant fluctuations in
unprecedented floating point performance. MOS transistors," Proc. SISPAD’97, p. 153, 1997.
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
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Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers
Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
3.3 Mono-molecular electronics on a encompasses all types of devices, including mechanical
surface: challenges and opportunities machines and transducers. Meeting the atom technology
challenge for ICTs requires new understanding in four
now well identified fields of science and technology:
C. Joachim1, J. Bonvoisin1, X. Bouju1, E.
Dujardin1, A. Gourdon1, L. Grill2, M. Maier3, D.
1. Learning the kinds of architectures for molecule-
Martrou1, G. Meyer4, J.-P. Poizat5, D. Riedel6,
machines (or atom surface circuits) which will permit
M. Szymonski7.
to perform for example complex logic operations
1 stabilized at the surface of a solid where the required
Nanoscience Group, CEMES-CNRS, 29, Rue J. Marvig, BP
interconnection will be constructed.
94347, 31055 Toulouse, France.
2
Institut für Experimentalphysik, Freie Universität Berlin, 2. Creating a surface multi-pads interconnection
Arnimallee 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany. technology with a picometer precision, respecting the
atomic order of the surface which is supporting the
3
Omicron NanoTechnology GmbH, Limburger Strasse 75, nano-system assemblage.
65232 Taunusstein, Germany.
4
IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Säumerstrasse 4 / 3. Cultivating molecular surface science accompanied
Postfach, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland. with molecule synthesis (respectively atom by atom
UHV-STM fabrication on a surface).
5
CEA-CNRS group « Nanophysique et Semi-conducteurs »,
Institut Néel — CNRS / UJF, 25, av des Martyrs, BP 166, 4. Creating a packaging technology able to protect a
38042 Grenoble cedex 9, France. functioning atom-technology-based machine, while at
the same time insuring its portability.
6
Laboratoire de Photophysique Moléculaire, CNRS, Bât. 210,
Université Paris Sud, 91405 ORSAY, France. Those 4 topics were discussed during the 1st nanoICT
mono-molecular electronics Working Group meeting in
7
Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Toulouse, France between the 8th and the 10th of
Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy, and December 2008.
Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, ul.
Reymonta 4, 30-059 Krakow, Poland. 2. The architecture
1. Introduction Molecular devices i.e. hybrid molecular electronics are
on the agenda of the micro-electronics roadmap since
Technology continues to produce functioning transistors the seminal Aviram-Ratner paper in 1974 [2]. Until the
on ever smaller scales. The day will come soon, turn of the century, such a futurist possibility of using
however, when there will not be enough atoms on the molecules instead of solid state devices for electronics
surface of a semi-conductor to define the structure of a was just considered as a game for exploring the limits of
transistor and, consequently, of complex electronic calculating machines and memory devices. Approaching
circuits. At this stage, new approaches and new the end of the ITRS roadmap, things are now changing.
technologies are necessary for building computers,
memory or telecommunication devices [1]. Anticipating Thanks to an intense experimental and theoretical effort,
this challenge, researchers in a few laboratories around molecular electronics has now positively evolved from
the world are now looking for the maximum number of concepts to the first measurements and comparison with
atoms required to fabricate, for example, a calculating calculations [3]. There is now a real shift towards the full
unit able to perform a computation by itself. integration of a computing power in a single and the
same molecule i.e. the mono-molecular approach [4].
This problem of creating an atom based techno-logy is This is now followed by exploring also the possibility of
not limited to electronics or to telecommunication and
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers
Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
using atomic circuit fabricated on the surface of a
passivated semi-conductor surface for implementing
quantum dot based computer approach [5] and may be
one day a mixture of both approaches.
The different possible architectures for a single molecule
(or an atomic circuit) to compute include the design of
single molecule circuits in a standard electrical
architecture, electronic wave-like atomic or molecule
circuits located on the surface of a semi-conductor or
quantum Hamiltonian like computing architectures. All
those approaches are now studied by quantum chemistry
software able to take into account the surface electronic
structure, the interconnects and the local quantum Figure 1. A possible surface implantation of a molecule logic
structure of the computing circuit. Let us take the simple gate. The presented molecule fi adder was designed follo-
example of a logic gate. There are 3 ways of designing a wing a Quantum Hamiltonian Computer approach [9]. The
logic gate at the atomic scale: interconnection architecture is constructed using metallic ato-
mic wires. The logic inputs are located directly on the mole-
(1) The use of surface missing atom to fabricate an cular board, supposing 2 switchable chemical group current
atomic scale circuit mimicking the topology of a driven inputs.
macroscopic electronic circuit. Those surfaces are
Solutions (1) and (2) have been proposed long ago but
generally passivated semi-conductor surface with a
are not very compatible with the quantum level where
relatively large gap. Atoms are extracted one at a time to
those atom circuits or molecule logic gate are supposed
create a specific surface electronic structure in the
to work. For solution (3), a quantum Hamiltonian design
electronic surface gap. This new electronic structure will
of AND, NOR and even fi adder logic gates have been
form the surface atomic circuit [6].The STM vertical
designed followed by proposal of chemical structure
manipulation of the single surface atoms can automated
functioning on the manipulation of molecular orbitals [9].
and proceed in parallel.
Extreme care has to be taken here for the optimization
(2) The full molecule, instead of the surface can be the
of the chemical structure of those molecule-gates taking
electronic circuit. In this case, it is the π system of such
into account their future adsorption for example on a
an extended molecule which will define the circuit and
passivated semi-conductor surface [10]. In particular, the
the π skeleton will ensure the full chemical stability of the
optimization of the electronic contact between the
molecular architecture [7]. Such a molecule will have to
surface atomic wires and the molecule will be obtained
be directly chemisorbed to the required number of nano-
by selecting with care the chemical composition of the
metallic pads or in a very dedicated approach to surface
end group of the molecule [11] for running current
atomic wires more able to interact with specific part of
through the gates with the objective to reaching peak
the π molecular orbitals.
values in the range of 10 to 100 nA. All those
architectures give us an indication of the richness of
(3) Molecular orbitals (from a large molecule or defined
quantum behavior to design molecule like logic gate up
from a specific surface atomic circuit) can be manipulated
to the complexity of a digital 2 by 2 full adder.
by chemically bonding on a π conjugated board specific
chemical groups able to shift the corresponding molecular
At the Working Group meeting, the question was: to
states [8]. Switchable lateral group can be very active
what extend the complexity of such a logic function
playing donor or acceptor group to modify very locally
embedded in a single molecule or in a small amount of
the nodes distribution of a give molecular orbital. Such an
dangling bond created on purpose on a surface can be
effect can be used to design single molecule logic gate
increased up for example to a N x N full adder. There
(See Figure 1) without forcing the molecule to have the
is no theoretical answer yet to this question. But the
topology of an electrical circuit [9].
interesting fact is that a careful quantum design will
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers
Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
certainly shift up the elementary unit of a logic circuit of the meeting that this fantastic technique will
from the transistor level to the logic function level. For progressively be abandoned because there is no way to
example, no gain at the gate level is required in the determine the number of molecule in the junction,
Hamiltonian logic gate approach. This will simplify a lot because the conformation of the molecules located in
the interconnections. But at the same time, cascading this junction is unknown and because it is difficult to
the building block at the logic gate level will certainly foresee a multi nano-electrodes version of the break
require some power gain. This will consequently junction technique.
increase the complexity of the interconnection
procedure in between the logic gate units. The quantum In 1999, a new planar nano fabrication technique, the
designer will have to define the most interesting building nanostencil was introduced in an attempt to solve the
block complexity (of course beyond the transistor) to surface cleanness problem [21]. Then, nanostencil was
find an optimum between the computing power on proposed as a new way to interconnect electrically a
board of a molecule and the required interconnects. single molecule. Nanostencil has a great advantage over
There is no solution yet for designing dynamic memory nano-lithography because it is supposed to preserve the
cell at the atomic scale. atomic cleanness of the surface supporting the planar
interconnection electrodes. By varying systematically all
3. N-Interconnects the parameter of the nanostencil technique, including
the testing of a large variety of surfaces from SiO2 to
Creating ultra precise interconnects on a single molecule NaCl or mica, it was demonstrated that on the good
has often been a bottleneck for molecular electronics surfaces, this technique reaches its limits in the 20 nm
[4,12]. But there are now two well-known avenues to range with no possibility to master the atomic structure
realize a full interconnection scheme depending if the at the end of the so fabricated nano-pads [22].
supporting surface is a small or large electronic band
gap semi-conductor. The first tentative characterization Facing this interconnection problem, lab scale
of a single molecule switch was reported already in 1988 experiments were performed: the fabrication of a
using the HV-STM machine [13]. Since then, a lot of pseudo-planar interconnection on metal surface taking
progresses have been accomplished using the end atom benefit from native mono atomic step edge and
of the STM tip apex as a pointer to contact one atom designing specific Lander molecules with legs to level up
[14], one molecule [3,15] and to practice single atom or the molecular wire as compared to the mono atomic
molecule manipulation [16,17]. The first measurement step edge [11,15,23]. Those low temperature UHV STM
of the conductance of a single molecule was realized in experiments unambiguously demonstrated the need for
1995 using an UHV-STM machine [3]. an ultra clean atomic scale mastered interaction
between for example the molecular wire end and the
In parallel, nanolithography has been developed to quit conducting contact entity [24].
the vertical STM interconnection configuration for a
fully planar configuration. In year 2001, what is Following the Working Group discussions, it seems that
considered no was the nanolithography limit was all the standard planar interconnection strategies
reached. The world record of an inter-electrode explored since the end of the 80's like e-beam nano
distance of 2 nm was obtained between 2 metallic nano- lithography, nano-imprint and Nanostencil will soon be
electrodes fabricated on a silicon oxide [18]. But this abandoned. A new surface science approach respecting
nanotechnology technique was progressively abandoned the exact atomic order of the surface with an
because (1) it is limited to a maxi-mum of 2 to 3 interconnection precision better than 0.1 nm between
electrodes [19] and (2) the use of resists and chemical the atomic wire (or the molecular wire) and the atomic
in the process to define the nano-fabricated pattern is scale pads will have to be developed. This challenge
not clean enough with respect to the size of a single triggers a new approach for interconnects, a formal
molecule and the order of the surface atoms. As a generalization of the technique developed at Bell labs in
variant, break-junctions are also now used because of the 50's to interconnect a bar of a Germium
the very unique precision in the tuning of inter-electrode semiconductor material (See Figure 2 page 29). At that
distance [12,20]. But it was analyzed by the participants time, 4 probes measurement were practiced using 4
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Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
metallic tips approaching the semiconductor bar under seems to be a good number [28]. There is here clearly
an optical microscope. The bar was manipulated by a need to roadmap the computing power capacity
micro metric screws together with the tips and stabilized increase embedded in a single molecule or with a
by metallic springs [25]. surface atomic circuit and the number of possible
In our days, atomic scale
interconnection machines are
starting to be built in a few labs
around the world. There are
basically low temperature (LT)
UHV machines made of 3 LTUHV
interconnect separated chambers,
one for the atomic scale
preparation of the supporting
surface, one for single atom or
molecule manipulation and one
for the atomic scale to mesocale
or more interconnection
procedure. Depending on the
surface, the navigation on the
surface is still using an optical
microscope completed by a NC-
AFM for a large surface electronic
gap (See Fig. 2). For small gap
passivated semiconductor surface,
the navigation is ensured by an Figure 2. History of planar multi-electrodes interconnects. (a) 1950's Bell Labs
UHV-SEM with a resolution system equiped with an optical microscope and 4 electrodes for germanium in-
generally around a few terconnects [25]. (b) the 20th century multi-probes chip interconnects technology
nanometers (See Fig. 2). For the (courtesy of IBM). (c) A new generation of interconnection system involving an op-
nano interconnection step, well tical microscope plus an AFM microscope using 10 metallics cantilever positioned
faceted and ultra flat metallic under the AFM head [28]. (d) A more recent version where the optical microscope
nano-island are now in use. Those had been substituted by an UHV scanning electron microscope and the metallic
nano-interconnect pads are cantilevers substituted by nanoscale apex STM tips [26] (courtesy of the A*STAR
positioned at will with an 0.1 nm VIP Atom tech project, Singapore).
precision on the surface using the
manipulation ability of the STM [26]. For the nano to interconnects converging towards this ultra small
meso and more interconnection stage, one technique computing unit [19].
for small gap semiconductor is to use multiple
conducting STM tips in a top or back surface approach. For example, it may happen that a well designed
For large gap surfaces, the nanostencil technique can molecule offers too much computing power locally in
still be used at its 20 nm in width limit and in its dynamic regards with the maximum number of interconnects
form [27]. that one can physically be achieved in parallel on a
surface. Then, a multiplexing like approach may be
Those interconnection machines are so new that it is more appropriate, asking for more bandwidth and
not clear how one can build up a roadmap to anticipate pushing the technology towards optical interconnects.
how many contacts it will be possible to achieve. In the Thus, efforts should be made in the future to extend
case of multiple STM tips positioned under the SEM, 4 experiments which aim to combine optics and local
is the actual limit for stability of the interconnects (See probe microscopy in an ultra clean environment with a
Fig.2).For the optical microscope-NC-AFM case, 10 prospect of a fully planar technology.
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Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
4. Atom and Molecule Surface science issues on the surface will be very low, well below the fA range,
an advantage as compared with the above mentioned
The stabilization of an atomic scale computing semi-conductor surface. The drawback is that there is no
machinery on a surface (be it self stabilized by its easy solution to fabricate or stabilize atomic wire on those
chemical structure or by the surface itself) requires a surfaces. During the Working Group meeting, two
gigantic effort in exploring the properties of a large solutions were discussed to bypass this problem: the use
molecule of a surface at the atomic scale. During the of molecular mold to stabilize metallic atomic wires or the
Working Group meeting, a lot of questions were asked use of long molecular wires between the metallic nano-
starting from the choice of the surface. Of course, the pads and the central computing units. This second solution
discussions were targeting lab scale logic gate handling may be a good way to boost the research on long
and interconnects. For a fully packaged molecule logic molecular wires characterized by an extremely small
gate, a more realistic choice of surfaces is actually out of tunneling inverse decay rate [32].
the range of what can be discussed (see the
corresponding section below). Graphene, the new comer was also discussed in
Toulouse as a mean to pass directly from the
Depending of the atomic scale interconnection machine mesoscopic to the atomic scale with a “perfect”
to be used, a first delicate problem is the choice of the chemical like continuity between the 2 scales. This will
supporting surface. A list of criteria were discussed during be another choice of surface self supporting the
the meeting: the electronic surface gap, the stability of the interconnection and the computing unit. The open
atomic surface structure, the stability of metallic nano- question is whether or not progresses in the fabrication
island on the surface. For example, we know 2 extreme techniques will allow an atom by atom fabrication
cases of passivated semi-conductor surface: SiH(100) and technique respecting the absolute atomic scale precision
MoS2. SiH(100) has a surface gap around 2.1 eV. The
surface H atoms can be vertically STM manipulated one at
a time to create p dangling bond like surface atomic wires
or Hamiltonian computing structures [5,6]. But depending
on the bulk doping, those H surface atoms are not so
stable with temperature which precludes a thermal
growth process to shape the contacting metallic nano-
island. The lamellar MoS2 compound has a self passivated
semi conducting surface with a surface gap around 1 eV.
The surface S atoms are extremely difficult to vertically
STM manipulate [29]. But if manipulated, they also offer
the possibility to create surface atomic wires with a band
structure much more complicated that the SiH(100) [30].
The surface MoS2 surface is extremely stable up to
1200°C [31] and metallic nano-pads can easily be shaped
and manipulated to construct any multi-electrode
interconnections pattern with an atomic scale precision
[26]. But the low surface gap of this material will certainly
preclude its direct use as a supporting interconnection
surface. A better exploration of the surface properties of Figure 3. Exploring the surface science of interconnects: fa-
diverse semi-conductor surfaces (See for example Figure brication of Au nanowires on the InSb(001) surface in the
3 page 31) and their possible passivation is here urgently UHV to be interconnected on a Fig. 2D UHV interconnection
needed. Large electronic gap surface are even less machine.(a) High resolution STM image of Au alloy nano-
explored that their semi-conductor counter parts. The wire formed on InSb(001) surface by a good selection of the
nice property of those surfaces is the fact that leakage surface annealing temperature. Bias voltage: -0.5V, tunne-
surface current between 2 metallic nano-pads adsorbed lling current: 25pA. (b) STS conductance measured using an
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Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
STM tip as a function of bias voltage on an Au alloy nanowire
(red dots) and directly on the InSb substrate (blue dots)
(Courtesy of the Jagiellonian University, Krakow).
Discussions in Toulouse about molecular surface science in-
dicate how far we are from a very good understanding of
molecular processes and behaviors of a large molecule on a
surface at the atomic scale. There is here a wide range of un-
derstanding and know how which need to be acquired be-
fore creating a full atomic scale technology for molecular
computing.
Figure 4. Playing with single molecules on a surface. Instead
required for such a circuit [33]. It is also not clear how far of sublimating a large molecule on a surface, it may be bet-
can we go by playing with a single and large molecule ter to bring f irst the monomers and to make them self re-
adsorbed on a surface be it the one of a semi-conductor acting with each others by controlling the spontaneous 2D
or of a bulk insulating materials. There is the difficult diffusion. STM image (left) of a molecular network on a
challenge of sublimating of a large molecular weight Au(111) surface with the corresponding scheme (right). The
molecule on a surface in an ultra clean manner respecting network is grown from single porphyrin (TPP) molecules mo-
the integrity of the molecule [34]. Maybe better to nomers ("on-surface-synthesis") by forming covalent bonds
perform the chemistry in situ sublimating only the between the individual building blocks [35].
monomers and playing with them after to construct or
assemble the final large molecule (See Figure 4 and [35]). Moore’s law like trend when analyzing the complexity
growth of the system per year, a trend which appears
It remains to be explored if such an approach can be
threatened in the near future for microelectronics. The
performed for example at the surface of a semi-conductor.
mono-molecular approach of molecular electronics with
its compulsory atomic scale technology offers way to
5. Packaging
push past possible limitations in miniaturization and to
gain further increases in computing power by orders of
At the nanoICT meeting, packaging was not on the official
magnitude by relying of a full development of an atom
agenda. Off site discussions about packaging indicate that
or molecule based technology for both electronics and
we are far from being ready to study those questions
machines. To reach this stage, each of the 4 issues well
simply because even the lab scale interconnection
identified during this seminar will require a specific
machines are just about to be assembled. Packaging is
discussion and more than that a specific research and
always associated with the number of interconnects which
technological development program.
have to be stabilized with the encapsulation technology
selected for the circuit [19]. There is not yet a clear path
Acknowledgements
on how to create a packaging technology for surface
mono-molecular electronics. A specific mono-molecular
The authors would like to acknowledge financial
NanoICT seminar may be dedicated in the future to this
very strategic problem. But it is so advance and so contribution from the European Commission through
strategic [36] that it may turn out to be very difficult to the Coordination Action nanoICT (ICT-CSA-2007-
trigger an open discussion about packaging. 216165).
6. Conclusion 7. References
The first mono-molecular nanoICT Working Group [1] C. Joachim, Nanotechnology, 13, R1 (2002).
seminar was the occasion to cluster in a very Cartesian
[2] A. Aviram and M. Ratner, Chem. Phys. Lett., 29, 277 (1974).
way all the 4 major issues under grounded in the mono-
molecular approach of molecular electronics. In all areas
[3] C. Joachim, J. Gimzewski, R.R. Schlittler et C. Chavy,
of technology, the construction of a complex system by
Phys. Rev. Lett., 74, 2102 (1995).
assembling elementary pieces or devices leads to a
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Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities
[4] C. Joachim, J.K. Gimzewski and A. Aviram, Nature, 569 (2008).
408, 541 (2000).
[21] R. Luthi, R.R. Schlittler, R. Berger, P. Vettiger, M. E.
[5] M. B. Haider, J.L.Pitters, G.A. Dilabio, L. Livadaru, J. Y. Welland and J.K. Gimzewski, Appl. Phys. Lett., 75, 1314
Mutus and R.A. Wolkow, Phys. Rev. Lett., 102, 046805 (1999).
(2009).
[22] Thet Naing Tun, Ma Han Thu Lwin, Hui Hui Kim, N.
[6] AJ Mayne, D. Reidel, G. Comtet and G. Dujardin, Prog. Chandrasekhar and C. Joachim, Nanotechnology, 18, 335301
Surf. Sci., 81, 1 (2006). (2007).
[7] S. Ami, M. Hliwa and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett., 367, [23] F. Morecsco, L. Gross, M. Alemani, K.H. Rieder, H. Tang,
662 (2003). A. Gourdon and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. Lett., 91, 036601
(2003).
[8] C. Venegas, T. Zambelli, S. Gauthier, A. Gourdon, C.
Barthes, S. Stojkovic, and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett. 450, [24] S. Stojkovic, C. Joachim, L. Grill and F. Moresco, Chem.
107 (2007). See also: J. Repp, G. Meyer, S. Stojkovic, A. Phys. Lett., 408, 134 (2005).
Gourdon and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. Lett., 94, 026803
(2005). [25] W. Schockley, Electrons and holes in semiconductors,
(D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1950).
[9] I. Duchemin and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett., 406, 167
(2005). [26] JianShu Yang, Deng Jie, N Chandrasekhar and C.
Joachim, Jour. Vac. Sci. Tech.B, 25, 1694 (2007).
[10] P.G. Plva, G.A. Dilabio, J.L. Pitters, J. Zikovsky, M.
Rezeq, S. Dogel, W.A.Hofer and B. Wolkow, Nature, 435, [27] H.M. Guo, D. Martrou, T. Zambelli, J. Polesel-Marie, A.
658 (2005). M. Lastapis, M. Martin, D. Riedel, L. Hellner, G. Piednoir, E. Dujardin, S. Gauthier, MAF van der Bogeert, L.M.
Comtet and G. Dujardin Science, 308, 1000 (2005). Doeswijk and J. Brugger, Appl. Phys. Lett., 90, 0931 (2007).
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and C. Joachim, NanoLett., 5, 859 (2005). and C. Joachim, Review of Scientific Instruments, 71, 2087
(2000).
[12] C. Kerguelis, J.P. Bourgoin, J.P. Pallacin, D. Esteve, C.
Urbina, M. Magoga and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. B, 59, 12505 [29] S. Hosoki, S. Hosoka and T. Hasegawa, Appl. Surf. Sci.,
(1999). 60/61, 643 (1992).
[13] A. Aviram, C. Joachim and M. Pomerantz, Chem. Phys. [30] K.S. Yong, D.M. Oltavaro, I. Duchemin, M. Saeys and C.
Lett. 146, 490 (1988). Joachim, Phys. Rev. B, 77, 205429 (2008).
[14] A. Yazdani, D.M. Eigler and N.D. Lang, Science, 272, 1921 [31] R.K. Tiwari, J. Yang, M. Saeys and C. Joachim, Surf. Sci.,
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[1 V. Langlais, R.R. Schlittler, H. Tang, A. Gourdon, C.
5] [32] L. Lafferentz, F. Ample, H. Yu, S. Hecht, C. Joachim and
Joachim et J.K. Gimzewski, Phys. Rev. Lett., 83,2809 (1999). L. Grill, Science, in press (2009).
[16] D. Eigler and E. Schweizer, Nature, 344, 524 (1990). [33] J.F. Dayen, A. Mahmoud, D.S. Golubov, I. Roch-Jeune, P.
Salles and E. Dujardin, Small, 4, 716 (2008).
[17] T.A. Jung, R.R. Schlittler, J.K. Gimzewski, H. Tang, et C.
Joachim, Science, 271, 181 (1996). [34] T. Zambelli, Y. Boutayeb, F. Gayral, J. Lagoute, N.K.
Girdhar, A. Gourdon, S. Gauthier, M.T. Blanco, J.C.
[18] MSM Saifullah, T. Ondarcuhu, D.F. Koltsov, C. Joachim Chambon and J.P. Sauvage, Int. Journ. Nanoscience, 3, 230
and M. Welland Nanotechnology, 13, 659 (2002). (2004).
[19] O. Cacciolati, C. Joachim, J.P. Martinez and F. Carsenac, [35] L. Grill, M. Dyer, L. Lafferentz, M. Persson, M.V.Peters
Int. Jour. Nanoscience, 3, 233 (2004). and S. Hecht, Nature Nano, 2, 687 (2007).
[20] S.M. Wu, M.T. Gonzales, R. Huber, S. Grunder, M. [36] Thet Naing Tun , C. Joachim, and N. Chandrasekhar
Mayor, C. Schonenberger and M. Calame, Nature Nano., 3, IMRE Patent 200630 filled in 2007.
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
3.5 Nanoelectromechanical Systems NEMS appeared following the so-called “top-down
(NEMS) approach”. In parallel, the development of
nanofabrication “bottom-up approaches”, based on
materials growth or self-assembly, has constituted
Guillermo Villanueva1, Julien Arcamone2, Gabriel
another alternative to fabricate NEMS.
Abadal3, Liviu Nicu4, Francesc Pérez-Murano5,
Herre Van der Zant6, Philippe Andreucci2,
NEMS are characterized by small dimensions, which
Christofer Hierold7 and Juergen Brugger1
determine the devices functionality. However, it is
1 sometimes difficult to decide if a given device can be
Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de
defined as a NEMS or not. Therefore, we consider
Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne (Switzerland).
necessary to establish a definition for the term in this
2 paper.
CEA-LETI MINATEC, 17 rue des Martyrs, F-38054 Grenoble
(France).
1.I Definition
3
Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica, Universitat
Nano Electro Mechanical System (NEMS) is a system:
Autònoma deBarcelona (UAB), ETSE (Edif ici Q). Campus
UAB 08193-Bellaterra (Spain).
- which involves electronic and mechanical elements
4
CNRS-LAAS, 7 avenue du Colonel Roche, F-31077 Toulouse - whose main functionality is based on at least a
(France). mechanical degree of freedom
5
IMB-CNM (CSIC), E-08193 Bellaterra (Spain). - whose size has the following characteristics:
• at least two out of its three dimensions are below
6
Kavli Institue of Nanoscience, Delft University of 1 μm OR
Technology, Delft(The Netherlands).
• its functionality is given by a thin layer smaller than
7
Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH 10 nm
Zurich CH-8092 (Switzerland). - which can include:
1. Introduction • actuation
• signal acquisition (sensing)
Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) have been
studied and developed for more than 3 decades [1]. • signal processing
They bring together silicon-based microelectronics with • vehicles for performing chemical, biochemical
micro-machining technology, making possible the reactions and bioelectrical interactions
realization of complete systems-on-a-chip. The
fundamental and characteristic element on every MEMS
is a mechanical (movable) component with dimensions 1.2. Interest
ranging from few microns up to millimeters in some
cases. These system shave been proven to be very useful Since they first appeared in the literature [8, 9], several
for a plethora of different applications, e.g. ink-jet heads groups all around the world have been actively
for printers [2], accelerometers for automotive contributing in the field of NEMS. Besides the possibility
applications [3], micromirrors for beam splitting [4], of increased device density, the growing activity in the
chemical sensors [5], etc. Following the evolution of field has been mainly motivated by the benefits that
microfabrication technologies for integrated circuits, these systems provide.
pushing downwards the resolution limits, the dimensions
of the mechanical components in MEMS were also Among the interesting properties of NEMS, many can
reduced below 1 μm, yielding the first Nano Electro be explained using scaling laws. Let us consider a
Mechanical Systems (NEMS) [6, 7]. This is the way mechanical device and scale down its three dimensions:
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
thickness (t), width (w) and length (L). The effect of a more applied point of view, nanomechanical
scaling on important parameters can be illustrated resonators have been used for (bio)chemical detection
through simple formulas given in Table 1. [20] and it has already been possible to detect a single
virus [21]. However, one of the most promising
applications is still under development and this is the
“Single-Molecule Mass Spectrometry (NEMS-MS)” [11].
Regarding force sensing, the lower resolution limit
attained by a NEMS up to date is within the
femtonewton range at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure (Figure 1.iii, [22]). However, the
geometries that are proved to be more sensitive to
force are much longer than standard NEMS [23, 24] and
in some cases the search for higher measurement
stability requires the systems to be much thicker [25-
27]. Using those systems, a single base-mismatch in
between two different DNA-strands of 18 bases has
been detected [25] and also, as shown in Figure 1.iv [28],
Table 1. Table summarizing how the properties of a me- label-free detection of interferon-induced genes has
chanical system scale down with the reduction of its dimen- been achieved.
sions [10].
i
Therefore, NEMS offer [11] fundamental resonance
frequencies in the microwaves [12], high mechanical quality
factors [13], active masses in the femtograms (1 fg = 10-15g)
[14, 1 heat capacities below the yoctojoule (1 yJ = 10-24J)
5],
[16, 17], ultra-low operating power level (for 1 device 1
pW = 10-12W) [1 etc. All these properties make NEMS
1],
interesting for a series of different applications because
they improve previous MEMS devices functionalities by
orders of magnitude.
ii
2. Applications
As it can be understood from the discussion above, the
natural applications of NEMS can be mainly divided into
three different groups: sensors, electronics (signal pro-
cessing) and new tools for fundamental studies.
2.1. Sensors
Mass and force sensors have been the most studied
because they allow the detection of different species iii
after proper connection to chemistry/biology by means
of proper functionalization. For mass sensing, the race
has been pushing down the limits of detection passing
through the attogram (1 ag = 10-18g) [14, 18], the
zeptogram (1 zg = 10-21g) (Figure 1.i, [15]) and finally
ending with the detection of a single individual atom
using a carbon nanotube (CNT) (Figure 1.ii, [19]). From
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
Bulk Acoustic Resonators (BAR), Surface Acoustic
iv
Wave (SAW), metal contact switches, etc.) and
“Beyond CMOS” that basically involves NEMS
integration with CMOS.
The main advantage to include mechanical parts (both
NEMS and MEMS) in circuits is on one hand, that the
quality factors of mechanical oscillators are much higher
than of electrical oscillators. This is highly demanded for
filtering and communication applications [30, 31] and
Figure 1. i) Resonance frequency shift of a nanosized free- even more taking into account that they can be easily
standing beam while N2 molecules are deposited on the tuned [32, 33]. On the other hand, it is possible to build
structure in an “on/off ” conf iguration. The device is ope- mechanical transistors and diodes [34] with a much
rated at cryogenic temperatures. Each step in the data co- lower power consumption when they are inactive [35].
rresponds to approximately a 100 zg mass (2000 N2 When moving into the NEMS regime [36, 37] (Figure
molecules). The root mean square frequency fluctuations of 2.i), the obvious advantage of a higher integration allows
the system correspond to a mass resolution of 20 zg for the more density for the devices, their high frequencies
1 s averaging time employed. Extracted from [15]. increase the circuit speed and their ultra-low operating
power reduce the power consumption when the devices
ii) Resonance frequency shift of a CNT-based nanomecha- are active. As a consequence, a reduction in power
nical resonator as a function of time while gold atoms are consumption keeping a fast behaviour is accomplished
being deposited in an “on/off ” conf iguration. The device is by integrating NEMS with CMOS.
operated at room temperature, and presents a mass sensi-
tivity of 1.3•10-25 kg/Hz1/2, i.e. 0.40 gold atoms•Hz-1/2. Ex- i (a)
tracted from [19].
iii) Output voltage noise spectrum a 127 MHz self-sensing
undriven cantilever measured at 1 atm and 300 K (black
trace). A d.c. bias of 100 mV is used during the measure-
ment. The red line is a Lorentzian f it to thermomechanical
noise combined with uncorrelated white background noise. i (b)
Off-resonance, the displacement sensitivity attained is 39
fm/Hz-1/2. Extracted from [22].
iv) Label-free gene fishing of an interferon-induced gene. The
red line (ME15+) indicates the response of the cantilever co-
ated with an interferon-a-sensitive human 1-8U gene frag-
ment. The black line represents the differential mechanical i (c)
response of the cantilever sensitized with the human aldo-
lase A oligonucleotide. Extracted from [28].
2.2. Electronics
The trends in Integrated Circuits (IC) technology [29]
can be divided into three groups: “More Moore”
(referring to the continuous reduction of dimensions of
MOS transistors with classical gate/source/drain
architecture), “More than Moore” (including a series of
additions to current and future CMOS technologies like
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
ii i
ii
Figure 2. i) Fabrication and modeling of a lateral resonant
gate FET (NEMS-FET). (a) ID (VG) characteristics and (b)
transconductance gM(VD) of the transistor shown in a SEM
micrograph in (c). Extracted from [37].
ii) Optical picture and SEM micrograph zoom of a micro fa-
bricated 32x32=1024 2D cantilever array chip from IBM Zü-
rich. It has been designed for ultrahigh-density, high-speed
data storage applications using thermomechanical writing
and readout in thin polymer f ilm storage media. Extracted
from [38].
A different approach is the one pursued by IBM within
the Millipede project (Figure 2.ii, [38-42]) in which an
array of small scanning probes is used to read and write
bits of information from a substrate (data storage).
2.3. Fundamental studies
Another group of applications have a more fundamental
origin. By their properties, NEMS constitute themselves
new tools for scientific purposes. They can help in
exploring scientific phenomena previously unobservable Figure 3. i) Nanometer-scale charge detector. The inset sche-
by other means. In particular, the fact that NEMS with matically depicts its principal components: torsional me-
given dimensions are mesoscopic systems could lead to chanical resonator, detection electrode, and gate electrode
the observation of quantum effects. used to couple charge to the mechanical element. In this de-
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
vice the fundamental resonance frequency of the structure i
is 2.61 MHz, with a quality factor measured to be Q=6500.
A charge sensitivity of 0.1 e/Hz1/2 is achieved, with a thermal
noise limit of the order of 10-6 e/Hz1/2 comparable with
charge detection capabilities of cryogenic single-electron
transistors, but responding at higher temperatures (>4.2 K)
and over a larger bandwidth than other techniques. Extrac-
ted from [43].
ii) Thermal conductance data for a fabricated mesoscopic
phonon system consisting in a free-standing structure. A
quantized limiting value for the thermal conductance, Gth, at
very low temperatures is observed at 16 occupied modes,
16 g0. For temperatures above Tco=0.8K, a cubic power-law
behavior is observed, consistent with a mean free path of
0.9 μm. For temperatures below Tco, a saturation in Gth is
observed at a value near the expected quantum of thermal
conductance for phonon transport in a ballistic, one-dimen-
sional channel: at low temperatures, Gth approaches a ma- ii
ximum value of , the universal quantum of ther-
mal conductance. Extracted from [17].
Initially, NEMS were aimed as an instrument to
determine the quantum for the electrical (Figure 3.i,
[43]) and thermal conductance (Figure 3.ii, [17, 44-46]).
Currently, quantum electromechanical systems (QEMS)
are aimed [47-52] which could represent a new source
of experiments and a number of applications that
cannot be envisaged at the moment.
In the last years a quite complete theory on cavity
optomechanics has been developed which has been
accompanied by several experiments demonstrating
cooling of resonators down to their ground level by
dynamical backaction (Figure 4.i, [53-57]). An additional
topic of extreme interest is the study of non-linear [58,
59] and/or complex systems [59-63], which can yield
applications of localized energy modes [64, 65], as can
Figure 4. i) Cooling of a 58 MHz micromechanical resona-
be a selectivity increase [66, 67], or directly the
tor from room temperature to 11 K is demonstrated using ca-
oscillators synchronization (Figure 4.ii, [68]).
vity enhanced radiation pressure. (a) Normalized, measured
noise spectra around the mechanical resonance frequency
There are more examples on the use of NEMS as new
and varying power (0.25, 0.75, 1.25, and 1.75 mW). The ef-
tools for science: in [69], a specific type of NEMS mass
fective temperatures were inferred using mechanical dam-
sensor serves as transduction platform for the study of
ping, with the lowest attained temperature being 11 K. (b)
physical-chemical phenomena which are currently
Increase in the linewidth (damping) of the 57.8 MHz mode
unobservable with any other tool. In [70], it is shown
as a function of launched power, exhibiting the expected li-
that Casimir forces, which are very difficult to observe
near behavior. (c) Physical origin of the observed cooling me-
experimentally, cannot be neglected anymore in very
chanism due to the asymmetry in the motional sidebands.
small NEMS and could be experimentally observed.
Extracted from [56].
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
ii) SEM micrograph of the fabricated device (A) consisting generated in a perfect defectless crystal and losses due
in two parallel resonating beams whose movement is recor- to impurities and/or defects in the bulk crystal lattice
ded by magnetomotive detection technique and an additio- structure and in surfaces. Within the former group,
nal transversal beam coupling both oscillations. (B) Thermo Elastic Damping (TED) [79] and Akhiezer effect
Synchronization at subharmonic driving. A signal generator [80] are setting a top limit for the Q. Surface defects
drives one beam (at frequencies close to fres/2), and the res- are shown to be much more important than bulk ones
ponse of the second beam is measured with a spectrum as suggested by the quality factor decrease when
analyzer (at fres). The contours represent the response in increasing the surface to volume ratio [11, 81]. In
dBm. The synchronized regions become visible in the con- addition, experiments led in ultra high vacuum (UHV)
tour plots when the response exceeds the noise level of −136 have shown that surface oxides, defects and adsorbates
dBm. One of the beams is driven at a frequency f0/n while increase energy dissipation but, on the opposite,
the response of the second beam is recorded. This could be annealing under UHV increased the Q in one order of
fundamentally important to neurocomputing with mechani- magnitude [71, 82, 83].
cal oscillator networks and nanomechanical signal proces-
sing for microwave communication. Extracted from [68]. More recently, however, Craighead’s group has shown
that it is possible to increase the quality factor of a
3. Challenges doubly clamped beam by increasing the tensile stress of
its material (Figure 5, [84, 85]), in this case silicon
The wide range of applications and the huge interest of nitride. Moreover, silicon nitride has additional
NEMS have been demonstrated up to now. However, advantages such as chemical inertness (difficult to
together with the plethora of interesting properties, a oxidize) and high robustness (difficult to break).
multitude of questions and challenges arise and
constitute hot topics in NEMS research.
3.1. High Quality factor
Achieving a high quality factor in a NEMS is of great
importance because it means low energy dissipation,
higher sensitivity to external forces, reduction of the
minimum operating power level, etc.
The energy losses of a resonator have internal and
external sources [71, 72]. The latter includes losses due
to gas damping, clamping losses and coupling losses
related to the transducing scheme. Air damping affects
the vibration because the mechanical structure must
displace some material in order to perform its
movement. That is the reason why this contribution
decreases when the pressure decreases [73]. In addition,
a resonator can lose energy via acoustic coupling to its
clamps [74], which can be minimized by engineering
them, e.g. free-free beams present higher quality factors
than clamped-clamped [75, 76] ones. The last
contribution to the external losses can come from the
transducers, so this contribution will be different
depending on the read-out technique and it has to be
studied individually as it has been done for magneto-
motive detection [77] or for SET-based detection [78].
Internal losses can also be classified in two groups: losses
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
Figure 5. Results of added stress on low-stress silicon nitride optical detection (laser beam deflection,
beams. A 5μm x 500nm x 110nm device with initial f and Q interferometry…) and electrical detection (capacitive,
of 14.6 MHz and 1200 respectively was stretched to an in- piezoresistive, piezoelectric, gate effect…). However,
creased f and Q of 35.5 MHz and 6700. A 10μm x 1 μm x when moving down to NEMS, the transduction
110nm device, with an initial f and Q of 8.6 MHz and 3400, techniques are not as efficient because of the size
was stretched to an increased f and Q of 23.8 MHz and reduction [86]. The optimal transduction technique
23000. The arrows indicate the direction of the experiments should present actuation and read-out that strongly
in which stress was added to increase both frequency and interact with the mechanical element but with really weak
quality factor. Extracted from [85]. couplings between each other, a large operation
bandwidth and ultrahigh sensitivity [11].
3.2. Modeling
Optical detection is affected by diffraction effects, which
On the modeling side, the major issues involve multi- limit the smallest size of the mechanical device. Some
scale problems, inclusion of quantum effects and authors have shown successful extension of Michelson or
incorporating the electric environment on individual Fabry-Pérot interferometers into the NEMS domain [87],
device models (i.e. circuit modeling). The first problem but the technique however is mainly convenient for
is exemplified by “sticking” which is anatomic scale NEMS-based force sensors (or surface stress) because
phenomenon with a typical timescale in the femtosecond their sizes are larger than the wavelength of the laser. On
range (1 fs = 10-15s): the typical operational time scale of the other hand, optical actuation by means of
a device is in the nanosecond range (1 ns = 10-9s), and photothermal effect or radiation pressure has been
incorporating these two in a secure way is currently demonstrated [88-90], which makes this technique more
undoable from the point of view of simulation time. Even interesting provided that a fully integrated scheme is
on a larger length scale, there are problems with the large accomplished.
fields in the small length scales: classical expressions such
as Q2/2C are meaningless if C is too small. In addition, A transduction scheme that behaves properly for NEMS,
the basic theory and models only stand for simple beams both for detection and actuation is the magnetomotive
or cantilevers. For more complex geometries, only Finite technique [77], which involves the application of an
Element Modeling (FEM) is available. external magnetic field and an AC current through the
mechanical device. Therefore a Lorentz force arises,
Dissipation mechanisms, electro/mechanical modeling which will drive the mechanical element and, in addition,
and circuit architecture modeling are also important generates an electromotive force in the circuit that can
issues that need to be addressed and solved. be transduced as a read-out voltage. Highly sensitive
Finally, it would also be interesting to incorporate measurements with very low noise have been made using
quantum effects in device models (e.g. describing the this technique, e.g. zeptogram detection [15], hydrogen
coupling between two closely-located nanoscale objects detection [91] and modes synchronization [68]. However,
simply through capacitances is certainly incorrect but the there are major drawbacks for this technique: (i) it
only way to do it currently). cannot be integrated and (ii) very low temperatures and
very high magnetic fields are required.
3.3. Transduction in the nanoscale
Piezoresistive detection is affected by the reduction of
Actuation and detection (transduction) are two of the the resistors dimensions, which implies a huge resistance,
major issues when considering a mechanical system. By meaning high Johnson noise and high losses by
transduction we refer to the conversion of one type of nonmatching impedance. This issue is more important if
energy to another type, e.g. converting the mechanical we take into account that the piezoresistivity response of
energy of an oscillator into an electronic signal that can be Si or Ge decreases with dopants concentration [92].
interpreted by subsequent circuitry. However, high resolution measurements have been
performed using resonating piezoresistive structures
Transduction has already been a “hot spot” for MEMS with silicon resistors [23, 93]. It was at the beginning of
technology and different techniques became popular, e.g. 2007 when Roukes’group published some results which
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
meant a cornerstone for this type of detection [22], resonators, as has been recently demonstrated [104] by
using metallic resistors with a very low piezoresistive Roukes group.
coefficient as transducers. In this case they were
overcoming the initial issue of a low sensitivity with an Apart from the aforementioned techniques, it is possible
ultra low noise and proper matching impedance, finally to find several other techniques that are less
yielding an unprecedented resolution for a NEMS conventional but that have proven to be useful or
operating at room temperature and atmospheric interesting in some cases and whose potential in some
pressure. On the other hand, elec-trothermal actuation cases is still unknown. Atomic Force Microscope has
using small metallic resistors has also been been used to detect the vibration amplitude of some
demonstrated [94] up to several MHz (1 MHz = 106Hz) systems with an unprecedented spatial resolution [105-
thanks to the small thermal mass of these devices. 108], although this is mainly limited to research samples.
Detection of motion based on tunneling effect has also
However, this technique features a major drawback in been used in many cases, in some cases pursuing
the sense that the resulting power dissipation is high and monolithic integration [109] and in some other cases
locally elevates the temperature which can be just seeking for the best transduction technique. This
problematic for mass sensing and other applications. In has been particularly successful in the case of CNTs,
forthcoming years, very small structures may feature where a nanotube-radio has been built [110] and with
novel interesting properties that could result in which the detection of a single gold atom has been
improved transduction schemes [95], as it recently performed [19]. As for the actuation, an alternative
happened for Si nanowires (Si-NWs, below 200 nm technique could be Kelvin polarization force [111], which
diameter) and their newly discovered giant can be used on insulating materials, unlike electrostatic
piezoresistive effect [96]. actuation.
Capacitive transduction, which is really convenient for 3.4. Fabrication
MEMS as it allows a simple two ports detection and
actuation scheme, is really affected by the size As it has already been introduced, two different
reduction, mainly because the dynamical capacitance approaches can be chosen for NEMS fabrication, i.e.
changes, i.e. changes in the capacitance due to the top-downand bottom-up. In the first case, there are
motion of the resonator, are very low (10-18F) and three basic fabrication steps: the deposition of material
therefore are obscured by parasitic capacitances, that (easy to go for thin layers down to 10-20 nm), the
are some orders of magnitude higher. Some specialized removal of material (by anisotropic Reactive Ion Etching,
measurement techniques have been developed [13, 97- RIE, whose loss of lateral dimensions can be minimized
99] in order to cancel the effect of those parasitic down to the same amount of 10-20 nm) and the
capacitances. Some other solutions involve the use of definition of the zones where the material is going to
geometries allowing high capacitive coupling but still be deposited and/or removed. This last step is called
preserving NEMS properties [100] or using the lithography and the most standard isoptical UV. Due to
resonator not only as a capacitor’s plate but also as, e.g. diffraction effects and to other particular considerations
the gate of a MOS transistor [35, 37]. Monotlihic of each mask aligner, the lateral resolution achieved
integration of capacitive NEMS with CMOS circuitry using this technique can barely reach 1 μm.
greatly enhances the detection efficiency [101,102].
Therefore, as soon as one of the lateral dimensions of
Less effort has been devoted to piezoelectric the structure goes into the submicrometer range,
transduction, but it has also been explored both for complications arise because nano-lithographic processes
sensing and actuating NEMS. The read-out is based on are needed. These lithographic processes (see Figure 6)
the measurement of the polarization fields caused by can be either serial (more flexible) or parallel (higher
the vibration of the lever. Those changes in polarization through-put). Different examples can be EBL [6, 7],
can be detected by working at the location where the Direct Laser Writing lithography [112], AFM lithography
variation is the largest as the gate of a transistor [103]. [113], etc. For the serial approach and DUV lithography
In addition, this technique can be used to drive [36, 37], NIL [114], nano-Stencil lithography [115], etc.,
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
for the parallel approach. Each of the lithographic present, the growth of the CNTs [116] or the NWs [117-
processes mentioned present advantages and 119] being subsequently performed. The second one
disadvantages which are discussed in detail here. involves the growth of the nano-elements in a separate
However, if an eventual mass production is pursued, substrate and then, with the use of electrical fields,
serial processes should be discarded. placing them in between two electrodes [120-122].
In fact, the major challenge from the fabrication point of 3.5. System Integration
view is not the selection of the optimum lithographic
process but the achievement of a reproducible and Maybe the most important issue that NEMS are facing
stable fabrication process with a fair control of the final now and will be facing in the near future is how to turn
mechanical properties of the fabricated devices. As an these promising devices into effective, real systems.
example of how difficult it can be to attain such Most of the works we have referenced up to now can
reproducibility, one can take the example of the most be considered as handcrafted and just facing the
controlled fabrication processes, i.e. CMOS circuitry applications from a research point of view. There are
fabrication. In this case, transistors and circuits are still a lot of steps to overcome in order to make these
generally working in a digital mode and therefore two ‘stand-alone’resonators (with discrete electronics
states only have to be distinguished (0 or 1), and around them) evolve towards complete systems that can
consequently there is a relatively large tolerance with be produced in masse for an eventual commercialized
the individual properties of each transistor. On the application. Integration of NEMS with CMOS seems to
other hand, a very small variation in the length of a be one of the most promising approaches. One
cantilever, e.g. 5 %, would become a variation of the approach can consist inusing CMOS steps to define the
resonant frequency of a 10%, which might result resonators and at the end finishing with a post-
unacceptable in some applications. processing step to release the mechanical structures [36,
37, 124].
Industrial foundries are generally reluctant to this so-
called In-IC approach since it can perturb the stability
and the ‘cleanliness’ of the CMOS process. However, in
a near future, this method could progressively become
more applicable because of the increasing convergence
between nano-transistors and NEMS in terms of size.
Figure 6. Scheme taken from [123] summarizing the diffe-
rent lithographic techniques for nano-patterning def inition.
For the bottom up approach the aforementioned
problems also apply in some cases, as for example the
growth of nanowires or nanotubes out of catalytic Figure 7. Picture of the f irst 200 mm wafer fabricated within
nanoparticles whose size must be controlled prior to the “Alliance for NEMS-VLSI” [125]. In one single wafer, 2.5
growth. However, the main problem still remains the million NEMS are included, which represents more than the
integration of the nanostructures with connections to total amount of NEMS fabricated during the previous 15
the macro-world or even circuitry. Two approaches are years. The process consists in a 4 lithographic levels with a
followed to accomplish this integration. The first one hybrid DUV and EBL approach and all the devices present
involves the deposition of the catalytic particles on a thermoelectric actuation and piezoresistive detection [22,
substrate where the circuits (or similar) are already 94]. Extracted from [126].
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
The other approach consists in post-processing pre- [3] L.M. Roylance and J.B. Angell, "Batch-Fabricated
fabricated CMOS substrates in order to fully define the Silicon Accelerometer", Ieee Transactions on Electron
mechanical structures [113, 115]: this solution can be Devices, 1979,26(12), pp. 1911-1917.
useful to reduce fabrication costs if an advanced CMOS
is not available or required. [4] G. Nasserbakht, Texas Instruments Incorporated,
1997, Patent number: US5658063.
Up to now, the biggest step for the integration of NEMS
as a system has been achieved by the collaboration [5] H.P. Lang, R. Berger, F. Battiston, J.P. Ramseyer, E.
between LETI-CEA in France and the California Institute Meyer,C. Andreoli, J. Brugger, P. Vettiger, M. Despont,
of Technology (Caltech) in the US [125, 126] which are T. Mezzacasa, L.Scandella, H.J. Guntherodt, C. Gerber,
directly aiming at the large integration of NEMS into a and J.K. Gimzewski, "A chemical sensor based on a
system (Figure 7). micromechanical cantilever array for the identification
of gases and vapors", Applied Physics Materials Science
4. Conclusions & Processing, 1998, 66, pp. S61-S64.
We have shown that NEMS have unique and useful [6] A.N. Cleland and M.L. Roukes, "Fabrication of high
properties that make them suitable for a plethora of frequency nanometer scale mechanical resonators from
different applications in various fields, ranging from bulk Si crystals", Applied Physics Letters, 1996, 69(18),
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) pp. 2653-2655.
until bio-chemical detection, including some applications
that are not yet known but that for sure will emerge [7] D.W. Carr and H.G. Craighead, "Fabrication of
together with the development of these systems. They nanoelectromechanical systems in single crystal silicon
have the potential to become a revolution for the using silicon on insulator substrates and electron beam
market in the same way that MEMS have caused an lithography", Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology
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Acknowledgements
[10] M.L. Roukes, "NEMS: ...some questions", in OMNT
The authors would like to acknowledge financial Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008.
contribution from the European Commission through
the Coordination Action nanoICT (ICT-CSA-2007- [11] K.L. Ekinci and M.L. Roukes,
216165). We also would like to thank the input provided "Nanoelectromechanical systems", Review of Scientific
by the “Observatoire des Micro et Nano-Technologies” Instruments, 2005, 76(6), pp.061101 - 061113.
(OMNT) organization.
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Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
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NEMS, Grenoble,2008. Haberle, C. Hagleitner,D. Jubin, M.A. Lantz, A. Pantazi,
H. Pozidis, H. Rothuizen, A.Sebastian, R. Stutz, P.
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bringing new MEMS functionality into solid-state MOS Microelectronic Engineering, 2006, 83(4-9), pp.1692-
transistor", IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting 1697.
2005, Technical Digest, 2005, pp. 1075-10771089.
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Perez-Murano, J. Fraxedas, J. Esteve, and N. Barniol, 160-162.
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technology with attogram resolution in air conditions", [44] W. Fon, K.C. Schwab, J.M. Worlock, and M.L.
Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 91(1), pp. 13501 - 13503. Roukes, "Phonon scattering mechanisms in suspended
nanostructures from 4 to 40 K", Physical Review B,
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Andreucci,B. Reig, and P. Robert, "Compact and explicit
physical model for lateral metal-oxide-semiconductor [45] K. Schwab, J.L. Arlett, J.M. Worlock, and M.L.
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system based resonant gate", Applied Physics Letters, quantum channels", Physica E-Low-Dimensional Systems
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Haberle, M. Lutwyche, H. Rothuizen, R. Stutz, R. and M.L.Roukes, "Quantized thermal conductance:
Widmer, G. Binnig, H.Rohrer, and P. Vettiger, "VLSI- measurements in nanostructures", Physica B, 2000,
NEMS chip for parallel AFM data storage", Sensors and 280(1-4), pp. 458-459.
Actuators a-Physical, 2000, 80(2), pp.100-107.
[47] K. Schwab, "Quantum physics - Information on
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Drechsler,W. Haberle, M. Lutwyche, H. Rothuizen, R.
Stutz, R. Widmer,and G. Binnig, ""Millipede" - An [48] K.C. Schwab and M.L. Roukes, "Putting mechanics
ultrahigh density, high-data-rate AFM data storage into quantum mechanics", Physics Today, 2005, 58(7),
system", Precision Engineering, Nanotechnology, Vol 1, pp. 36-42.
Proceedings, 1999, pp. 482-485545.
[49] W.K. Hensinger, D.W. Utami, H.S. Goan, K.
[40] P. Vettiger, J. Brugger, M. Despont, U. Drechsler, Schwab, C.Monroe, and G.J. Milburn, "Ion trap
U. Durig, W. Haberle, M. Lutwyche, H. Rothuizen, R. transducers for quantum electromechanical oscillators",
Stutz, R. Widmer, and G. Binnig, "Ultrahigh density, Physical Review A, 2005, 72(4),pp. 41405-41408.
high-data-rate NEMS-based AFM data storage system",
Microelectronic Engineering, 1999, 46(1-4), pp. 11-17. [50] R. Ruskov, K. Schwab, and A.N. Korotkov,
"Squeezing of a nanomechanical resonator by quantum
[41] M. Lutwyche, C. Andreoli, G. Binnig, J. Brugger, nondemolition measurement and feedback", Physical
U.Drechsler, W. Haberle, H. Rohrer, H. Rothuizen, P. Review B, 2005, 71(23), pp.235407-235425.
Vettiger, G.Yaralioglu, and C. Quate, "5X5 2D AFM
112 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nanoictresearchagenda2011-111010063448-phpapp02/85/nanoICT-Strategic-Research-Agenda-113-320.jpg)
![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
[51] R. Ruskov, K. Schwab, and A.N. Korotkov, [61] M.C. Cross, A. Zumdieck, R. Lifshitz, and J.L.
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nanomechanical resonator", IeeeTransactions on pulling", Physical Review Letters, 2004, 93(22), pp.
Nanotechnology, 2005, 4(1), pp. 132-140. 224101-224104.
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systems",Physics Reports-Review Section of Physics R.B.Reichenbach, J.M. Parpia, and B.H. Houston, "Two-
Letters, 2004,395(3), pp. 159-222. dimensional array of coupled nanomechanical
resonators", Applied Physics Letters, 2006, 88(14).
[53] T.J. Kippenberg and K.J. Vahala, "Cavity
optomechanics:Back-action at the mesoscale", Science, [63] E. Buks and M.L. Roukes, "Electrically tunable
2008, 321(5893), pp.1172-1176. collective response in a coupled micromechanical array",
Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2002,
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mechanics", Optics Express, 2007, 15(25), pp.
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"Colloquium: Nonlinear energy localization and its
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Kippenberg,"Theory of ground state cooling of a Reviews of Modern Physics, 2006,78(1), pp. 137-157.
mechanical oscillator using dynamical backaction",
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D.A.Czaplewski, and H.G. Craighead, "Observation of
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Physical Review Letters, 2006, 97(24), pp. 243905-
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"Highlysensitive mass detection and identification using
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
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Microelectromechanical Systems, 2000, 9(1), pp. 117-125. J.M.Parpia, "Measurement of mechanical resonance and
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in submicrometer thick single-crystal silicon cantilevers",
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pp. 775-783. dependence of energy dissipation in resonating silicon
cantilevers in ultrahigh vacuum", Applied Physics Letters,
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in air", Journal of Applied Physics, 2004, 96(7), pp. 3933- Esashi,"Mechanical energy dissipation of multiwalled
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high tensile stress", Journal of Applied Physics, 2006,
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Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2000, 9(3), [85] S.S. Verbridge, D.F. Shapiro, H.G. Craighead, and
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Mehregany,and M.L. Roukes, "Free-free beam silicon 2007, 7(6), pp. 1728-1735.
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tuning of nanomechanical resonators using a single-
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Vahala, "Radiation - pressure-driven micro-mechanical
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
oscillator", Optics Express, 2005, 13(14), pp. 5293-5301. Buchaillot, and A.M. lonescu. "Measurement of Nano-
Displacement Based on In-Plane Suspended-Gate
[90] B. Ilic, S. Krylov, K. Aubin, R. Reichenbach, and MOSFET Detection Compatible with a Front-End CMOS
H.G.Craighead, "Optical excitation of Process", in IEEE International Solid-State Circuits
nanoelectromechanical oscillators", Applied Physics Conference (ISSCC), 2008, pp. 332-617.
Letters, 2005, 86(19), pp. 193114-193116.
[100] J. Arcamone, G. Rius, G. Abadal, J. Teva, N.
[91] X.M.H. Huang, M. Manolidis, S.C. Jun, and J. Barniol, andF. Perez-Murano, "Micro/nanomechanical
Hone,"Nanomechanical hydrogen sensing", Applied resonators for distributed mass sensing with capacitive
Physics Letters,2005, 86(14), pp. 143104-143106. detection", Microelectronic Engineering, 2006, 83(4-9),
pp. 1216-1220.
[92] Y. Kanda, "A Graphical Representation of the
Piezoresistance Coefficients in Silicon", Ieee Transactions [101] J. Arcamone, B. Misischi, F. Serra-Graells, M.A.F.
on Electron Devices, 1982, 29(1), pp. 64-70. van den Boogaart, J. Brugger, F. Torres, G. Abadal, N.
Barniol, and F.Perez-Murano, "A compact and low-power
[93] I. Bargatin, E.B. Myers, J. Arlett, B. Gudlewski, and CMOS circuit for fully integrated NEMS resonators", Ieee
M.L.Roukes, "Sensitive detection of nanomechanical Transactions on Circuitsand Systems Ii-Express Briefs,
motion using piezoresistive signal downmixing", Applied 2007, 54(5), pp. 377-381.
Physics Letters,2005, 86(13), pp. 133109-133111.
[102] J. Verd, A. Uranga, J. Teva, J.L. Lopez, F. Torres,
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electrothermal actuation of multiple modes of high- "Integrated CMOS-MEMS with on-chip readout
frequency nanoelectromechanical resonators", Applied electronics for high-frequency applications", Ieee Electron
Physics Letters, 2007,90(9), pp. 93116-93118. Device Letters, 2006, 27(6), pp.495-497.
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"Self-transducing silicon nanowire electromechanical displacement sensing with a single-electron transistor",
systems at room temperature", Nano Letters, 2008, Applied Physics Letters, 2002, 81(12), pp. 2258-2260.
8(6), pp. 1756-1761.
[104] S.C. Masmanidis, R.B. Karabalin, I. De Vlaminck,
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in silicon nanowires", Nature Nanotechnology, 2006, "Multifunctional nanomechanical systems via tunably
1(1), pp. 42-46. coupled piezoelectric actuation", Science, 2007,
317(5839), pp. 780-783.
[97] P.A. Truitt, J.B. Hertzberg, C.C. Huang, K.L. Ekinci,
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readout of nanomechanical resonator arrays", Nano Bokor,"Detection of nanomechanical vibrations by
Letters, 2007, 7(1), pp. 120-126. dynamic force microscopy in higher cantilever
eigenmodes", Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 91(5), pp.
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Renaud, A.S. Royet, P. Renaux, F. Casset, and P. Robert,
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devices compatible with "In-IC" integration", 2008 3rd "Characterization of acoustic vibration modes at GHz
Ieee International Conference on Nano/Micro frequencies in bulk acoustic wave resonators by
Engineered and Molecular Systems, Vols 1-3, 2008, pp. combination of scanning laser interferometry and
729-7341178. scanning acoustic force microscopy", MEMS 2005 Miami:
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[99] E. Colinet, C. Durand, P. Audebert, P. Renaux, D.
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nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 115](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nanoictresearchagenda2011-111010063448-phpapp02/85/nanoICT-Strategic-Research-Agenda-116-320.jpg)
![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS)
Perez-Murano, L. Forro, A. Aguasca, and A. Bachtold, [1 A. Jungen, C. Stampfer, J. Hoetzel, V.M. Bright, and
16]
"Mechanical detection of carbon nanotube resonator C.Hierold, "Process integration of carbon nanotubes into
vibrations", Physical Review Letters, 2007, 99(8), pp. 85501- micro-electromechanical systems", Sensors and Actuators
85504. a-Physical, 2006, 130, pp. 588-594.
[108] D. Garcia-Sanchez, A.M. van der Zande, A.S. Paulo, [1 A.I. Hochbaum, R. Fan, R.R. He, and P.D. Yang,
17]
B.Lassagne, P.L. McEuen, and A. Bachtold, "Imaging "Controlled growth of Si nanowire arrays for device
mechanical vibrations in suspended graphene sheets", Nano integration", Nano Letters, 2005, 5(3), pp. 457-460.
Letters, 2008,8(5), pp. 1399-1403.
[1 R.R. He, D. Gao, R. Fan, A.I. Hochbaum, C. Carraro,
18]
[109] S. Sadewasser, G. Abadal, N. Barniol, S. Dohn, A. R.Maboudian, and P.D. Yang,"Si nanowire bridges in
Boisen,L. Fonseca, and J. Esteve, "Integrated tunneling microtrenches: Integration of growth into device
sensor for nanoelectromechanical systems", Applied Physics fabrication", Advanced Materials, 2005, 17(17), pp. 2098.
Letters,2006, 89(17), pp. 173101-173103.
[1 A. San Paulo, N. Arellano, J.A. Plaza, R.R. He, C.
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[1 K. Jensen, J. Weldon, H. Garcia, and A. Zettl,
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"Nanotube radio", Nano Letters, 2007, 7(1 pp. 3508-
1), "Suspended mechanical structures based on elastic silicon
3511. nanowire arrays", Nano Letters, 2007, 7(4), pp. 1100-1104.
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"Nonconductive polymer microresonators actuated by the "Toward large-scale integration of carbon nanotubes",
Kelvin polarization force", Applied Physics Letters, 2006, Langmuir, 2004,20(8), pp. 301 1-3017.
89(16), pp.163506-163508.
[121] X.F. Duan, Y. Huang, Y. Cui, J.F. Wang, and C.M.
[1 E. Forsen, S.G. Nilsson, P. Carlberg, G. Abadal, F.
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Perez-Murano, J. Esteve, J. Montserrat, E. Figueras, F. nanoscale electronic and optoelectronic devices", Nature,
Campabadal,J. Verd, L. Montelius, N. Barniol, and A. 2001, 409(6816),pp. 66-69.
Boisen, "Fabrication of cantilever based mass sensors
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on resist", Nanotechnology, 2004,15(10), pp. S628-S633. Lew,J.M. Redwing, C.D. Keating, and T.S. Mayer, "Bottom-
up assembly of large-area nanowire resonator arrays",
[1 M. Villarroya, F. Perez-Murano, C. Martin, Z. Davis,
13] Nature Nanotechnology, 2008, 3(2), pp. 88-92.
A.Boisen, J. Esteve, E. Figueras, J. Montserrat, and N.
Barniol, "AFM lithography for the definition of nanometre [123] F. Perez-Murano, "Integration of NEMS on CMOS:
scale gaps: application to the fabrication of a cantilever- Fabrication approaches and mass sensing applications", in
based sensor with electrochemical current detection", OMNT Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008.
Nanotechnology, 2004,1 5(7), pp. 771-776.
[124] G. Villanueva, F. Perez-Murano, M. Zimmermann,
[1 C.C. Huang and K.L. Ekinci, "Fabrication of freely
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suspended nanostructures by nanoimprint lithography", commercial CMOS technology for intermolecular force
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1302-1305.
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"Full-wafer fabrication by nanostencil lithography of Available from: www.nanovlsi.org/.
micro/nanomechanical mass sensors monolithically
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Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008.
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
A set of key device families based on semiconductor temperature during growth we were able to fabricate
nanowires were studied in detail; such as tunneling superlattices with alternating zinc blende and wurtzite
devices, and field-effect transistors. Also unique structure. [1]
opportunities that may be offered by nanowires in
different areas are explored, e.g. memory applications. Crystal phase and twin superlattices (PRE)
NODE maked a dedicated effort to evaluate the The crystal phase of III-Vs NWs can be determined by
potential for integration of nanowire-specific processing the dopant precursor flows during growth. In InP the
methods and to assess the compatibility with use of Zn-precursor favors the ZB phase, whereas the
requirements from conventional semiconductor use of S-precursor favors the Wz phase. Moreover,
processing, as well as evaluating novel architectural highly regular twin superlattices can be induced in the
device concepts and their implementation scenarios. ZB phase by tuning the Zn concentration, wire diameter
This chapter is based on the NODE project executive and supersaturation. The effect was explained in a
summary. Detailed information about objectives and model based on surface energy arguments. [2]
main achievements of the NODE project are available in
Annex 2.
1.1. Nanowire growth
1.1.1. General growth control
Controlling the crystal structure of InAs
nanowires (LU)
Gold-particle seeded nanowires fabricated in materials
with zinc blende as the bulk crystal structure are often
observed to have wurtzite crystal structure. The general
trend is that thin wires are wurtzite and thick wires are
Figure 2. TEM image of the top part of an InP NW, closely
below the Au catalyst particle, showing the highly regular twin
superlattice structure.
Synergetic growth (PRE)
A counter-intuitive effect controlling the influence of
wire spacing on growth rate was uncovered, synergetic
Figure 1. Polytypic superlattice, with alternating zinc blende
and wurtzite structure, along an InAs nanowire. Figure 3. GaP wires next to a thick wire are taller than the se-
zinc blende. That is, there is a cross-over diameter for cond-nearest wires, which are taller than those in the middle of
the preferential polytype. This cross-over diameter is the field (furthest from the thick wire), showing that the growth
temperature dependent. By carefully varying the rate of one wire is enhanced by the presence of another one
and dependent on the catalytic alloy amount.
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
growth, which implies that at smaller spacing the
competition for available material, reducing the growth
rate, is counteracted by the increase in surface density
of catalyst metal particles on neighboring nanowires,
providing more decomposed material. [3]
1.1.2. Heterostructures
Epitaxial Ge/Si nanowires (MPI)
Epitaxial Ge/Si hetero-structure nanowires on Si (100)
substrates were prepared in AAO templates. Usually, the
Si atoms dissolved in the Au/Si eutectic catalyst act as a
reservoir for Si, and the interface to Ge is smeared out.
This new approach of the growth inside the AAO
templates, allowed to produce a sharp interface of Ge/Si
without changing the diameter of the nanowire. [4] Figure 5. Images recorded during the growth of Ge on GaP
nanowires by UHV-CVD.
1.1.3. Doping
Decoupling the radial from the axial growth
rate by in situ etching (LU)
It was shown that in-situ etching can be used to
decouple the axial from the radial nanowire growth
mechanism, independent of other growth parameters.
Thereby a wide range of growth parameters can be
explored to improve the nanowire properties without
concern of tapering or excess structural defects formed
during radial growth. We used HCl as the etching agent
during InP nanowire growth, and etched nanowires show
improved crystal quality as compared to non etched and
tapered NWs. These results will make way for devices
relying on doping in axial structures, where any radial
overgrowth would lead to short circuiting of a device.
Figure 4. Cross-section TEM ima-ge of the Ge-Si interface.
Morphology of axial heterostructures (LU)
An extensive investigation of the epitaxial growth of Au-
assisted axial heterostructure nanowires composed of
group IV and III−V materials have been carried out and
derived a model to explain the overall morphology of
such wires. [5]
By analogy with 2D epitaxial growth, this model relates Figure 6. a) Tapered reference InP nanowires grown at a tempe-
the wire morphology (i.e., whether it is kinked or rature of 450º C, b) Non tapered nanowires grown with HCl in the
straight) to the relationship of the interface energies gas phase under otherwise identical growth conditions to a).
between the two materials and the particle. This model
P-type doping and p-n junctions in InP NWs
suggests that, for any pair of materials, it should be
(PRE)
easier to form a straight wire with one interface
Sulphur was identified as a suitable candidate for n-type
direction than the other, and this was demonstrated for
doping of InP in MOVPE using H2S as a precursor. It was
the material combinations presented here.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
1.1.4. Si integration
Al as catalyst for Si nanowires (MPI)
Replacement of Au by other catalysts was one of the
main efforts of this work. The metal Al was successfully
used as a catalyst at low growth temperature in the VSS
mode for growth of freestanding Si nanowires. The
template-assisted growth using AAO and Al catalyst
allowed to grow (100) oriented Si nanowires. [8]
Figure 7. Optical microscope image of electroluminescent light
coming from an InP NW LED, as collected by a CCD camera
(the dashed lines show the positions of the electrodes).
further established that Zn-doping can be effectively
used to achieve p-type doping in InP, using trimethylzinc
as a precursor. The combination of S and Zn permits
realization of p-n junctions in InP, showing good electrical
diode characteristics in thin (20 nm-diameter) nanowires.
The diodes exhibit LED behavior, testifying the high quality
of the p-n junctions. [6] Figure 9. Si nanowires grown by use of a Al catalyst.
Epitaxial growth of III-V NWs on Si and Ge (PRE)
Remote p-type doping of InAs NWs (PRE) The growth of GaAs, GaP, InAs, and InP nanowires on
Obtaining quantitative control of doping levels in
Si and Ge substrates was investigated extensively , and
nanowires grown by the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS)
mechanism is especially challenging for the case of p-type high-quality epitaxial growth was demonstrated for
doping of InAs wires because of the Fermi level pinning these materials systems. It was shown that the
around 0.1 eV above the conduction band. It was shown orientation of the epitaxial nanowires depends on the
that growing a Zn-doped shell of InP epitaxially on a core substrate-wire lattice mismatch. [9]
InAs NW yields remote p-type doping: shielding with a p-
doped InP shell compensates for the built-in potential and
donates free holes to the InAs core. The effect of shielding
critically depends on the thickness of the InP capping layer
and the dopant concentration in the shell. [7]
Figure10. X-ray diffraction pole measurements on InP wires
grown on Si(111), showing the presence of InP(111) reflec-
tions originating from the wires.
Au-free InAs nanowires on silicon (LU)
Narrow bandgap materials, such as InAs, could have
great impact on future nano-electronics if integrated with
Si, but integration has so far been hard to realize. InAs
nanowires can be grown directly on silicon substrates
Figure 8. Dark-f ield TEM image of the InAs(core)/InP:Zn using a method employing self-assembled organic
(shell) NW. coatings to create oxide-based growth templates. [10]
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
The method was subsequently modified to also allow for threshold swings. [11] This analysis reveals the strong
position-control, which is required for vertical device influence of the electrostatics on the transport
implementation. properties and shows that the extraction of device
parameters using conventional models may not be valid.
Chemical passivation of nanowires (WU)
The large surface to volume ratio of nanowires makes
them very sensitive to surface effects such as
nonradiative recombination centers or trapped charges.
Surface passivation of GaAs nanowires by difference
chemical treatments has been investigated and an
improvement of the luminescence efficiency by a factor
of 40 compared to as-grown wires could be achieved.
Figure 11. Epitaxial InAs nanowires grown on a Si(111) subs-
trate from holes etched in a SiO2 f ilm.
1.2. Nanoprocessing
1.2.1. Surface passivation and gate dielectrics
Lateral nanowire n-MOSFETs (IBM)
Fully depleted lateral n-channel MOSFET devices were Figure 13. Photoluminescence spectrum of an as grown (bot-
fabricated using implantation for source and drain tom) and a passivated wire (top)
regions. Strong inversion and clear saturation currents
are observed in FETs from intrinsic NWs with p- 1.2.2. Contacts and gates for nanowire FETs
implanted source/drain regions, whereas NWFETs with
Schottky contacts only operate in accumulation mode. 50 nm Lg Wrap Gate InAs MOSFET (QM)
The effect of surface preparation on the electrical Wrap Gated, or gate all around devices show the best
characteristics were studied and revealed that control of the channel potential. InAs high-κ (HfO2)
encapsulating the devices in a protective oxide yields
significantly increased on currents and steeper sub-
Figure 12. Transfer characteristic of a lateral nanowire n-
MOSFET as fabricated surrounded by air (black) and en- Figure 14. Cross section of the MOSFET, showing the 50 nm
capsulated in SiO2. Cr gate around the InAs nanowire.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
oxide nanowire field effect transistor, were successfully Nanowire FET with gated Schottky contact
fabricated with a 50 nm long wrap gate. The first (WU, NL)
transistors were based on InAs wires grown on a n+ Gated Schottky contacts allow a control over the
InAs substrate. The high mobility and injection velocity polarity of the injected carriers, allowing to switch the
of the InAs channel leads to a good drive current and operation of a nanowire FET from n-type to p-type.
excellent transconductance. [12] Such devices can be used to realize complementary logic
without doping the nanowires.
Schottky barrier FETs (IBM)
The use of thin Si3N4 interface layers between the silicon
and metal contacts were shown to give Ohmic contacts
whereas without the Si3N4 a normal Schottky contact
was achieved. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that
the Si3N4 interface layer gives Schottky barrier FETs with
suppressed ambipolar behaviour due to a reduction in
metal induced gap states. [13]
Figure 17. Si-nanowire FET with two gated Schottky contacts.
Figure 15. Schematic of a Schottky barrier pseudo-MOSFET Wrap-around gate vertical Si nanowire Tunnel-
and the corresponding transfer characteristics with and wi- FETs (IMEC)
thout an interface layer. The NODE project successfully developed a CMOS
compatible process flow to fabricate vertical Si nanowire
Multiple gates for nanowire devices (TUD) Tunnel-FETs using state-of-the-art processing tools onto
Nanowires with multiple gates on horizontal nanowires 200mm wafers. An advanced gate stack using high-κ
have been developed to create electrical quantum dots (HfO2) oxide and metal gate (TiN) was implemented.
in InAs/ InP nanowires. These devices are used to
investigate quantum effects in coupled quantum dots The top contact was obtained by isotropic dry etch of
nanowires. [14] the gate stack at the top of the wire using a gate
Figure 18. Cross section of the vertical TFET featuring 3nm HfO2,
Figure 16. Horizontal InAs/InP nanowire with multiple gates. 7nm TiN and 25nm a-Si gate stack around the nanowires.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
hardmask. The gate is isolated from the substrate by a
thick oxide layer. It is also isolated from the top contact
by a nitride spacer and oxide layer. A capping layer
connects multiple wires together. Top contact doping is
achieved through epitaxial layer or tilted implants.
1.2.3. Processing of vertical nanowire devices
InAs Wrap Gated MOSFETs for RF and circuit
applications (QM/LU)
For RF and circuit applications, the transistors need to
be integrated on an highly resistive, or insulating Figure 20. Stability of the transfer characteristics of a verti-
substrate. Technology for growing, and locally contacting cal IMOS FET.
InAs nanowires on a semi insulating InP substrate has Nanowires based spin memory (TUD)
been developed. The NODE project created a spin memory in a single
quantum dot embedded in an InP nanowire. The
preparation of a given spin state by tuning excitation
polarization or excitation energy demonstrated the
potential of this system to form a quantum interface
between photons and electrons.
For this purpose, transparent contacts on vertical
nanowires have been developed for FET devices and are
currently under investigation. [17]
Figure 19. Top view of a fully processed RF-compatible ver-
tical nanowire transistor structure.
The technology is based on a local ohmic substrate
contact, which wraps around the base of the nanowires.
This allows for RF characterization of the InAs MOSFETs, Figure 21. Vertical nanowire surrounded by a dielectric and a
with first results of ft=7 GHz and fmax=22 GHz. [15] wrap gate.
SiO2 template development for catalyst-free
Vertical Impact Ionization MOS FETs (IBM- nanowire growth (IMEC)
ZRL) A process was developed to fabricate hole patterns on
A process for vertical silicon nanowire FETs was top of silicon for constrained growth of Si nanowires,
developed. Using this process vertical impact ionization without the use of catalyst. The template was prepared
FETs with sub-threshold swings down to 5 mV/dec. by patterning a plasma—enhanced chemical-vapor
were demonstrated. [16] deposited (PE CVD) Si3N4/SiO2 25nm/300nm film
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
stack with openings or holes to expose the underlying The highly Se-doped wires revealed an attendant strong
Si. The patterning was performed through 193nm increase in charge density up to ~ 1x1019cm-3; as
lithography and etching of the SiO2 with Motif®, an expected the impurities introduced brought along a
advanced dry etch technique capable of shrinking decrease in the mobility, which varied in the 4-6
printed feature sizes thanks to the deposition of a hundred cm2/Vs range for wire diameters of 40-50 nm.
polymeric coating on top of the developed resist. In parallel, NW devices were fabricated for charge
Particular care was dedicated to cleaning of the side pumping through surface acoustic waves (SAW) [19]. The
walls and the silicon bottom substrate to avoid defects NW FETs were implemented on top a LiNbO3 substrate
creation during subsequent growth. To achieve suitable with piezoelectric transducers. An acoustoelectric current
Si purity for epitaxial growth, a special sequence of peak in the wire was identified when driving the
process steps was needed to avoid Si contamination by transducer near its resonance frequency. This type of
carbon residues from etch. devices is quite interesting both for analog signal
processing and for the implementation of single-photon
sources under quantized charge pumping. Furthermore,
it yields a new direct method to measure the carrier
mobility by observing the bias point at which the
acoustoelectric peak in the current changes of sign, signaling
that drift and acoustic wave velocity are the same.
Diameter dependence of tapered InAs
nanowires [20] (TUD, PRE)
Electrical conductance through InAs nanowires is
relevant for electronic applications as well as for
Figure 22. Cross-section of a via hole after plasma etch and fundamental quantum experiments. Nominally
hot phosphor opening of the Si3N4 bottom layer. undoped, slightly tapered InAs nanowires were used to
1.3. Physics and characterization study the diameter dependence of their conductance.
1.3.1. Electrical properties
Room temperature transport (SNS)
Room temperature transport properties of bare InAs
and InAs/InP core shell nanowires [18] have been
studied and a three dimensional electrostatic model was
developed to compute the NW FET capacitance for a
more accurate mobility determination. The measured
values ranged in the 1-2 thousand cm2/Vs for the thinnest
wires (< 40 nm), while reached about 3 thousand for
thicker wires. Remarkably all the wires showed relatively
low values of electronic charge in the few 1016cm-3 range.
Figure 24. (a) the backgate sweeps for different sections within the
same nanowire. The inset shows the data for the section with the
Figure 23. Sketch of the device and set-up for the induction smallest diameter. (b) the mobility determined from backgate swe-
of acoustoelectric current in NW FETs. eps. Different symbols correspond to the different devices studied.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
Contacting multiple sections of each wire, we can study We suggest that the increase in the observed field-effect
the diameter dependence within individual wires mobility can be attributed to an increase of conduction
without the need to compare different nanowire through the inner part of the nanowire and a reduction
batches. At room temperature we find a diameter- of the contribution of electrons from the low mobility
independent conductivity for diameters larger than accumulation layer. Furthermore it was found that by
40nm, indicative of three-dimensional diffusive growing an InP shell around an InAs core, surface
transport. For smaller diameters, the resistance increases roughness scattering and ionized impurity scattering in
considerably, in coincidence with a strong suppression of the accumulation layer is reduced.
the mobility. From an analysis of the effective charge carrier
density, we find indications for a surface accumulation layer. 1.3.2. Optical studies
Surface passivation of InAs nanowires by an Raman and mid-IR spectroscopy (SNS)
ultrathin InP shell [21] (TUD, PRE) A micro-Raman set-up was developed and applied to
We report the growth and characterization of InAs InAs/InP core-shell structure, as a way to study the
nanowires capped with a 0.5-1nm epitaxial InP shell. The strain introduced in the structure and verify the reduced
low temperature field-effect mobility is increased by a impact of surface states in the capped wires. A clear line
factor 2-5 compared to bare InAs nanowires. The width reduction was observed in wires with thick InP
shells where less interaction with the surface was
highest low temperature peak electron mobilities
expected and a blue shift of the resonances with
obtained for nanowires to this date, exceeding 20 000
increasing shell thickness was also detected, which gives
cm2/Vs we also reported. The electron density in the
indication of the amount of strain in the InAs material.
nanowires, determined at zero gate voltage, is reduced
by an order of magnitude compared to uncapped InAs
nanowires. For smaller diameter nanowires, an increase
in electron density was found which can be related to
the presence of an accumulation layer at the InAs/InP
interface. However, compared to the surface
accumulation layer in uncapped InAs, this electron
density is much reduced.
Figure 26. Energy position of the main transverse mode for
NWs with different InP shells. Colours are used to distinguish
among different wires in the same sample.
Micro photoluminescence studies of single InP
nanowires (WU)
The optical study of single nanowires provides
important information about physical properties such as
size quantization effects. Individual NWs show narrow
emission lines with linewidths as low as 2.3 meV which
reflects the high structural quality of the nanowires.
Blueshifts of the NW emission energy between 25 and
56 meV with respect to bulk InP are related to radial
carrier confinement in nanowires with diameters
between 15 nm and 50 nm. Time resolved investigations
Figure 25. (a) pinch-off curve and (b) extracted field-effect (black) reveal a low surface recombination velocity of 6×102
and effective mobilities (blue) of a high mobility core/shell nanowire. cm/s. [22]
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
1.3.3. X-ray characterization
Study of radial and longitudinal heterostruc-
tures (CEA, LU, QuMat)
Quantitative structural information about epitaxial
arrays of VLS-NWs have been reported for a InAs/InP
longitudinal [23] and core-shell [24] heterostructure
grown InAs (111)B substrates. Grazing incidence X-ray
diffraction allows the separation of the nanowire
contribution from the substrate overgrowth and gives
averaged information about crystallographic phases,
Figure 27. Micro photoluminescence spectrum showing emis- stacking defects, epitaxial relationships with orientation
sion from two InP nanowires with narrow linewidths of 4.7 distributions, and strain. The strain profiles have been
meV and 2.3 meV, respectively. compared to atomistic and finite element calculations
performed at CEA, and Grazing Incidence Small Angles
Study of surface capping of InP nanowires Scattering has been used to extract the shape, diameter
(WU, LU, QM) and variability of the NWs.
Time resolved photo-luminescence spectroscopy was
applied to optimize the atomic layer deposition (ALD)
of high-κ dielectrics (HfO2, Al2O3) onto InP NWs — a
process which typically leads to detrimental surface
states. Applying a core/shell growth technique the InP
surface quality could be significantly improved in terms
of the surface recombination velocity S0 which was
reduced to S0 = 9.0x103 cm/s in comparison with S0
= 1.5x104 cm/s obtained for an untreated reference
sample without surface treatment prior to ALD. Figure 29. Longitudinal and radial heterostructures measured
by Grazing Incidence X-ray Techniques and example of a trun-
In an alternative approach, in-situ post-growth annealing cation rod measurement showing the [1 1] stacking in a longi-
1
in H2S atmosphere prior to ALD resulted in a nearly tudinal InAs/InP heterostructure.
fourfold decrease of S0. These results clearly show the
importance of a proper surface treatment prior to Single object studies (CEA)
oxide capping of III/V NWs for transistor applications. The measurement of single NWs with coherent imaging
techniques has been developed. This new technique
gains insights into the shape of the objects [25], but also
into the strain distribution inside one object. Original
structural results obtained on sSOI lines with micro-
Figure 30. Coherent diffraction of single 95 nm Si nanowire
Figure 28. Spectrally and temporally resolved intensity map (111) Bragg reflection. The “ab initio” analysis of this pat-
of the PL emission from HfO2 capped InP NWs. tern allows reconstructing the shape of the NW.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
focussed beams have been obtained (unpublished importance of the “electrostatic” engineering of
results) as well as the application of this technique to nanowire devices.
VLS grown samples.
1.3.4. Modelling
Band structure calculations (CEA, LU).
The band structure of group IV and various III-V NWs
has actually been investigated in the whole 2-40 nm
diameter range. The size dependence of the bandgap
energy, subband splittings and effective masses has been
Figure 31. Binding energy of various donors (black symbols,
discussed in detail [26] and used in collaboration with
left axis) as a function of the radius R of silicon NWs in va-
Lund for the modelling of InAs NW field-effect
cuum, and room temperature doping eff iciency of P donors
transistors. [27] Finally, the CEA has investigated the
(red symbols, right axis). The doping eff iciency rapidly de-
effects of strains on the electronic properties of III-V
creases below R = 10 nm.
nanowire heterostructures (e.g., the reduction of the
barrier height in tunnel devices). [28] 1.4. Nanowire devices
Transport properties (CEA) 1.4.1. InAs FETs
The transport properties of ultimate silicon nanowires
with diameters <6 nm has been modeled using quantum Vertical InAs transistors (LU/QM)
Kubo-Greenwood and Green function methods. The Fabrication of vertical InAs nanowire wrap-gate field-
impact of surface roughness [29] and dopant impurities effect transistor arrays with a gate length of 50 nm has
on the mobility has been studied. The CEA has shown, been developed. [31] The wrap gate is defined by
in particular, that the impurity-limited contribution to evaporation of 50-nm Cr onto a 10-nm-thick HfO2 gate
the mobility could be larger in wrap-gate nanowires than dielectric, where the gate is also separated from the
in bulk due to the efficient screening of ionized source contact with a 100-nm SiOX spacer layer. For a
impurities by the gate. Also, the resistance of single drain voltage of 0.5 V, a normalized transconductance
impurities can be very dependent on their radial of 0.5 S/mm, a subthreshold slope around 90
position in the nanowire, leading to significant variability mV/dec., and a threshold voltage just above 0 V were
in ultimate devices. observed.
Effect of dielectric environment on the
electrical properties (CEA, CNRS/IEMN, LU)
It was shown that the dielectric confinement can be
responsible for a significant decrease of the doping
efficiency in nanowires. [30] Dopant impurities are
progressively “unscreened” by image charge effects
when reducing wire diameter, which leads to an
increase of their binding energies and decrease of their
activity. These predictions have been confirmed by
recent experiments by the IBM group. The binding
energies of shallow impurities are however very
sensitive to the dielectric environment of the nanowires,
and can be decreased by embedding the wires in high-
κ oxides or wrap-gates. Modelling has confirmed that
many electronic properties of semiconductor nanowires
are driven more by dielectric than quantum Figure 32. Sub-threshold I-V characteristics of an array of 55
confinement, even in the sub 10 nm range, showing the vertical InAs nanowires.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
RF characterization of vertical InAs transistors separated by thin InP tunnel barriers. [33] Transport
(LU/ QM) through the quantum dot structure is suppressed for a
Lund and Qimonda have developed an RF compatible particular biasing window due to misalignment of the
vertical InAs nanowire process, with InAs wires grown energy levels. This leads to hysteresis in the charging &
on S.I. InP substrates. By combining 70 wires in parallel discharging of the storage island.
in a 50Ω waveguide pad geometry, S-parameters The memory operates for temperatures up to around
(50MHz-20 GHz) for vertical InAs nanowire MOSFETs 150 K and has write times down to at least 15 ns. A
were measured. A maximum ft of 7GHz and comparison is made to a nanowire memory based on a
fmax=22GHz [32] was obtained. Small signal modelling single, thick InP barrier.
allowed for the first extraction of intrinsic device
elements forming a hybrid-π equivalent circuit. Nanowire capacitors (LU)
Vertical InAs nanowire capacitors have been developed
based on arrays of nanowires, high-k deposition, and
metal deposition. [34] The capacitors show a large
modulation of the capacitance with the gate bias, and a
limited hysteresis at 0.5 V voltage swing. Via modeling
of the charge distribution in the nanowires as a function
of the applied voltage, the regions of accumulation,
depletion, and inversion have been identified. Finally,
the carrier concentration has been determined.
Figure 33. Measured and modelled RF gains for a 90 nm
gate length InAs MOSFET.
1.4.2. Other InAs- and III/V-based devices
Nanowire-based multiple quantum dot
memory (LU)
We demonstrate an alternative memory concept in
which a storage island is connected to a nanowire Figure 35. Measured CV prof ile at 20 MHz.
containing a stack of nine InAs quantum dots, each
1.4.3. Si FETs
Doping limits in silicon nanowires (IBM)
The control over doping levels was demonstrated for in-
situ doped silicon nanowires using phosphine as the
Figure 36. Experimental data of nanowire resistivity vs phos-
Figure 34. Design and implementation of a multiple quantum phine concentration. Donor densities up to the solid solubi-
dot memory based on nanowires. lity limit of phosphorous in silicon was achieved.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
doping source. It was found that the maximum State-of-the-art all-silicon tunnel FETs (IBM)
attainable doping is 1×1020cm-3 limited by the solid All-silicon nanowire tunnel FETs with high on-currents
solubility limit of phosphorous in silicon at the growth were demonstrated. The use of a high-k gate dielectric
temperature (4500C). [35] markedly improves the TFET performance in terms of
average slope SS (SS measured between 10-7μA/μm and
Doping deactivation (IBM) 10-3μA/μm is 120mV/ dec.) and on-current, Ion (0.3μA/
It was demonstrated experimentally that dopants inside μm). The performance of the devices is close to what
scaled semiconductors experience a smaller screening can be expected from all-silicon tunnel FETs. [38]
as a function of decreasing size leading to a deactivation
of the dopants. This effect is caused by a dielectric
mismatch between the semiconductor and the
surrounding medium. [36]
Figure 39. Transfer characteristics of silicon nanowire tunnel
FETs with SiO2 (red) and HfO2 (blue) gate dielectrics.
Dopant-free polarity control of Si nanowire
Figure 37. How the resistivity of silicon nanowires increases with de- Schottky FETs (NL)
creasing diameter due to doping deactivation caused by a dielec- The accurate and reproducible adjustment of the charge
tric mismatch between the nanowire core and the surroundings. carrier concentration in nanometer-scale semiconductors
is challenging. As an alternative to transistors containing
Silicon nanowire tunnel FETs (IBM) doping profiles, dopant-free nanowire transistors have
Tunnel FETs based on silicon nanowires were been devised. The source and drain regions are replaced
demonstrated for the first time. The FET structure was by metal contacts that exhibit a sharp interface to the
grown by the VLS method and doping was incorporated active region. The current flow is controlled by locally
in-situ. The devices were fabricated in a lateral fashion
adjusting the electric field at the metal/silicon interface.
with both a top and bottom gate. The data obtained on
Independent control of each contact results in transistors
the FETs matched the expected sub-threshold slopes as
modeled by a simple WKB approximation. [37] that can operate either as p- or n-type. [39]
Figure 40. Silicon nanowire FET with two independent top
Figure 38. Transfer characteristics of a Si NW tunnel FET with top gates, each coupling to a metal/semiconductor junction. The
gate. The red line is calculated using the WKB approximation. FET can be programmed as p- and n- type.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
Complementary logic circuits built from considered. Aluminum, which had been shown
undoped Si nanowire Schottky FETs (NL) promising on coupon level tests (UHV-CVD at MPI),
To reduce the static power consumption of digital proved not up-scalable in the absence of UHV
circuits complementary logic is required. This is enabled conditions. Indium particles did produce high-yield Si
by the interconnection between p- and n- type nanowires in PE-CVD but the growth was difficult to
transistors. Complementary nanowire based inverter control. In view of the many limitations related to
circuits that do not require doping were developed and Vapor-Solid Liquid growth of silicon nanowires, a
characterized. The results show that all logic functions seedless (catalyst-free) constrained approach for
can be performed at low power consumption without growing Si and SiGe nanowires onto Si (100) substrates
dopants. The entire thermal budget for processing is was developed. The growth approach takes advantage
kept below 400°C, enabling a possible future of the advances in Selective Epitaxial Growth (SEG)
replacement of low mobility organic printed circuits on technology to fill the holes without the presence of
flexible electronics. catalytic metal particles. Nanowires with an intrinsic Si
segment (channel) and p+ -doped (B) segment of either
Si, Si0.85Ge0.15 or Si0.75Ge0.25 (source) were successfully
grown on top of n+-doped (100) substrates. [40]
Large-scale nanowire device integration (IMEC)
IMEC developed an integration flow together with the
necessary process modules to fabricate vertical
nanowire tunnel-FET devices with wrap-around gates.
The nanowires were made by a top-down etch process,
Figure 41. Silicon nanowire inverter characteristics; top: trans- however, the integration flow is compatible with a
fer characteristics, bottom: time resolved response. bottom-up approach based on grown nanowires.
1.5. Benchmarking and integration Next to the wrap-around gate configuration which
provides the best gate control over the channel, a
1.5.1. Process upscaling of nanowire growth vertical TFET architecture allows a more readily
and devices implementation of heterostructures which are needed
to boost the tunneling current (see modeling part).
Wafer-scale nanowire growth (IMEC)
At first, catalyst-based growth of silicon vertical
nanowire using none-gold catalyst systems was
Figure 43. TEM cross-section of the f inal vertical 35nm NW
Figure 42. TEM micrograph of a 60nm wide Si/SiGe heterojunc- TFET device (no top oxide isolation) with an advanced a-
tion nanowire. Si/TiN/HfO2 gate stack
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
Functional vertical nanowire TFET devices were built performance. The advantage of the short-gate TFET are
on a 200mm wafer platform. [41] Vertical integration the reduced ambipolar behavior, enhanced switching
implied, among other, the implementation of bottom speed and relaxed processing requirements. [43] When
and top isolation layers, and a amorphous Si capping the gate is shifted towards the source-channel a modest
layer which simultaneously connects the TiN metal increase in on-current can be achieved.
gate.
Heterojunction-source TFET (IMEC)
Vertical nanowire TFET device (IMEC) It was shown that the on-current of the TFET device can
Functional Si nanowire n- and p-TFETs were be increased considerably by placing a foreign source
demonstrated and measured electrically at IMEC using material on top of the Si nanowire channel. Germanium
a Kleindiek nanoprober apparatus mounted in a and InGaAs were identified as the source materials of
HRSEM. The experimental data are inline with literature choice for an n-type and p-type TFET device,
data of all-Si Tunnel-FETs. To contributors knowledge, respectively. The advantage of remaining the Si channel
these devices are the first large-scale integrated vertical is obvious as conventional Si processing can be used for
nanowire devices with state-of-the art high-k metal gate the gate-stack fabrication. For this work new models
stack. [42] needed developed commercial device simulators failed
to correctly predict the performance of heterostructure
TFETs. [44, 45] Together, the Ge-source for n-type and
InGaAs source for p-type, enable a complementary
silicon-based TFET suitable for competitive low-power
applications. These heterostructure TFET configurations
(Ge-Si, InA-Si and In0.6Ga0.4As-Si) and their
corresponding I-V characteristics have been used as
input for the circuit simulations by NXP.
Figure 44. Input Ids-Vgs characteristics of the n- TFET device with
an epi grown P+ source and a nanowire size of 50 nm on design.
1.5.2. Vertical device architectures and
benchmarking
Short-gate and shifted-gate TFET device
concepts (IMEC) Figure 46. Comparison of Ids—Vgs characteristics of all-Si TFET
It was shown with the help of simulation that the (short gate) and the proposed heterostructure Ge-source Si-
position of the gate can impact the TFET device TFET, indicating the boost of the current with nearly 2 orders of
magnitude to the same level as Si MOSFETs (dashed curves).
1.5.3. Nanowire MOSFETs in the quantum
capacitance limit
Quantum capacitance limit for conventional
FETs (IBM)
Scaling of NW transistors was investigated by modeling.
The important implication of the analysis is that NW
with very small diameter enable ultimately scaled
Figure 45. Sschematic representation of the short-gate(left) transistor devices in a wrap-gate architecture since
and shifted-gate (right) concepts.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
electrostatic integrity is preserved down to smallest Modeling of nanowire MOSFETs and tunnel FETs using
dimensions. However, besides this pure geometrical non-equilibrium Greens functions was used to calculate
argument the present study shows that NWs offer an gate delays as a function of scaling oxide thickness. It
additional scaling benefit. In the case of 1D transport, was demonstrated that when FETs are scaled to the
devices can be scaled towards the Quantum quantum capacitance limit the tunnel FETs exhibit the
Capacitance Limit (QCL) which shows a clear scaling same on-state performance as MOSFETs using the gate
advantage in terms of the power delay product, i.e. the delay as the performance metric. The on-current is an
energy needed for switching the transistors. As a result, order of magnitude lower for the TFETs though.
NWs exhibiting 1D transport are a premier choice as
channel material for high performance, ultimately scaled References
FET devices. [46]
[1] P. Caroff et al. Nature Nanotech. 4, 50 (2009)
[2] R.E. Algra, et al., Nature 456, 369 (2008)
[3] M.T. Borgström et al., Nature Nanotech. 2, 541
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[4] T. Shimizu et al., Nano Lett. 9, 1523 (2009)
[5] K.A. Dick et al. Nano Lett. 7, 1817 (2007)
[6] E.D. Minot et al. Nano Lett. 7, 367 (2007)
Figure 47. Power delay product and gate delay (inset) versus [7] H.-Y. Li et al,. Nano Lett. 7, 1 (2007)
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gate length and oxide thickness for conventional FETs as the [8] Y.W. Wang et al., Nature Nanotech., 1, 186 (2006);
transition from classical limit to the quantum capacitance
Z. Zhang et al., Adv. Mater.
limit is made.
[9] E.P.A.M. Bakkers et al., MRS Bulletin 32, 1 (2007)
17
Tunnel FETs in the quantum capacitance limit
[10] T. Mårtensson et al. Adv. Mat. 19, 1801, (2007)
Nanowire tunnel FETs versus nanowire MOSFETs (IBM).
[1 O. Hayden et al., Small, 3, p. 230, 2007
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[12] C. Thelander et al. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 2008
[13] H. Ghoneim et al., Proceedings of ULIS conference
2009
[14] M. Scheffler et al., Physica E 40, 12020-01204 (2008)
[15] M. Egard et al. submitted to Nano Lett. 2009
[16] M. T. Björk et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 1421 (2007)
10
[17] H.M. Maarten et al., Small 5, pp. 2134 — 2138 (2009)
[18] S. Roddaro et al., Nanotechnology 20, 285303 (2009)
[19] S. Roddaro et al., submitted to Semicond. Science
Tech.
[20] M. Scheffler et al., submitted to Journal of Applied
Physics
[21] J. van Tilburg et al., accepted for publication in
Figure 48. Gate delay versus oxide thickness for nanowire Semiconductor Science and Technology
MOSFETs and tunnel FETs.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
[22] S. Reitzenstein et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 091103 2. Overview of nanowire growth
(2007)
Nanowires can be grown by a variety of methods, but
[23] J. Eymery et al., Nano Letters 7 (9) 2596 (2007) the most common method by far is particle-assisted
[24] J. Eymery et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 13191 (2009)
1 growth [1, 2] in metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy
(MOVPE) or molecular beam epitaxy. This technique uses
[25] V. Favre-Nicolin et al., Phys. Rev. B 79, 195401 (2009) metal seed particles, most often gold, which act as
[26] Y. M. Niquet et al., Phys. Rev. B 73, 165319 (2006) nucleation centers [3] and direct the growth. The size,
number and position of the resulting nanowires are
[27] E. Lind et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 56, 201 determined by the seed particles, potentially allowing for
(2009) a high degree of control over the final structures. In this
section, patterned growth, heterostructures, doping,
[28] Y. M. Niquet and D. Camacho Mojica, Phys. Rev. B crystal structure control, and metal free growth will be
77, 115316 (2008) briefly reviewed.
[29] M. P. Persson et al., Nano Letters 8, 4146 (2008) The gold seed particles can be deposited in a few
[30] M. Diarra et al., Phys. Rev. B 75, 045301 (2007) different ways. Deposition of aerosol or colloid particles
results in more or less randomly positioned nanowires.
[31] C. Thelander et al. IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. 29, 206 However, most applications require precise control of
(2008) the nanowires, both in terms of position and size.
Defining the gold particles by electron beam lithography,
[32] M. Egard et al., submitted to Nano Lett. followed by gold evaporation and lift off, allows for this
[33] H. N. Nilsson et al.Appl. Phys. Lett 89, 163101 (2006) [4], see Fig. 1.
[34] S. Roddaro et al. Appl. Phys.Lett. 92, 253509 (2008) Formation of heterostructures is at the core of nanowire
[35] H. Schmid et al., Nano Lett. 9, 173 (2009). technology and novel device structures. Three major
categories can be identified: axial, radial, and
[36] M. T. Björk et al., Nature Nanotechn. 4, 103 (2009) substrate/nanowire heterostructures, e. g. III—V
[37] M. T. Björk et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 193504 (2008) nanowires on Si substrates.
[38] K. E. Moselund et al., ESSDERC, September 2009
First, axial structures can be formed if the growth
[39] W. M. Weber et al. IEEE Proc. Nanotech. Conf. precursors are alternated during growth. This results in a
p.580 (2008) variation of the composition along the wire.
Furthermore, it is well understood that nanowires
[40] F. Iacopi et.al., MRS Symposium Proceedings, Vol. represent an ideal system for the growth of axial
1178E heterostructures, since mismatched materials can be
grown epitaxially on each other without misfit
[41] A. Vandooren et al., Proc. Silicon Nanoelectronic
dislocations. This is possible because strain can be relieved
Workshop, pp. 21-22, Kyoto, June 2009 by coherent expansion of the lattice outwards (along the
[42] D. Leonelli et al., submitted to Electron Device Letters wire diameter), avoiding dislocations. Axial
heterostructure nanowires were first demonstrated in
[43] A.S. Verhulst et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 53102 (2007) 1994 for the GaAs—InAs system [5].
[44] A.S. Verhulst et al., J. Appl. Phys. 104, 64514 (2008)
Further development of this material system led to
[45] A.S. Verhulst et al., Electron Dev. Lett. 29, 1398 reports of high-quality interfaces despite the large lattice
(2008) mismatch [6]. For the InAs—InP system, atomically sharp
interfaces were also reported [7]. Nanowire
[46] J. Appenzeller et al., IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev. Vol.
heterostructure superlattices have been demonstrated for
55, pp. 2827-2845, (2008) a variety of material systems, with lattice mismatch as high
as 3% [8]. Much recent work has focused on attaining
sharp heterointerfaces for various material and growth
systems. As well, the development of heterostructure
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
nanowires involving ternary compounds such as GaAsP
[9], InAsP [10] and InGaAs [11], further increases the
potential for applications.
Second, radial structures, also known as core-shell
structures, can be formed. In the lateral case,
heterostructures are achieved by first growing
nanowires by conventional particle-assisted growth, then
by changing the growth parameters so that bulk growth
is favored. In this way growth on the side facets of the
wire will dominate, and shells will form [12].
Figure 2. Transmission electron micrograph of a ZB-WZ
polytypic superlattice in an InAs nanowire. The structure was
achieved by periodically varying the growth temperature.
nanowire growth is not carefully controlled, the
resulting structure may consist of a mixture of these two
Figure 1. Scanning electron micrographs of gold particle-as- phases, together with twin planes, stacking faults and
sisted, MOVPE grown, InAs nanowires in regular arrays, other polytypes. Various theoretical and experimental
where the positions of the gold particles have been def ined works have indicated that uncontrolled structural mixing
by electron beam lithography. may be detrimental to electronic and optical properties,
and structural variations due to random intermixing may
The third category, substrate/nanowire heterostructures,
lead to unacceptable variability in material properties.
resembles the axial heterostructure with the difference
On the other hand, the ability to select between ZB and
that the substrate is less compliant. Compared to planar WZ and to mix these structures in a controlled way may
heteroepitaxy, the critical thickness for dislocation-free give access to new and exciting physics and applications.
growth becomes considerable larger when strain can be
relaxed also radially. This effect enables epitaxy of III—V It has recently been shown that the crystal structure of
nanowires on Si [13]. InAs nanowires can be tuned between pure WZ and
pure ZB by careful control of experimental parameters,
For electronics and optoelectronics applications it is where temperature and nanowire diameter are the
necessary to control the conductivity and to be able to most significant [17]. This knowledge enabled the
fabricate pn-junctions in nanowires. Thus it is of high fabrication of twin plane superlattices and ZB—WZ
importance to be able to dope the nanowires; pn- polytypic superlattices in nanowires, see Fig. 2. Twin
junctions in nanowires have been reported for nitride plane superlattices has also been controllably produced
[14] and other III—V [15, 16] nanowires, even though the in InP nanowires by the introduction of dopants [18].
incorporation mechanism during particle-assisted
growth is not well understood. Finally, a successful method to grow perfect ZB
nanowires that has been reported for GaAs nanowires
Semiconductor nanowires composed of III-V materials is to use a two temperature method, where the growth
such as InAs typically suffer from frequent stacking is initiated at high temperature. After this, the
defects. Although most of these materials exhibit zinc temperature is decreased and the main parts of the
blende (ZB) structure in bulk, nanowires may also be nanowires are grown at a lower temperature in order to
composed of the related wurtzite (WZ) structure. If not overcome the energy barrier for twin formation
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
[19]. Quite surprisingly, the same group has recently [11] I. Regolin, D. Sudfeld, S. Luttjohann, V. Khorenko,
reported that nanowires free from planar defects can W. Prost, J. Kastner, G. Dumpich, C. Meier, A. Lorke,
be achieved by growth at high rate [20]. and F. J. Tegude, J. Cryst. Growth 298 (2007) 607
If semiconductor nanowires will be integrated in CMOS [12] Y. Li, F. Qian, J. Xiang, and C. M. Lieber, Mater.
compatible processes, as suggested as one possible path Today 9 (2006) 18
to continue the downscaling of electronics, it is [13] K. A. Dick, K. Deppert, L. Samuelson, L. R.
necessary to avoid growth from gold particles. Either, Wallenberg, and F. M. Ross, Nano Lett. 8 (2008) 4087
other more CMOS compatible metals have to be
utilized as seed particles, or particle free nanowire [14] H. M. Kim, Y. H. Cho, H. Lee, S. I. Kim, S. R. Ryu,
growth has to be relized. Particle free growth from D. Y. Kim, T. W. Kang, and K. S. Chung, Nano Lett. 4
mask openings has been realized in InP [21], GaAs [22], (2004) 1059
and GaN [23]. Metal free growth has also been realized
by growth from self-assembled nucleation templates on [15] E. D. Minot, F. Kelkensberg, M. van Kouwen, J. A.
organically coated surfaces [24]. van Dam, L. P. Kouwenhoven, V. Zwiller, M. T.
Borgstrom, O. Wunnicke, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P. A.
References M. Bakkers, Nano Lett. 7 (2007) 367
[1] K. A. Dick, Prog. Cryst. Growth Charact. Mater. 54 [16] M. T. Borgstrom, E. Norberg, P. Wickert, H. A.
(2008) 138 Nilsson, J. Tragardh, K. A. Dick, G. Statkute, P. Ramvall,
K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Nanotechnology 19
[2] K. W. Kolasinski, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. (2008) 445602
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[17] P. Caroff, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M. E. Messing,
[3] B. A. Wacaser, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M. T. K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Nature Nanotech. 4
Borgström, K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Adv. Mater. (2009) 50
21 (2009) 153
[18] R. E. Algra, M. A. Verheijen, M. T. Borgström, L. F.
[4] H. J. Fan, P. Werner, and M. Zacharias, Small 2 Feiner, G. Immink, W. J. P. van Enckevort, E. Vlieg, and
(2006) 700 E. P. A. M. Bakkers, Nature 456 (2008) 369
[5] K. Hiruma, H. Murakoshi, M. Yazawa, K. Ogawa, S. [19] H. J. Joyce, Q. Gao, H. H. Tan, C. Jagadish, Y. Kim,
Fukuhara, M. Shirai, and T. Katsuyama, IEEE Trans. X. Zhang, Y. N. Guo, and J. Zou, Nano Lett. 7 (2007)
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[6] B. J. Ohlsson, M. T. Bjork, A. I. Persson, C. [20] H. J. Joyce, Q. Gao, H. H. Tan, C. Jagadish, Y. Kim,
Thelander, L. R. Wallenberg, M. H. Magnusson, K. M. A. Fickenscher, S. Perera, T. B. Hoang, L. M. Smith,
Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Physica E 13 (2002) 1126 H. E. Jackson, J. M. Yarrison-Rice, X. Zhang, and J. Zou,
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[7] M. T. Bjork, B. J. Ohlsson, T. Sass, A. I. Persson, C.
Thelander, M. H. Magnusson, K. Deppert, L. R. [21] P. Mohan, J. Motohisa, and T. Fukui,
Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson, Nano Lett. 2 (2002) 87 Nanotechnology 16 (2005) 2903
[8] M. S. Gudiksen, L. J. Lauhon, J. Wang, D. C. Smith, [22] K. Ikejiri, J. Noborisaka, S. Hara, J. Motohisa, and
and C. M. Lieber, Nature 415 (2002) 617 T. Fukui, J.Cryst. Growth 298 (2007) 616
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Wallenberg, J. Stangl, G. Bauer, and L. Samuelson, 6 (2006) 1808
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[24] T. Mårtensson, J. B. Wagner, E. Hilner, A.
[10] A. I. Persson, M. T. Bjork, S. Jeppesen, J. B. Mikkelsen, C. Thelander, J. Stangl, B. J. Ohlsson, A.
Wagner, L. R. Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson, Nano Gustafsson, E. Lundgren, L. Samuelson, and W. Seifert,
Lett. 6 (2006) 403 Adv. Mater. 19 (2007) 1801
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
3. Overview transport/optical properties region and mobilities are high. The electron mobility is
of nanowires2 strongly reduced for sub-micron sized InAs structures [12,
14], because of the higher surface-to-bulk ratio. At the
Nanometer-sized quasi 1-dimensional systems, such as same time, the total electron density will increase for
semiconducting nanowires (NWs), are attractive building smaller thicknesses.
blocks for bottom-up nanotechnology including
optoelectronics [1, 2] and manipulation of isolated electron Indications of a surface accumulation layer in InAs
spins [3, 4, 5]. Defect-free nanowire heterojunctions, both nanowires have been observed in [16], where smaller
longitudinal [6] and radial [7, 8, 9], can be grown due to the nanowire diameters show an increase in total electron
small nanowire radius, which allows strain from lattice density, consistent with the observations on accumulation
mismatch to be relaxed radially outwards. layers in bulk InAs [12]. For InN nanowires, magneto-
resistance measurements showed Altshuler - Aronov -
Not only junctions between various different group III-V Spivak (AAS) oscillations, suggestive of shell-like
or IV elements, but even group III-V/IV junctions were conduction through nanowires [17].
reported [10, 11]. InAs is an attractive material because
its small bandgap results in a low effective electron mass, Conduction through InAs nanowires with typical
diameters under 200 nm can be expected to be strongly
giving rise to high bulk electron mobilities (at room
influenced by the presence of a surface accumulation
temperature 22 700 cm2/Vs [12] and at low temperature
layer. The strong ionized impurity and surface roughness
in planar structures over 600 000 cm2/Vs [13]).
scattering in the surface accumulation layer could explain
why InAs nanowires typically have low temperature
For bulk InAs, it is well known that the surface contains
mobilities of 1000-4000 cm2/Vs [15, 18, 19, 20]. There
a large number of states that lie above the conduction
have been two reports of InAs nanowires yielding
band minimum and can contribute electrons to form a
mobilities exceeding 16000 cm2/Vs [21, 22].
surface accumulation layer with a typical downward band
bending between 0 and 0.26 eV [14]. Because of the large
The surface band bending that causes the accumulation
surface charge density, the Fermi level for InAs is pinned layer for InAs is a crystal surface property and the
in the conduction band, which makes it easy to fabricate strength of the accumulation is known to be dependent
ohmic contacts without a Schottky barrier. on the surface orientation and termination [14]. Reducing
the depth of the band bending will result in a higher
This InAs contact property enabled the observation of relative contribution from the inner electrons to the total
the superconductivity proximity effect in nanowires [15]. conduction and an increase in electron mobility.
A surface accumulation layer combined with the large
surface to volume ratio for InAs nanowires could promise An alternative approach to increase electron mobility
good sensitivity for InAs nanowire sensor applications. would be to reduce the scattering in the surface channel
by reducing the surface roughness and the scattering on
As a fraction of the surface states contributes electrons to surface states by surface passivation. Natural III-V oxides
the accumulation layer, the InAs surface contains a large are soft, hygroscopic, compositionally and structurally
number of ionized impurities. Electrons in the inhomogeneous [23,24].
accumulation layer therefore experience much stronger
ionized impurity scattering than electrons in the inner We have extracted the electron mobility from the gate
InAs region. Furthermore, because of the proximity to dependence of the current using a simulated nanowire
the surface, surface roughness scattering is also strong. capacitance to the gate. Low temperature mobility has
This means that electrons in the surface layer have a increased by a factor of 2-5 compared to bare InAs
strongly reduced mobility compared to electrons in the nanowires [9]. We also have found among the highest
inner material, typically μsurface ~ 4000 cm2/Vs [12, 14]. low temperature peak electron mobilities reported to
this date, exceeding 25000 cm2/Vs.
For microns thick planar structures of InAs, conduction is
dominated by the electrons flowing through the inner
2 Val Zwiller, and L P Kouwenhoven, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
To create active photonic elements, the first key step is
to incorporate a single quantum dot in a nanowire [25].
Semiconductor quantum dots are well known sources
of single [26, 27] and entangled photons [28, 29, 30] and
are naturally integrated with modern semiconductor
electronics. Incorporation in semiconducting nanowires
brings additional unique features such as natural
alignment of vertically stacked quantum dots to design
quantum dot molecules and an inherent one-
dimensional channel for charge carriers. Furthermore,
the unprecedented material and design freedom makes
them very attractive for novel opto-electronic devices
and quantum information processing.
Figure 1. (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of
InAs/InP core/shell nanowires grown on an InP substrate.
Inset shows a high angle annular diffraction TEM image of
a representative InAs/InP core/shell nanowire. The wire dia-
meter is roughly 20 nm and the shell thickness 7-10 nm. The
schematic shows the bandgap alignment for InAs sandwit-
ched between InP. (b) SEM image of a typical nanowire de-
vice with Ti/Al contacts as used in our measurements. (c)
Schematic of the bandgap bending of an InAs nanowire (a)
and an InAs/InP core/shell nanowire.
Figure 3. (a) Power dependence of the photoluminescence
from a single quantum dot in a nanowire under continuous ex-
citation at 532 nm. (b) Integrated power dependence of two
narrow emission lines attributed to the exciton and biexciton.
Samples grown by the Bakkers group.
Access to intrinsic spin and polarization properties of a
quantum dot in a nanowire is challenging because of the
limited quality of nanowire quantum dots, partly because
the quantum dot is located very close to the sample
Figure 2. (a) Schematic of a Ti/Al contacted nanowire on a surface. Moreover, the nanowire geometry strongly
heavily doped Si substrate with SiO2 dielectric. (b) Current affects the polarization of photons emitted or absorbed
through the nanowire as a function of backgate voltage for by a nanowire quantum dot, and is thus an important
several NW diameters. Such measurements are used to de- obstacle for applications based on intrinsic spin or
termine the electron mobility.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
polarization properties of quantum dots such as electron The nanowire geometry is not the only source of
spin memory or generation of entangled photons. It has polarization anisotropy. Calculations by Niquet and
been shown that photoluminescence of homogeneous Mojica [31] show that the polarization properties are
nanowires is highly linearly polarized with a polarization strongly affected by the aspect ratio of the quantum dot
direction parallel to the nanowire elongation. dimensions, due to strain originating from the lattice
mismatch between the nanowire and the quantum dot.
However, in our case the strain is negligible due to the
low phosphorus content and the main contribution to
polarization anisotropy stems from the nanowire
geometry.
Standing nanowires enable the extraction of any
polarization with equal probability. This enables the
observation of Zeeman splitting, provided that the
emission linewidth is narrow enough. In fig. 4a we show
a magnetic field dependence of the exciton emission
measured on a standing InP nanowire containing an
InAsP quantum dot. The nanowire was grown by
MOVPE using colloidal gold particles as catalysts by the
Bakkers group. Polarization studies at 9 T show circular
polarization (fig. 4b) and no linear polarization (fig 4a).
One challenge is to obtain good ohmic contacts to the p
Figure 4. (a) and (b) Polarization sensitive photolumines-
doped side of a nanowire LED. In figure 5 the device-
cence of a standing nanowire quantum dot at 9 T. The solid
layout, the nanowire LED emission and the electrostatic
(dashed) curve in (a) represents vertical (horizontal) linearly
potential distribution along the device are shown. The
polarized exciton emission, denoted by H (V). The solid (das-
junction is readily visible by transmission electron
hed) curve in (b) represents left- (right-) hand circularly po-
microscopy, the modification in doping brings about a
larized exciton emission. (b) PL of a standing nanowire
quantum dot under external magnetic f ield. Magnetic f ield modification of the nanowire diameter. Electrostatic force
is varied between 0 and 9 T in steps of 0.5 T. Sample grown measurements are shown on the right of Fig. 5, under a
by the Bakkers group (Philips). reverse bias of 1.5 V, a prominent drop in potential is
observed at the expected position of the pn junciton.
In fig. 3a we show a typical excitation
power dependence revealing a usual
exciton-biexciton behavior and a p-
shell at 30 meV higher energy. The
inset shows the narrowest emission
we have observed to date with a
FWHM of 31 μeV, limited by our
spectral resolution. The integrated
photoluminescence intensities of the
exciton and biexciton as a function of
excitation power, represented in fig.
3b, show that the exciton (biexciton)
increases linearly (quadratically) with
excitation power and saturates at
high excitation powers. This
behaviour is typical for the exciton Figure 5. Single nanowire light emitting diode. Left: microscope image of the nanowire LED
and biexciton under continuous without and with forward bias. Bottom left: TEM image of a pn junction in an InP nano-
excitation. wire. Right: electrostatic force measurements under forward (top) and reverse (bottom) bias.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
structures for nanoscale photonics and electronics.
Nature, 415:617, 2002
[2] E. D. Minot, F. Kelkensberg, M. van Kouwen, J. A. van
Dam, L. P. Kouwenhoven, V. Zwiller,
M. T. Borgstrom, O. Wunnicke, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P.
A. M. Bakkers. Single quantum dot nanowire LEDs. Appl.
Phys. Lett., 7:367, 2007
[3] M. T. Bjork, A. Fuhrer, A. E. Hansen, M. W. Larsson, L.
E. Froberg, and L. Samuelson. Tunable effective g factor in
InAs nanowire quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B, 72:201307, 2005
[4] A. Pfund, I. Shorubalko, K. Ensslin, and R. Leturcq.
Suppression of spin relaxation in an InAs nanowire double
quantum dot. Phys. Rev. Lett., 99:036801, 2007
[5] F. A. Zwanenburg, C. E. W. M. van Rijmenam, Y. Fang,
C. M. Lieber, and C. M. Kouwenhoven. Spin states in the
_rst four holes in a silicon nanowire quantum dot.
Nanoletters, 9:1071, 2009
[6] M. T. Bjork, C. Thelander, A. E. Hansen, L. E. Jensen, M.
W. Larsson, L. Reine Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson. Few-
electron quantum dots in nanowires. Nanoletters, 4:1621,
2004
Figure 6. Photocurrent measurement on a single nanowire. [7] W. Lu, J. Xiang, B. P. Timko, Y. Wu, and C.M. Lieber.
Left: photocurrent as a function of applied bias. Right: pho- One-dimensional hole gas in germanium/silicon nanowire
tocurrent as a function of laser polarization. heterostructures. PNAS, 102:10046, 2005
Under zero and 1.5 V forward bias, no potential drop is
observed on the pn junction, this demonstrates the [8] H.-Y. Li, O. Wunnicke, M. T. Borgstrom, W. G. G.
presence of a pn junction in the contacted nanowire and Immink, M. H. M. van Weert, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P. A.
shows that the contacts are ohmic. An electrically M. Bakkers. Remote p-doping of InAs nanowires.
contacted nanowire can also be used for Nanoletters, 7:1 144, 2007
photodetection, as shown in figure 6. Fig. 6 left shows
the photocurrent intensity as a function of applied bias [9] X. Jiang, Q. Xiong, S. Nam, F. Qian, Y. Li, and C. M.
in the dark and under illumination. Fig. 6 right shows Lieber. InAs/InP radial nanowire heterostructures as high
the polarization dependence of the photocurrent for a mobility devices. Nanoletters, 7:3214, 2007
lying nanowire as a function of the laser linear
polarization angle. The observed photocurrent [10] E. P. A. M. Bakkers, J. A. van Dam, S. de Franceschi, L.
polarization is in agreement with the polarization ratio P. Kouwenhoven, M. Kaiser, M. Verheijen, H. Wondergem,
measured by photoluminescence. and P. van der Sluis. Epitaxial growth of InP nanowires on
germanium. Nature Materials, 3:769, 2004
References [1 T. M_artensson, C. P. T. Svensson, B. A. Wacaser, M. W.
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Larsson, W. Seifert, K. Deppert, A. Gustafsson, L. R.
[1] M. S. Gudiksen, L. J. Lauhon, J. Wang, D. C. Smith, Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson. Epitaxial III-V nanowires on
and C. M. Lieber. Growth of nanowire superlattice silicon. Nanoletters, 4:1987, 2004
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
[12] H. H. Wieder. Transport coe_cients of InAs [23] H. H. Wieder. Perspective on III-V-compound MIS
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[13] S. A. Chalmers, H. Kroemer, and A. C. Gossard. [24] D. B. Suyatin, C. Thelander, M. T. Bjork, I.
The growth of (Al,Ga)Sb tilted superlattices and their Maximov, and L. Samuelson. Sulphur passivation for
heteroepitaxy with inas to form corrugated-barrier ohmic contact formation to InAs nanowires.
quantum wells. J. Crystal Growth, 111:647, 1991 Nanotechnology, 18:105307, 2007
[14] C. A_entauschegg and H. H. Wieder. Properties [25] Optically Bright Quantum Dots in Single Nanowires
of InAs/InAlAs heterostructures. Semiconductor Borgstrom, M. T.; Zwiller, V.; Muller, E.; Imamoglu,
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[15] Y.-J. Doh, J. A. van Dam, A. L. Roest, E. P. A. M. [26]A Quantum Dot Single-Photon Turnstile Device, P.
Bakkers, L. P. Kouwenhoven, and S. De Franceschi. Michler, A. Kiraz, C. Becher, W. V. Schoenfeld, P. M.
Tunable supercurrent through semiconductor Petroff, Lidong Zhang, E. Hu, A. Imamoglu, Science 22
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coe_cients of InAs nanowires as a function of diameter. [27] Single quantum dots emit single photons at a time:
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Per Jonsson, Nikolay Panev, Soren Jeppesen, Tedros
[17] T. Richter, C. Blomers, H. Luth, R. Calarco, M. Tsegaye, Edgard Goobar, Mats-Erik Pistol, Lars
Indlekofer, M. Marso, and T. Schapers. Flux Samuelson, Gunnar Bjork, Appl. Phys. Lett 78, 2476
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[28] Akopian, N., N. H. Lindner, et al. (2006).
[18] T. Bryllert, L. E. Wernersson, L. E. Froberg, and L. "Entangled Photon Pairs from Semiconductor Quantum
Samuelson. Vertical high-mobility wrap-gated InAs Dots." Physical Review Letters 96(13)
nanowire transistor. IEEE Electron Device Letters,
27:323, 2006 [29] Young, R., M. Stevenson, et al. (2006). "Improved
fidelity of triggered entangled photons from single
[19] A. Pfund, I. Shorubalko, R. Leturcq, F. Borgstrom, quantum dots." New Journal of Physics 8(2): 29
M. Gramm, E. Muller, and K. Ensslin. Fabrication of
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[30] Hafenbrak, R., S. M. Ulrich, et al. (2007).
measurements. Chimia, 60:729, 2006
"Triggered polarization-entangled photon pairs from a
single quantum dot up to 30K." New J. Phys. 9(9): 315
[20] Q. Hang, F. Wang, P. D. Carpenter, D. Zemlyanov,
D. Zakharov, E. A. Stach, W. E. Buhro, and D. B. Janes.
Role of molecular surface passivation in electrical [31] Niquet, Y. and D. Mojica (2008). "Quantum dots
transport properties of InAs nanowires. Nanoletters, and tunnel barriers in InAs/InP nanowire
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Physical Review B (Condensed Matter and Materials
[21] A. C. Ford, J. C. Ho, Y. L. Chueh, Y. C. Tseng, Z. Fan, Physics) 77(11)
J. Guo, J. Bokor, and A. Javey. Diameter dependent electron
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Wang. Transport properties of InAs nanowire field
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
4. Nanowires for energy applications
Several possibilities exist for the use of nanowires in the
energy sector. This includes three categories: a) energy
saving, b) energy harvesting, and c) energy storage.
Within category a) we see two main research areas:
lower power-consuming electronics and low-power
illumination by solid-state lighting.
Nanowire FETs are regarded as one of the emerging
nanoelectronic devices [1]. Low-power memory cells
(so-called tunneling SRAMs) have already been
demonstrated [2] as well as low-power tunnel FETs [3].
Additionally,vertically wrap-gated InAs nanowire devices
with subthreshold slope around 90 mV/dec have been Figure 1. Schematic of a nanowire array for solar cell application.
realized [4]. Besides electronic devices with lower power
consumption, the thrive goes towards solid-state lighting Hiruma at Hitachi [5]. First ten years later, similar
devices for replacement of incandescent light bulbs and devices had been demonstrated in nitride nanowire
fluorescent lamps. A number of groups are working to structures [6]. The fabrication of InP-InAsP nanowire
realize this goal using nanowire structures. As early as LED structures where the electron-hole recombination
1994, light-emitting diode structures of GaAs nanowires is restricted to a quantum-dot-sized InAsP section has
with pn-junctions had been reported by the group of K. also been reported making these devices promising
Figure 2. Schematic of piezoelectric energy conversion with nanowires.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
candidates for electrically driven quantum optics solar cell structures are conducted within the EU-project
experiments [7]. AMON-RA [www.amonra.eu], where so far pn-
junctions in InP nanowires have been demonstrated
Arrays of nanowire light-emitting structures in the GaAs- [18]. Some effort is going on to realize thermoelectric
InGaP were realized in cooperation between academic devices with nanowire structures, so far, mainly on a
and industrial research in 2008 [8]. High brightness GaN theroretical level [19]. However, first experimental
nanowire LEDs emitting in the UV-blue region have studies have been conducted [20]. An interesting
been demonstrated [9] andnitride-based LED arrays approach is the conversion of mechanical energy in
have recently been reported [10]. electricity using the piezoelectric properties of ZnO
nanowires [21].
Three research areas can be identified within category
b) energy harvesting: conversion of light, heat or For the last category where nanowires could be used in
movement into electricity. For harvesting of light several the energy sector, energy storage, we are not aware of
nanowire materials have been and are investigated. P. any ongoing research.
Yangs group at Berkeley realized a dye-sensitized solar
cell architecture in which the traditional nanoparticle References
film is replaced by a dense array of oriented and
crystalline ZnO nanowires [11].
[1] R. Chau et al., IEEE Trans. Nanoelectr. 4 (2005) 153
Using silicon, by a simple chemical etching [2] P. van der Wage et al., Electr. Dev. Meet. (1996) 425
techniquenanowire solar cell structures have been
realized with poor performance [12] and p-i-n coaxial [3] J. Appenzeller et al., IEEE Trans Electron Dev. 55 (2008) 2827
silicon nanowire solar cells have been reported with a [4] C. Thelander et al., IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. 29 (2008) 206
conversion efficiency of 3.4% under illumination of one
sun by the Lieber group from Harvard [13]. [5] K. Haraguchi et al., J. Appl. Phys. 75 (1994) 4220
Silicon wires embedded in a polymeric film with [6] F. Qian et al., Nano Lett. 5 (2005) 2287
potential to achieve high efficiency have recently been
demonstrated [14]and even global players like General [7] E.D. Minot et al., Nano Lett. 7 (2007) 367
Electric Inc. show interest in silicon nanowire solar cells [8] C.P.T. Svensson et al., Nanotechn. 19 (2008) 305201
[15]. Solar cells have been realized with arrays of CdS
nanowires grown on Al substrates and embedded in [9] S.K. Lee et al., Phil. Mag. 87 (2007) 2105
CdTe matrix showing a conversion efficiency of 6% [16]. [10] S.D. Hersee et al., Electron. Lett. 45 (2009) 75
Periodically aligned InP nanowires with pn-junctions [1 M. Law et al., Nature Mater. 4 (2005) 455s
1]
have been reported with solar power conversion [12] K.Q. Peng et al., Small 1 (2005) 1062
efficiency of 3.4% [17]. Other efforts on III-V nanowire
[13] B.Z. Tian et al., Nature 449 (2007) 885
[14] K.E. Plass et al., Adv. Mater. 21 (2009) 325
[1 L. Tsakalakos et al., Apll. Phys. Lett. 91 (2007) 2331
5] 17
[16] Z.Y. Fan et al., Nature Mater. 8 (2009) 648
[17] H. Goto et al., Appl. Phys. Express 2 (2009) 035004
[18] M.T. Borgström et al., Nanotechnol. 19 (2008) 445602
[19] J. Carrete et al., Phys. Rev. B 80 (2009) 155408
[20] A.I. Persson et al., Nanotechnol. 20 (2009) 225304
[21] Z.L. Wang and J. Song, Science 312 (2006) 242
Figure 3. Nanowire array with light-emitting structures.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
5. Overview of nanowires for biology/ sensors and electrodes to investigate neuronal function
medicine at high temporal and spatial resolution.
Nanowires have a size scale that overlaps with Cellular force measurements using nanowire
fundamental building blocks of cells. That makes them arrays
particularly suitable for biological and medical
applications. Here we list a few examples of promising Cellular mechanotransduction is a rapidly growing field
applications in our field of interest. with recent studies showing that external and internal
forces can alter cellular signaling and function [5, 6]. There
Neural network on a chip are many ways to measure cellular forces in vitro. Optical
tweezers and micropipettes are capable of probing
Neural networks on a chip have many applications in picoNewton forces. While being very sensitive, these
neuroscience. The ability to control the cell position and techniques can only measure forces at a few points
the connections between cells can yield new knowledge simultaneously in a cell. With an elastic substrate cellular
on interactions between neurons and is a crucial forces can be measured in an ensemble of cells [7]. This
component in the development of next-generation method, as well as its derived method based on elastomer
prostheses. Axonal guidance can be achieved using micro-pillar arrays can measure forces from nanoNewton
chemical or topographical modifications on the surface
[1, 2]. Parallel rows of nanowires have proven to provide
an excellent way of controlling cell growth and guidance
of regenerating axons [3]. The rows of wires act as fences,
confining the axons. The small radii of the wires prevent
the axons from climbing the nanowires as the growth
cone always encounters the wires at a 90° angle in
contrast to micro structured walls, where fibers can reach
the top of the wall by climbing at an intermediate angle.
Figure 1. Fluorescence microcopy image of a superior cervi-
cal ganglion growing on a 1 x 1 mm2 area with rows of GaP
nanowires. The axons are guided with high f idelity by the
rows of nanowires. Figure 2. Cellular force measurements using nanowire arrays.
(LEFT) Confocal fluorescence image of a growth cone on 40
To be able to independently address two populations of nm diameter 5 μm long nanowires. Scale bar 1 μm. (RIGHT)
axons on a chip surface, the different populations must be Forces exerted on the nanowires highlighted in the left ima-
fully separated. This can be achieved by a ratchet pattern ges. The forces range from 20 to 130 pN.
consisting of short rows of nanowires that rectify the
axonal outgrowth [4]. up to hundreds of nanoNewton [8, 9]. However, the
Nanowires may thus provide a basis for advanced control spatial resolution of these methods is limited by the size of
of neuronal growth on a chip, where a large range of the pillars and/or markers to 2 μm at the very best.
functionalities can be implemented, including chemical Nanowires, on the other hand, with their high aspect ratio
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
and small diameter have a great potential for detecting the cytosol. Hollow nanowires connected to an external
small forces with high spatial resolution, limited by the fluidics system avoid these limitations. By combining
achievable density of the nanowires to about 1 μm. Using such nanowires with a microfluidic system for cell
an array of 40 nm diameter and 5 μm long nanowires, capture, an array of individually addressed cells can be
force measurement down to 20 pN has been created with potential applications in systems biology,
demonstrated on growth cone lamelipodia [10], neurobiology, tissue engineering and stem cell
consistent with data obtained using optical tweezers on differentiation.
the same system [11]. The results show that nanowire
arrays can be used as a sensitive force probe that has Nanowire-based biosensors
the advantage of allowing simultaneous measurements
with high probe density and high spatial resolution. Semi-conductor nanowire field effect transistors are a
very sensitive tool for detection of biomolecules. The
Hollow nanowires binding of analyte molecules to immobilized DNA or
antibody probes may result in a change in the surface
The controlled transfer of specific molecules into (and charge, thereby changing the nanowire conductance.
out of) cells is a fundamental tool in cell biology. This method has been used successfully to detect single
Electroporation is widely used in bulk and on single cells. viruses, cancer markers, and proteins [17-19].
However, it merely opens up a conduit for diffusional
transport into or out of the cell. Microinjection have been Nanowire-based electrodes for neural interfaces
developed to provide a more controlled and selective
transport into single cells [12]. Large needles require very The development of neural interface is a rapidly growing
slow movement of the needles to allow the adaptation of field. Standard neural electrodes have sizes in the
the cytoskeleton [13, 14]. Decreasing the size of the micrometer range and their implantation triggers a strong
inflammatory response that often makes it necessary to
needle to the nanoscale minimizes any deleterious effect
remove the electrode. It has been shown that carbon
on the cell. Furthermore, arrays of needles can be
nanotubes at the surface of neural electrodes improve
defined on a flat substrate for massively parallel single- the electrical properties of the electrodes and elicit a
cell experiments. One example involves the binding of lower tissue inflammatory response [20]. Carbon
plasmid DNA to the nanoneedles and the subsequent nanotubes form a very strong seal with the neurons,
impalfection of cells with a gfp-coding plasmid [15]. which is also expected to be the case using nanowires.
Another example involves hollow nanowires that are Nanowire field effect transistor arrays have been used to
filled with the molecule of interest and used similarly form nanoscale junctions with axons and dendrites of
[16]. In both cases the wires are preloaded and used neurons cultured on the array. The nanowire transistors
only once and furthermore rely on passive release in
Figure 3. Hollow nanowires for molecular transport. (LEFT)
Initially GaAs/Al2O3 core/shell nanowires are grown. Subse-
quently the GaAs core is etched resulting in a hollow Al2O3
nanowire. (CENTER) Schematic of a cell impaled by a na-
nowire with molecules diffusing from the bottom reservoir.
(RIGHT) Macrophages expressing GFP on a surface. Where
the hollow nanowires establish a connection across the de-
vice, membrane impermeable propidium is injected by dif- Figure 4. Scanning electron micrograph of nanowire-based
fusion into the cells. electrodes.
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Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
could stimulate and inhibit neuronal signals, as well as [10] Hallstrom, W., et al., Twenty-picoNewton force
measuring their amplitude and firing rate [21]. detection from neural growth cones using nanowire arrays.
It has been shown that neurons can grow and thrive on under review in Nano Letters
vertical nanowire substrates [15, 22]. The cell survival was
higher on nanowire substrates compared to controls [1 Cojoc, D., et al., Properties of the force exerted by
1]
(growth on flat surfaces) despite the fact that the cells filopodia and lamellipodia and the involvement of cytoskeletal
were penetrated by the nanowires. This suggests that components. PLoS One, 2007. 2(10): p. e1072
nanowire-based electrodes will form tighter junctions with
the neurons and therefore will record or stimulate more [12] Zhang, Y. and L.C. Yu, Single-cell microinjection
efficiently. In this context, new electrodes consisting of technology in cell biology. Bioessays, 2008. 30(6): p. 606-610
vertical nanowires on the surface of a microelectrode are
[13] Thielecke, H., Impidjati, and G.R. Fuhr, Biopsy on living
being developed for brain implantation purposes. Such cells by ultra slow instrument movement. Journal of Physics-
nano-electrodes could communicate with multiple Condensed Matter, 2006. 18(18): p. S627-S637
individual neurons in the brain on a long-term basis. The
possible applications are diverse, ranging from [14] Thielecke, H., I.H. Zimmermann, and G.R. Fuhr, Gentle
fundamental studies of mechanisms of learning to cell handling with an ultra-slow instrument: creep-
therapeutic treatment of Parkinson's disease. manipulation of cells. Microsystem Technologies-Micro-and
Nanosystems-Information Storage and Processing Systems,
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[22] Hallstrom, W., et al., Gallium phosphide nanowires as a
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
59. “Quantum transport length scales in silicon-based Lind, Thomas Mårtensson, Philippe Caroff, Truls
semiconducting nanowires: Surface roughness effects” Löwgren, B. Jonas Ohlsson, Lars Samuelson, and Lars-
Lherbier A, Persson MP, Niquet YM, et al. PHYSICAL Erik Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
REVIEW B 77, 085301 (2008) ELECTRON DEVICES 55, 3030 (2008)
60. “Control of GaP and GaAs Nanowire Morphology 68. “Band Structure Effects on the Scaling Properties of
through Particle and Substrate Chemical Modification” [111] InAs Nanowire MOSFETs” Erik Lind, Martin P.
Kimberly A. Dick, Knut Deppert, Lars Samuelson, L. Persson, Yann-Michel Niquet, and Lars-Erik
Reine Wallenberg, and Frances M. Ross, NANO Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON
LETTERS 8, 4087 (2008) DEVICES
56, 201 (2009)
61. “Heterostructure Barriers in Wrap Gated Nanowire
FETs” Linus E. Fröberg, Carl Rehnstedt, Claes 69. “Controlled polytypic and twin-plane superlattices in
Thelander, Erik Lind, Lars-Erik Wernersson, and Lars III—V nanowires” P. Caroff, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M.
Samuelson, IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS 29, 981 E. Messing, K. Deppert and L. Samuelson, NATURE
(2008) NANOTECHNOLOGY 4, 50 (2009)
62. “Analysing the capacitance—voltage measurements 70. “Preferential Interface Nucleation: An Expansion of
of vertical wrapped-gated nanowires” O. Karlström, A. the VLS Growth Mechanism for Nanowires” By Brent
Wacker, K. Nilsson, G. Astromskas, S. Roddaro, L. A. Wacaser, Kimberly A. Dick, Jonas Johansson,
Samuelson, and L.-E. Wernersson, Magnus T. Borgström, Knut Deppert, and Lars
NANOTECHNOLOGY 19, 435201 (2008) Samuelson, ADVANCED MATERIALS 21, 153 (2009)
63. “Vertical InAs Nanowire Wrap Gate Transistors on 71. “X-ray measurements of the strain and shape of
Si Substrates” Carl Rehnstedt, Thomas Mårtensson, dielectric/metallic wrap-gated InAs nanowires” J.
Claes Thelander, Lars Samuelson, and Lars-Erik Eymery, V. Favre-Nicolin, L. Fröberg, and L. Samuelson,
Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 94, 131911 (2009)
DEVICES 55, 3037 (2008)
72. “Effects of Supersaturation on the Crystal Structure
64. “Precursor evaluation for in situ InP nanowire of Gold Seeded III-V Nanowires” Jonas Johansson, Lisa
doping” M. T. Borgström, E. Norberg, P. Wickert, H. A. S. Karlsson, Kimberly A. Dick, Jessica Bolinsson, Brent
Nilsson, J. Trägårdh, K. A. Dick, G. Statkute, P. Ramvall, A. Wacaser, Knut Deppert, and Lars Samuelson,
K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, NANOTECHNOLOGY CRYSTAL GROWTH & DESIGN 9, 766 (2009)
19, 445602 (2008)
73. “Structural Investigations of Core-shell Nanowires
65. “Transients in the Formation of Nanowire Using Grazing Incidence X-ray Diffraction” Mario
Heterostructures” Linus E. Fröberg, Brent A. Wacaser, Keplinger, Thomas Mårtensson, Julian Stangl, Eugen
Jakob B. Wagner, Sören Jeppesen, B. Jonas Ohlsson, Wintersberger, Bernhard Mandl, Dominik Kriegner,
Knut Deppert, and Lars Samuelson, NANO LETTERS Va´clav Holy´, Gunther Bauer, Knut Deppert, and Lars
8, 3815 (2008) Samuelson NANO LETTERS 9, 1877 (2009)
66. “A review of nanowire growth promoted by alloys 74. “Microphotoluminescence studies of tunable
and non-alloying elements with emphasis on Au-assisted wurtzite InAs0.85P0.15 quantum dots embedded in
III-V nanowires” Kimberly A. Dick, PROGRESS IN wurtzite InP nanowires” Niklas Sköld, Mats-Erik Pistol,
CRYSTAL GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION OF Kimberly A. Dick, Craig Pryor, Jakob B. Wagner, Lisa S.
MATERIALS 54, 138 (2008) Karlsson, and Lars Samuelson, PHYSICAL REVIEW B
80, 041312(R) (2009)
67. “Development of a Vertical Wrap-Gated InAs FET”
Claes Thelander, Carl Rehnstedt, Linus E. Fröberg, Erik 75. “Giant, Level-Dependent g Factors in InSb Nanowire
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![Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers
Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications
Quantum Dots” Henrik A. Nilsson, Philippe Caroff, 83. “Vertical epitaxial wire-on-wire growth of Ge/Si on
Claes Thelander, Marcus Larsson, Jakob B. Wagner, Si(100) substrate”, T. Shimizu, Z. Zhang, S. Shingubara,
Lars-Erik Wernersson, Lars Samuelson, and H. Q. Xu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, NANO LETTERS 9, 1523
NANO LETTERS 9, 3151 (2009) (2009)
76. “Three-dimensional morphology of GaP-GaAs 84. “Ordered high-density Si(100) nanowire arrays
nanowires revealed by transmission electron microscopy epitaxially grown by bottom imprint method” Z. Zhang,
tomography”, M.A. Verheijen, R. E. Algra, M. T. T. Shimizu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, ADVANCED
Borgström, W. G. G. Immink, E. Sourty, W. J. P. van MATERIALS 21, 2824 (2009)
Enckevort, E. Vlieg, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, NANO
LETTERS 7, 3051 (2007) 85. “Bottom-Imprint Method for VSS Growth of
Epitaxial Silicon Nanowire Arrays with an Aluminium
77. “Twinning superlattices in indium phosphide Catalyst”, Zhang Zhang, Tomohiro Shimizu, Lijun Chen,
nanowires”, R. E. Algra, M. A. Verheijen, M. T. Stephan Senz, Ulrich Gösele, ADVANCED MATERIALS
Borgström, L. F. Feiner, W. G. G. Immink, W. J. P. van 21, published on web (2009)
Enckevort, E. Vlieg, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, NATURE 456,
369 (2008) 86. “Orientational dependence of charge transport in
disordered silicon nanowires”, M. P. Persson, A.
78. “Zinc Incorporation via the Vapor-Liquid-Solid Lherbier, Y. M. Niquet, F. Triozon and S. Roche, NANO
Mechanism into InP Nanowires”, M. H. M. van Weert, LETTERS 8, 4146 (2008)
A. Helman, W. van den Einden, R. E. Algra, M. A.
Verheijen, M. T. Borgström, W. G. G. Immink, J. J. Kelly, 87. ”Elastic relaxation in patterned and implanted
L. P. Kouwenhoven, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, JOURNAL OF strained Silicon On Insulator, S. Baudot, F. Andrieu, F.
THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 131, 4578 Rieutord, and J. Eymery, JOURNAL OF APPLIED
(2009) PHYSICS 105, 114302 (2009)
79. “Extended arrays of vertically aligned sub-10 nm 88. “Coherent diffraction imaging of single 95 nm
diameter [100] Si nanowires by metal-assisted chemical nanowires”, V. Favre-Nicolin, J. Eymery, R. Koester, and
etching”, Z. P. Huang, X. X. Zhang, M. Reiche, L. F. Liu, P. Gentile, PHYSICAL REVIEW B 79, 195401 (2009)
W. Lee, T. Shimizu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, NANO
LETTERS 8, 3046 (2008) 89. “Selective excitation and detection of spin states in
a single nanowire quantum dot”, M. H .M. van Weert,
80. “Ex situ n and p doping of vertical epitaxial short N. Akopian, U. Perinetti, M. P. van Kouwen, R. E. Algra,
silicon nanowires by ion implantation”, P. Das Kanungo, M. A. Verheijen, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, L. P. Kouwenhoven
R. Kögler, T.- K. Nguyen-Duc, N. D. Zakharov, P. and V. Zwiller, NANO LETTERS 9, 1989 (2009)
Werner, and U. Gösele, NANOTECHNOLOGY 20,
165706 (2009) 90. “Orientation-Dependent Optical-Polarization
Properties of Single Quantum Dots in Nanowires”,
81. “Ordered Arrays of Vertically Aligned [110] Silicon
Maarten H. M. van Weert, Nika Akopian , Freek
Nanowires by Suppressing the Crystallographically
Kelkensberg, Umberto Perinetti , Maarten P. van
Preferred <100> Etching Directions” Zhipeng Huang,
Kouwen , Jaime Gómez Rivas , Magnus T. Borgström,
Tomohiro Shimizu, Stephan Senz, Zhang Zhang,
Xuanxiong Zhang, Woo Lee, Nadine Geyer and Ulrich Rienk E. Algra, Marcel A. Verheijen, Erik P. A. M.
Gösele, NANO LETTERS 9, 2519 (2009) Bakkers , Leo P. Kouwenhoven, and Val Zwiller, SMALL
5, 2134 (2009)
82. “Silicon nanowires: A review on aspects of their
growth and their electrical properties”, V. Schmidt, J. 91. “Boosting the on-current of a n-channel nanowire
V. Wittemann, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, ADVANCED tunnel field-effect transistor by source material
MATERIALS 21, 2681 (2009) optimization”, Anne S. Verhulst, William G.
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nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda
- 2. nanoICT STRATEGIC RESEARCH AGENDA Version 1.0
- 4. Index 1. Introduction 7 2. Strategic Research Agendas 19 2.1 Carbon Nanotubes 21 2.2 Modelling 24 2.3 Mono-Molecular Electronics 27 2.4 Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) 30 3. Annex 1 - nanoICT Working Groups position papers 33 3.1 Carbon Nanotubes 35 3.2 Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices 69 3.3 Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and opportunities 90 3.4 BioInspired Nanomaterials 97 3.5 Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) 101 3.6 Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 117 4. Annex 2 - nanoICT groups & statistics 161 Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups 163 Annex 2.2 Statistics 170
- 6. Foreword At this stage, it is impossible to predict the exact course in the field of emerging nano-devices that appear the nanotechnology revolution will take and, therefore, promising for future take up by the industry. its effect on our daily lives. We can, however, be reasonably sure that nanotechnology will have a This first version of the research agenda is an open profound impact on the future development of many document to comments and/or suggestions and covers commercial sectors. The impact will likely be greatest in a very wide range of interdisciplinary areas of research the strategic nanoelectronics (ICT nanoscale devices - and development, such as Mono-Molecular electronics, nanoICT) sector, currently one of the key enabling Bioelectronics, NEMS, Nanotubes, Modelling, etc. technologies for sustainable and competitive growth in providing insights in these areas, currently very active Europe, where the demand for technologies permitting worldwide. faster processing of data at lower costs will remain undiminished. Expected impact of initiatives such as this nanoICT strategic research agenda is to enhance visibility, Considering the fast and continuous evolvements in the communication and networking between specialists in inter-disciplinary field of Nanotechnology and in several fields, facilitate rapid information flow, look for particular of “ICT nanoscale devices”, initiatives such as areas of common ground between different the nanoICT Coordination Action1 should identify and technologies and therefore shape and consolidate the monitor the new emerging fields research drivers of European research community. interest for this Community and put in place instruments/measures to address them. I hope you will enjoy reading this document and look forward to the next edition beginning of 2011 which will One of the main challenges is the timely identification explore some new nanoICT related research areas such and substantiation of new directions for the physical as Spintronics, Nanophotonics and Nanophononics. realisation of ICT beyond CMOS that have a high Please contact coordinators of the working groups if potential for significant breakthrough and that may you are interested in providing a comment or would like become the foundations of the information and to see your research featured in future editions. communication technologies and innovations of tomorrow. The editor Therefore, the first version of the nanoICT research agenda provides focus and accelerate progress in Dr. Antonio Correia identified R&D directions and priorities for the Coordinator of the nanoICT CA “nanoscale ICT devices and systems” FET proactive program and guide public research institutions, keeping Phantoms Foundation Europe at the forefront in research. In addition, it aims (Madrid, Spain) to be a valid source of guidance, not only for the nanoICT scientific community but also for the industry (roadmapping issues), providing the latest developments 1 www.nanoICT.org nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 ·5
- 10. Introduction 1. Introduction are new challenging areas of research, with great Robert Baptist (CEA, France) promise for novel types of information processing and storage. This introduction does not pretend to be an historical description of developments in nanoscience or All these aspects of research achieved during the last 20 nanotechnology over the last 20 years. It is only a guide years for information and communication technologies through various domains that will influence Future Emerging (ICT), as well as the challenges for their use in the field Technologies (FET) and will def initely inspire or master our of electronics and ICT are presented in the following future. chapters, together with the strategic research agenda and their respective position papers. This research is First, the text introduces the context of nanoelectronics and developed in the world and in many cases specific 7 reports written by experts of the Nano-ICT project on well technologies have been developed for integration into def ined topics. It then tries to indicate some (new) standard microelectronics. Applications will be short or perspectives that the author think should be important in medium term depending on the maturity of the domain. the upcoming times. The following chapters, written by experts, give an insight into their time schedules. In order to give some freedom to the reader and enrich the next version of this first draft, this document is voluntarily not However, apart from the domains of investigation that split, nor well organized, into chapters, paragraphs, historical we briefly present below, various possible outlined development, tables, etc. This absence of structure should scenarios could transform in a different manner the enable to point out missing but important issues and “convergence” between (bio) nanomaterials and ICT; generate debates about the respective importance of consequently our vision on the future of electronics (in different f ields. Feel free to signal corrections and suggest a broad sense) can be enlarged. Here, in this preface comments/disagreements to enrich this f irst version and we propose to give an overview of leading trends which prepare the next one, we have to set up during the fourth are not directly covered presently by the nanoICT year of the nanoICT Coordination Action. actions but which could have a real impact in the future of nanoelectronics and its relation to ICT. Naturally Since their discovery by Iijima in 1991, carbon nanotubes many subjects are indeed treated in other European have been the subject of intensive research and programs and when appropriate we will refer to them. development activity. Indeed, they combine a very broad range of exceptional intrinsic properties, which This overview is not intended to describe things have caused interest in many fields of science and accurately or to present recent published literature but technology such photonics and nanoelectronics. The rather to provide a possible guidance towards the 2020- same occurs with semiconducting nanowires which, for 2030 time frames. All information and points of view example, benefit from the fourth dimension in are not expressed in this first draft but will be microelectronics, with nanostructure-based NEMS complemented by the data in the next editions. reaching the quantum world, or with nanotubes, graphene and organic based spintronics research, which nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 ·9
- 11. Introduction Classical Microelectronics These industrials will fabricate all advanced microelectronics microprocessors and hyper dense Microelectronics follows technical changes and memories to be used in the world and this is thanks to evolutions suggested or required by the International the huge investments needed to produce nano CMOS Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS, on large 300 or 450 mm wafers. Probably, all www.itrs.net) to keep on track with the so-called performances will get better (by a factor of 1000- Moore’s law, and it also follows worldwide economical 1000000) during the next decades. and societal parameters. These developments reflect also national or international technical programs (such This mainstream semiconductor technology is today as those from ENIAC www.eniac.eu, or EPOSS different from what it was 20 years ago before internet, www.smart-systems-integration.org/public in Europe) gaming and mobile phones existed. In particular from and of course the strategies of industrial or research that time, conventional technology has integrated new clusters and their alliances in this field, for example the functions such as RF functions, switches, sensors, etc recent IBM alliance www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/ (which are often fabricated using semiconductor and pressrelease/27222.wss. Any future non CMOS devices nanoelectronics technologies in particular CMOS already studied in laboratories which could replace the technology). All these instruments get progressively CMOS FET as logic switches shall present significant ubiquitous. These orientations are connected to the advantages over these ultimate classical FETs in terms of “More Moore” and “More than Moore” approaches density, power performances and cost. which respectively lead to fabrication of devices at the nano scale and devices with added functions extending Considering Moore’s law and its scale reduction, to Moore's Law. Today, it seems consequently more which future devices coming from other technologies difficult to keep only such a simplified presentation of should be compared, it is enough to mention the “classical” electronics in terms of an industrial sector various devices sizes and the date of their possible working only on “memories and logic for computing” production to see the difficulties in front of any new even if the huge investments characteristic of the device willing to enter this field; if we take the case of microelectronics industry give to this sector a particular logic devices, we get the following table: importance. The diversity of applications listed in the recent call of ENIAC, focusing on “Nanoelectronics for Health & Wellness”, “Nanoelectronics for Transport & Mobility”, Nanoelectronics for Security & Safety”, “Nanoelectronics for Energy & Environment”, “Nanoelectronics for Communication”, “Nanoelectronics Table 1. Roadmap (according to the ITRS) for the introduction for E-Society”, show that microelectronics has been much of next technology generations (logic circuits, including expanded and is now infiltrating all human activities. microprocessors). R&D activities will be carried out by microelectronics companies before introduction into A consequence of this is that the components are no production. When physical fundamental limits will be reached longer limited to information processing and (~ 2020) either these limits will be overcome or the economic dissemination/ communication (telecom) but also and societal interest will focus on alternative science. Note include actuators, transducers, restorers of senses that for flash memories, the agenda is even more aggressive. (displays, electronic noose), "caregiver for defects" (prostheses, artificial retinas…), “stokers” of energy To solve future problems such as variability between (micro-batteries, fuel cells…), and high power (smart) devices or energy dissipation, new materials listed in the devices... Integration as described by “EPoSS, the ITRS could be used (for example Ge and III-V materials European Technology Platform on Smart Systems integrated in the transistor channel or high-k dielectrics Integration” www.smart-systems-integration.org/public for the gate stacking or ionic compounds for memories) gives an idea of R&D and innovation needs as well as and advantages of pursuing Moore’s law strategy are policy requirements related to Smart Systems manifest: pushing technology to its limits will result in a Integration and integrated Micro and Nanosystems. reduced number (<5) players in the world. 10 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 12. Introduction Moreover, like in the car industry, where devices for appendix a summary of the status as revealed from this engine control systems, headlight, ABS, car camera workshop (written by J-C Harmand and F. Glas). recorder, anticollision radar, climate control units, comfort, have invaded the automobile and increased its Incorporated in this article is also a status of the field norms for security, it appears that these applications, description provided by J. Johansson and P. Caroff. In able to connect continuously and universally, will be order to provide a more detailed description of the level present everywhere, with secured connectivity: they will of understanding and control of physical properties of modify our ways of life and also shape the future of nanowires, a special chapter has been provided for this electronics. by L. P. Kouwenhoven and V. Zwiller. This chapter also deals in more detail with the opportunities for opto- These technical evolutions in microelectronics and in electronic devices based on NW technology. Another integration of systems accompany the evolution in ICT important area of NW research relates to their where the notion of information is today much more application for Energy harvesting as implemented in connected to gaming, energy aspects, environmental solar cells and thermoelectrics. For the use of NWs in context, health and neuroscience, and their respective photo-voltaics was recently started an EU-project called research areas than some years ago. Its future is AMON-RA (www.amonra.eu). We enclose two short continuously reshaped in particular by research done in descriptions of nanowires for energy, provided by K. laboratories. This is what we will try to present briefly Deppert. after the introduction of the various conclusions of the different working groups in nanoICT. An increasingly important aspect of nanowire research deals with their use in biology and in medical Strategic agenda from nanoICT groups applications. We include here also a description of the state of the art as provided by C. Prinz and J. Tegenfeldt. Returning to carbon nanotubes, the SRA and position paper written by W. Milne and co-workers Finally, for this NW activity is also included an insight on shows their huge potential even if their integration into this domain written by Jean-Christophe Harmand and his CMOS technologies either for vias or for transistors still colleagues from the French GDR on nanowires seems to be problematic. A plethora of scientific and (http://iemn.univ-lille1.fr/GDRNanofil/accueil_fr. html) technical results are described covering many and from the Steering Committee, of the Growth applications. In the next version of the position paper, Workshop 2009 (NWG2009). due next year, the working group will incorporate a state of the art description of the physics of graphene. NEMS. The situation, here is paradoxical. Huge Graphene and carbon nanotubes are indeed major progress has been made both from the scientific and players in the so-called “Carbon-based nanoelectronics” technical points of view but neither reaching quantum in the ITRS roadmap. limits for vibrations nor the possibility of detecting one molecule, nor the possibility of fabricating millions of Semiconducting nanowires (NW) are treated by identical NEMS is opening the door to clearly defined Lars Samuelson and co-workers in a large report consumer applications (except maybe mass integrating the latest results from the integrated project spectrometers for environmental or medical “NODE” (www.node-project.com). We also reproduce applications?). However Juergen Brugger and co- the introduction provided by L. Samuelson in its report, workers see a large potential for Nano-electro which presents other aspects of development of this Mechanical Switches owing to the possibility of technology. producing chips which will include a huge number of NEMS. Other central areas of nanowire research and applications deal with fundamental studies of nanowire Spintronics, Collective Spin Devices, Spin growth, as very actively pursued through the Torque Transfer Devices and memories. arrangements of a series of four European Workshops Spinelectronics merges magnetism with electronics. It on Growth on nanowires, most recently the 4th already find applications in magnetic disk drives and arranged in Paris in October 2009. We include as an non-volatile memories (MRAM) and all electronic nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 11
- 13. Introduction designers are dreaming of a universal memory which objective was assumed to represent a complete would combine non-volatility, high speed, high density, breakthrough in the field of memory devices and infinite cyclability. New MRAM designs may allow related production technologies. The final objectives of achieving this combination of qualities. Apart of this, the project were (i) the understanding of the memory new applications are emerging for sensing, storing, switching effect and of the electrode materials impact, processing, transmitting information. New architectures (ii) the demonstration of the cell functionality with the mixing functions such as logic and memories in a proposed active material, (iii) the assessment of the delocalised geometry are appearing. The position paper manufacturability of the new proposed active materials written under the direction of Claude Chappert will and electrodes, (iv) the identification of the array present us all these directions. architectures, programming and reading conditions, and (v) the reliability issues and scalability of the proposed Resistive switches (or: Resistive Random Access approach for mass-storage applications beyond the Memories, RRAM, or: memristive devices) based on 32nm technological node. two-terminal nanometre size cells using oxides or higher chalcogenides as active material represents an emerging The team - IMEC (Belgium), STMicroelectronics/ concept in nanoelectronics. Similar to spintronic Numonyx, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche/MDM, concepts, it reaches far beyond the conventional CMOS Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per la technology and still can be merged with the technology Nanoelettronica (Italy), and Centre National de la of today in order to provide a migration path. There are Recherche Scientifique/ IM2NP (France), RWTH three main variants of memristive systems all of which Aachen University (Germany) - focused the activities on are utilizing internal redox processes and a related high-density resistive switching non-volatile memories change in the conductance to store the information: based on binary resistive switching oxides and Electrochemical metallization cells (ECM, also called CuTCNQ. Among the other topics, special attention PMC or CBRAM) are build from an electrochemically was drawn on the physical mechanisms, modeling and active electrode such as Ag or Cu, a very thin ion scaling of the memory switching process, leading to a conductor, and an inert counter electrode. The anodic physical modeling and enabling evaluating basic scaling dissolution and cathodic recrystallization of the active potential. electrode material leads to the formation of nanofilaments. The electrochemical formation and The SRA and position paper on Mono Molecular dissolution of these filaments by bipolar voltage pulses Electronics are presented by C. Joachim and co- controls the resistance state of the cell. workers whereas Nanophotonics (Clivia Sotomayor) will be presented together with the last results from the The valence change mechanism (VCM) uses redox European Technology Platform PHOTONICS 21 processes in transition metal oxides such as TiO2 and Photonics21 (see the PHOTONICS 21 Strategic WO3 controlled by the local movement of oxygen Research Agenda at www.photonics21.org ). Another vacancies - again triggered by bipolar voltage pulses. The FP6 programme, MOLOC (www.moloc.ulg.ac.be) - thermo-chemical mechanism (TCM) is based on a Molecular Logic Circuits - aims at the design and thermal formation and dissolution of conductive demonstration of the basic principles, feasibility and filament in transition metal oxides using unipolar pulses. significant advantages of logic circuits, which emphasize the internal states of a single molecule (or of assemblies Finally, the phase change memories (PCM) represent of atoms or molecules) as the basic element. another unipolar, thermally driven switching mechanism. It is based on the formation of amorphous Rather than being used for a mere switching operation, and crystalline selenides and tellurides which show very the molecule is designed to act in itself as an entire logic different resistivities. The objective EMMA project circuit. Molecules (or nano-structures, dopants in bulk (www.imec.be/EMMA) in the 6th Framework Program material, etc.) exhibit multiple (quasi) stationary states has been the investigation of new solutions for massive by virtue of their confined size. The consortium, non-volatile data storage solid-state memories, based on therefore, makes an advantage of the nanoscale, which resistive switching systems. The achievement of this is imposed by the cardinal technological need to reduce 12 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 14. Introduction the size of the circuit. Beyond this, MOLOC further performed, too. The previous version of the present reduces the scale by implementing logic operations report (resulting from the 2008 meeting) has been directly at the hardware level and by designing circuits in updated reflecting the new issues that have been which the logic goes beyond two-valued Boolean recognized as relevant and of significant current interest. algorithms, i.e. the variables are not restricted to be An extended Position paper for the Theory and either true (≡ 1) or false (≡ 0). A notable feature of the Modelling Working Group is presented by M. Macucci MOLOC project is the close collaboration between and co-workers. experiment and theory. Biology applied to information. Over the last During the 2009 meeting of the Theory and Modelling decades, tremendous progresses have been achieved in working group the current status of modelling for our capability to do work at the nm scale. Design and nanoscale information processing and storage devices fabrication of new nano-objects, ingenious and has been discussed and the main issues on which sophisticated experimental set up dedicated to collaboration within the modelling community is needed characterize, manipulate and organize matter at have been pointed out (see also the European initiative nanoscale. Nanosystems and nanoobjects open new http://vonbiber.iet.unipi.it ). area with a dominant role of interface properties increasing the level of complexity. Nanosciences and An analysis of the current situation in Europe in nanotechnology have a great deal to learn from comparison with that in the rest of the world has been bioscience, but it might also be the other way around: Figure 1. Road map for Organic and Printed Electronics showing the variety of applications of this domain. (OE-A 2009) nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 13
- 15. Introduction “unless you can build it yourself, you don’t understand same thing: electronics beyond the classical (silicon) it”. In other words, by trying to build nanostructures approach” (taken from the recent brochure of the Organic and nanomachines, our understanding of natural Electronics Association (OE-A), www.vdma.org/oe-a). complex architectures would greatly increase and generate new insights for the extraordinary complexity Organic Electronics is developing very rapidly as we see in Nature. illustrated by the recent success of the Large-area, Organic and Printed Electronics Convention (LOPE-C For these reasons nanoscale bio-medical applications conference) held in Frankfurt in 2009 (www.lope- and nano-robotics applied to treatment of information c.com/) and by the publication of the 3rd edition of the inside the body will be treated during the second year OE-A brochure "Organic and Printed Electronics" which of the coordinated action by a new group headed by give an overview of the Organic Electronic Roadmap as Joseph Samitier and Jean Pierre Aimé. This subject will provided by OE-A experts (a working group within the be coordinated together with themes treated below, VDMA — the German Engineering Federation). The OE- the Bio-Inspired construction in Electronics and A, is the leading international industry association for “calculus” with DNA or Synthetic Biology. organic and printed electronics. Co adaptation of ICT with the ubiquitous world Europe has top-level research laboratories and companies in organic electronics and printing Besides the above domains related to nanomaterials and technologies. The objects used by OE are small to their applications to nanoelectronics, researchers are molecules, polymers, SAMS (self assembled monolayers) also interested in other directions. To shed some light on and hybrids including nanoparticles like nanowires, these various orientations, we divide them into domains nanotubes or quantum dots combined with organic where technology is already in process development, films. This means that OE and molecular electronics those with roadmaps already in place and finally those share the same background knowledge; however for OE, where “weak” signals indicate possible potential in technologies used for fabrication are low cost ones, like nanotechnologies. roll to roll or printing technologies very different from techniques used in microelectronics.Due to the inherent One “pre-industrial” technology: Organic control of fabrication at the nanoscale of polymers and Electronics molecules in OE, this domain could also move towards deep submicronic (nanoscale) devices fabrication and In general, technology is used after years of research on meet, in the future, molecular scale electronics and materials and on processes and after long discussions “Beyond CMOS” R&D. In this case, the advantages of on standards (which have to be accepted worldwide). It organic electronics such as flexibility, light weight and low is only then when the time is appropriate in economic cost would evolve and boundaries between terms that the technology becomes more appealing and nanoelectronics and organic electronics would begin to the potential applications more unavoidable that it will blur. Some precursors of this evolution can be found in begin to grow. This was for example the case with liquid the recent “OE-A roadmap for Organic Electronics” crystal displays (LCD) which have taken the place of published version (www.vdma.org/oe-a). But the cathode ray tubes, or with CD taking the place of vinyl emergence of a domain where, roughly speaking, disks. This will probably be the case for Organic organic materials and devices will be merged with Electronics and printed technologies. And this has a inorganic ones (CMOS) is not for tomorrow (even if direct bearing on nanomaterials and ICT. Indeed organic CMOS-like device are now available). “Organic Electronics is based on the combination of a new class of materials and large area, high volume The activity in OE leads to applications for the more deposition and patterning techniques. Often terms like mature technologies (OLED, OFET...) as listed just printed, plastic, polymer, flexible, printable organic, above in figure 1 but also generates new investigation, large area or thin film electronics or abbreviations like for example, on new devices such as organic memories OLAE or FOLAE (Flexible and/or Organic Large Area or artificial neurones and synapses. These two last Electronics) are used, and they essentially all mean the developments presuppose that by using nano-structures, 14 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 16. Introduction the problem of hyper-connectivity similar to that found traditional computer CMOS devices typically possess in the brain will be solved mainly by using massive 3D less than 10 connections). This approach is, with the circuitry. one on self reproducible cellular automata (see below), one promising way to solve complex problems and is One also observes the increasing activity for developing treated in Europe within various FP7 projects and carbon based coherent spintronics (including seminars like http://nanoswec2009.cnanogso.org/. nanotubes, graphene and organic compounds). Indeed, spin orbit coupling and hyperfine interaction are very Carbon nanotubes, nanowires, DNA strands, small in carbon based materials, which yield very long conductive polymers have been envisaged for the dense relaxation times. The manipulation of spins in such new circuitry of such “computers”. Indeed, in relation to materials could enable the simultaneous combination of these approaches on the brain we can also mention the memory applications and data processes, opening new “bio-inspired nanomaterials and nanosystems” to help avenues for ICTs, including innovation in quantum fabricate connections, nanostructured materials, computing. templates such as the various scaffolds recently fabricated using DNA knitting. Extension to microscopic Brain-Inspired Electronics materials such as cells or bacteria may even be pursued to develop a technology for processing information by Over the past several years, new institutes on considering them as computers. This is the domain of neurosciences are colonising university campuses and Synthetic Biology that we will briefly mention later on hospitals everywhere in the world www.dsv.cea. after some digression on chemistry and biology. fr/neurospin/, http://neurosciences.ujf-grenoble.fr/ Nevertheless, the increased “porosity” of all these … In parallel, simulation studies using massively parallel domains of investigation allows to cross-develop many computation on how our brain is working are applications which are at the frontier between developing using large calculus facilities such as in the electronics, neuroscience and health such as repair of EPFL Blue Brain Project (http://bluebrain.epfl.ch/) or spinal cord, implantation of artificial retina, stimulation the FACET research project headed by the Heidelberg of brain by using μ-nanoelectrodes…). In the previous University (ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/ist/docs/ section we showed some of the contributions of brain fet/ie-jan 07-24_en.pdf). research in microelectronics. The first project aims at stimulating and exploring the Conversely microelectronics enables biology to brain activity using (today) 10.000 (virtual) Si - CMOS understand fundamental phenomena. We only mention based neurons wired while the second will develop a here as an example the work of P. Fromherz’ group Neural Processing Unit to emulate, in high speed, VLSI which is studying the electrical interfacing of a large number of Neurons (5x105) and Synapses (109) semiconductors and of living cells, in particular of in order to emulate the neocortex. These two examples neurons. “The research is directed (i) to reveal the are not an attempt to “create” a brain, but these structure and dynamics of the cell-semiconductor projects together with workshops such as the one on interface and (ii) to build up hybrid neuroelectronic Brain-Inspired Electronic Circuits and Systems (BIECS), networks”. (www.biochem.mpg.de/mnphys/). www.essderc2009.org/, indicate some guidelines taken by the research on ICT and particularly on the Chemio and Bio-Inspired construction in convergence between nanosciences and cognitive Electronics sciences aiming at a better knowledge on how the brain is working. However, we are far from being able to put The biological approach to nanotechnology has together the pieces of nanomaterials (used in devices produced self-assembled objects, arrays and devices; exhibiting a neural function), with the ones of likewise, it has achieved the chemical identification of architectures (functional building blocks), without inorganic species and the control of their growth in forgetting the billions of interconnections between aggregates (dots of gold, cadmium...). Can these neurones (neurons cells typically form tens of thousands approaches now be integrated to produce useful of connections with their neighbours, whereas systems? nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 15
- 17. Introduction Design and fabrication of new nanodevices is enabled such interfaces can be optimized through self assembly by using objects and techniques from chemistry and using aptamers, peptids with phage (cell) display biology. A straightforward comparison of materials and selection or genetic engineering of protein based tools used in these two domains show that manipulation materials. Applications of chemo and bio-inspired and organization of matter is possible in both cases at fabrications are no longer purely speculative (A. the nanoscale (see table 2). Indeed, various ingenious Belcher, Science 12 May 2006 312: 885-888) and bio- and sophisticated experiments have been dedicated to inspired nanotechnology is a rapidly progressing the fabrication of scaffolds either for interconnections interdisciplinary research field. In the near term, the or for functional building blocks using viruses and DNA. chief benefits will most likely be in basic research. Naturally, Europe has a presence and a FP7 project like However, as nanosystems used in research will be “BeNatural”, (Bioengineered Nanomaterials for constructed at large scales and commercialized, they will Research and Applications, http://cordis.europa.eu) move from gathering basic knowledge in laboratories to “uses Nature as a model for New Nanotechnology- collecting and treating data in applied engineering. The based processes” and addresses problems which could first applications could be those in which the relatively be useful for ICT. In particular this is thanks to the high cost and limited capabilities of these first generation possible lower fabrication costs than in standard devices will still provide significant improvements in approaches (see for example the creation of nanoscale overall system capability to justify the cost. Before shapes and patterns using DNA... (N. Seeman, inventor industrial applications can be developed from of DNA nanotechnology at http://seemanlab4.chem. nanosciences advances, molecular nanotechnology itself nyu.edu/nanotech.html, P. W. K. Rothemund, (Nature, must become a practical discipline instead of just a Vol 440|16 March 2006), A. Turberfield theoretical one. www.physics.ox.ac.uk/cm/people/turberfield.htm. There are several promising paths to the building of Two advantages of bio fabrication for electronic devices universal assembles among which are: genetic are that i) it can produce devices which are both engineering, physical chemistry of biomolecules, use of nanoscale and complex and then ii) methods exist for scanning probe microscopies, and combination of top- their production at large scale and even their down and bottom up approaches. Uncertainty remains reproduction. Further, using interface properties (like as to which path is easiest and quickest, and hybrid membranes) complex problems such as, for example, approaches appear quite promising, so efforts should the communication between various different scales be spread across these areas. (the nano AND macro-scale ) can be handled. Today Cells and bacteria as reproducible computers Chemical Assemblies Bio-Chemical Assemblies One fairly new approach which mixes engineering Lego® box Lego® box concepts developed by Von Neumann about self Conjugated &/or metallated DNA, peptides, proteins, reproducible cellular automata (von Neumann, J. 1966, molecules, CNTs, nanowires virus Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata, Univ. of Illinois Assemblies Assemblies Press, Urbana IL.) and techniques from biology is SAMs, vesicules, π-Stacking Membranes, cytoskeleton, Synthetic Biology (SB) (see for example : A synthetic Supramolecular concepts Virus, … oscillatory network of transcriptional regulators, Motors/actuators Motors Michael B. Elowitz & Stanislas Leibler, Nature, vol 43, Rotaxane, Catenane, Microtubule/kinesin, 20 January 2000. Various recent reports, two European Replication Actin/Myosin, ATPase ones, from the EMBO organisation Limited (Self catalysis, …) Replication (by essence) DNA, cells, virus, www.nature.com/embor/index. html, living species “Synthetic Biology, a Nest Pathfinder Initiative” www.biologiesynthetique.fr/uploads/Main/ Table 2. Comparison of materials, tools, devices and advan- programmes_europeens_07.pdf, and an English one pu- tages in chemical and bio-chemical assemblies. By courtesy blished by the Royal Academy of Engineering www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/list/reports/ of G. Bidan (CEA-Grenoble) 16 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 18. Introduction Carbon Nanotubes Syn_bio_dialogue_report.pdf together with the follo- the past 10 years. But here, with cells and bacteria the wing sites give an introduction and overview to the do- insertion of information at the nanoscale level (genome) main and present European activities in SB through the nanoscale pores of the membrane is (www.biologiesynthetique.fr/pmwiki.php/ Main/Ho- naturally connected to the microscopic scale of the mePage and www.synthetic-biology.info/). milieu in which these cells and bacteria are living and reproducing: In a certain sense the network of The goal of SB is to design complex biological processes communication allows a transfer of information by incorporating so-called “bio-bricks” in cells or between the nano and micro-scale and is inherent to bacteria (for example, Escherichia Coli) and reproduce the pair “cell/bacteria - environment”. organisms acting like computers or machines with the advantage of being self reproducible! The approach is Miscellaneous strongly “engineering oriented”. Movies of such bacteria which develop the function of emitting a green A point not covered until now concerns some “new” fluorescence and being reproducible can be found in the fabrication techniques used for nanosciences, recent literature (http://www.nature.com/nature/ nanotechnoloies and nanoelectronics. It is worth, aside journal/v456/n7221/extref/nature07389-s03.mov). from the techniques inspired by biology and described in the previous paragraph to mention such keywords as They give immediately an enlightened vision of the “nano-imprint lithography”, “EUV and parallel potential of SB. Other functions such as logic gates, (maskless) electron beam lithography” (two “rival” oscillators, inverters, memories... have been built and techniques using respectively photons and electron the parallelism between programming languages for beams), “soft lithography”, “elastomeric stamping”, electronics and those used in synthetic biology stressed. “self-assembling”. All these words refer to techniques for replicating or fabricating structures. Depending on The connections with nanoICT are numerous: first, the their degree of development they will be used for synthetic biology community is developing applications nanoscale device fabrication in conventional reminiscent of what is done in ICT: fabrication of microelectronic processes. But in essence they are not devices, communication, calculus, treatment of revolutionary as would be DNA assembling or genetic information; second, techniques for generating modification of cells and bacteria as in synthetic biology. functional genomes and tools like microfluidics, or materials like nanotubes, quantum dots, ... could be Secondly, it is also worth mentioning the opening of used to stimulate, observe, characterize the populations microelectronics towards problems of energy. We of bacteria “doing their job”. extract from the recent ICT call “Towards Zero Power ICT” some targets: New disruptive directions are Whether such living objects will be able in the future to needed for energy-harvesting technologies at the solve complex problems such as the one solved by L. M nanometer and molecular scale, and their integration Adleman in 1994 with DNA strands (salesman problem) with low-power ICT into autonomous nano-scale is not established (Science, Vol. 266, pages 1021—1024; devices for sensing, processing, actuating and November 11, 1994). But it is probably worth to bring communication. the two communities much closer together because interdisciplinarity will open new tracks for investigation Target outcome in such domains as production of energy, depollution and treatment of information. Nano-objects might help a) Foundations of Energy Harvesting at the nano-scale: in measuring and controlling in situ the properties of Demonstration of radically new strategies for energy these micro machines or computers. harvesting and local storage below the micrometer scale. Exploration and harnessing of potential energy Finally one point deserves a special attention. We have sources at that scale including kinetic energy present in seen that in “brain computers” the connectivity the form of random fluctuations, ambient problem is crucial. Today, neither DNA scaffolds, nor electromagnetic radiation, chemical energy and others. carbon nanotubes or nanowires can solve this problem. Research may also address bio-mimicked energy Consequently, architectures have not evolved much over collection and storage systems. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 17
- 19. Introduction Carbon Nanotubes b) Self-powered autonomous nano-scale electronic position papers. It should encourage nanoICT members devices: Autonomous nano scale electronic devices that to react and identify additional topics which were harvest energy from the environment, possibly forgotten. Thanks to this and cooperation among combining multiple sources, and storing it locally. These nanoelectronics initiatives and other fields, e.g. systems would co-ordinate low-power sensing, chemistry, opto/display electronics, biology, computer processing, actuation, communication and energy science, communication, etc Europe should enhance its provision into autonomous wireless nanosystems. knowledge, its capabilities and activities in the field of ICT. Expected impact Various scenarios are likely to shape ICT during the two • The possibility of building autonomous nano-scale next coming decades. We have seen that technology devices (from sensors to actuators), extending the will at the same time follow the traditional miniaturisation of autonomous devices beyond the microelectronics trends and depart from it by level of the 'smart dust' integration of “More than Moore” tendencies, by adopting and integrating new trends of development • New applications in a vast number of ICT fields such (energy, health, environment), and that other incoming as intelligent distributed sensing, for health, safety- technologies such as organic electronics will be major critical systems or environment monitoring players in treatment of information and communication. These few words indicate some of the trends already Weak signals emitted by Quantum Computing, (mono) mentioned above such as ubiquity, autonomy, Molecular Electronics, Synthetic Biology show that the relation with “intelligent” sensing, safety, etc… all range of possible futures could be increased and aspects important in inorganic ICT, but also for enlarged. Silicon was at the heart of the micro/nano future Bio devices. electronics and nanosystems technologies. Quantum computers Bio-inspired technologies could lead to future developments in the fields of Medicine and Health, The quantum bit or “Qubit” is the basic memory Ecology and Energy by nibbling or creating new element of a quantum computer. Some small quantum nanosystems.Well established and new emerging computers have been built already in the 1990s and communities of academics, scientists, engineers and various algorithms designed for quantum logic would others will contribute to this co-evolution between ICT, make it possible to do calculations out of reach for the needs of our society and new discoveries. Hardware classical computers. Different technologies for will perhaps include “new” nanomaterials like carbon “fabricating” the Qubit are available, among them some nanotubes, graphene, nanowires with various elements, related to the Nanoscience field. We refer to two organic molecules, quantum dots, biological bricks such roadmaps http://cordis.europa.eu/ist/fet/qipc.htm as DNA, proteins, viruses and structures like NEMS and http://qist.lanl.gov/qcomp_map.shtml for getting assemblies, reproducible cells and bacteria, hybrids… more information related to ICT considerations and Concepts such as “Classical”, “quantum”, “living” some recent progresses done with solid state devices “complex”, will also probably be used in these future (O’Brien, technical developments aside “information” and www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci; “technology”. 325/5945/1221 and L. DiCarlo et al., Nature 460, 240 (2009). Acknowledgements: The author thanks D. Vuillaume, S. Roche, G. Bidan, K. Hecker, R. Waser, W. Conclusions Milne, C. Joachim, J-C Harmand and J-P Aimé for their comments and their contributions to this preface. To attract the attention of a large spectrum of the scientific ICT community, this survey has been voluntarily written with a broad scope; it is also intended to stimulate critical feedback on the assertion that our group has identified and presented in SRA and 18 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 22. Strategic Research Agendas Carbon Nanotubes 2.1 Carbon Nanotubes Applications in the more distant future will be determined by whether or not the holy grail of CNT growth, chirality and diameter control are achieved. Bill Milne (Cambridge University, UK) and nanoICT Carbon Applications in this category have the largest potential Nanotubes Working Group market: e.g in vias and interconnects, diodes, logic circuits and solar cells. Reproducible, stable Due to the interest generated by the early work on the functionalization and doping could lead to single and physical, chemical and electrical properties of Carbon network transistors, drug delivery, hydrogen storage, Nanotubes (CNTs), there is a vast amount of research fuel cells, nanomedicine and nanofluidics. For these that has been carried out by hundreds of groups applications, much applied science, material and throughout the world. This effort has produced engineering research is still required for realization. The countless potential applications in the ICT field, some final category, which will not be discussed in detail, of which are already in the marketplace, many of which includes long-term ICT devices in quantum technologies are not far behind with others much further away and which require both further research and market many which may never come to fruition. identification. If successful, they will be highly disruptive in fields such as sensors and computing. It is thus very difficult to categorize future research in this field because it is materials-driven, rather than Near-term applications application driven; researchers possess a material for which industry is seeking applications, rather than producing a new device architecture which requires new material to meet the demand. It is clear that the near-term applications of carbon nanotubes will have/already have a simple structure, do not require specificity and take advantage of their physical and chemical properties such as their shape, inertness, strength and (to some extent) conductivity. These applications vary in market size, but tend to be in smaller niche markets. Falling into this category are field emitters/ ionizers, sensors, saturable absorbers, batteries/ Figure 1. Overview of the possible near-term applications of supercapacitors, thermal management, thin film CNTs. Distance from the centre indicates relative time to mar- electrodes, antennae, microlenses and other NEMS ket; position dictates the key issues that need to be addressed. applications. These devices do not require the control Outside the circle, market penetration is the issue, where the over the morphology and structure of CNTs that other proposed devices have yet to justify their application or re- applications require. placement of an established competing technology. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 21
- 23. Strategic Research Agendas Carbon Nanotubes CNTs have already been added to composites to room lighting. The main issue for CNTs, like other field strengthen sports equipment. They have also been emitters, is that they are susceptible to damage in the successfully spun into fibres which are being investigated vacuum conditions typically used in these applications. for various applications. Their advantageous electrical The CNTs can be destroyed by the resulting increased conductivity and flexibility means they are already ion impact at higher pressures. Poor vacuum will result replacing carbon black in carbon brushes, but in the ICT in these applications losing out to established technology field various factors are limiting the CNT from entering on cost. They are also competiting with established the market. Figure 1 summarizes the major obstacles technologies and face quite a barrier to market. that exist for various applications. Supercapacitors and batteries require low-cost, reproducible CNT production over large areas to Emitter lifetime is the primary barrier to field emission become viable alternatives to devices already available. applications such as in microscopes, displays, lighting and Nanofluidics also loses out on cost and requires greater backlighting. Although the use of CNTs for FEDs seems uniformity in the grown CNTs. For electron microscope to be on the wane (for instance, Sony’s spin-out sources, CNTs with high tolerances are required. company "Field Emission Technologies" announced it Consequently, yield is the major issue. There is was closing down in March 2009 due to the inability to insufficient control over the CNT’s dimensions at the raise capital) their use as efficient backlighting in moment even with the most successful reported AMLCDs is still of great interest as is the use of FE-based methods of production. Figure 2. Transistor Technology Roadmap (courtesy of Intel). If the current trend in channel width were to be maintained, CNTs would be required by 2025. 22 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 24. Strategic Research Agendas Carbon Nanotubes Other applications need further research into the density. The same applies for CNTS applied to vias and improvement of overall properties. Gas ionization and interconnects. other sensors suffer from poor selectivity and, in the case of ionization, efficiency. Functionalization of CNTs Network transistors are more reproducible but suffer would be hugely significant in both cases, as would poor on-off ratios (related to the metallic CNTs always experimentation with device geometry but this would being present due to a lack of chirality control), larger lead to a significant increase in the cost of ownership. surface area and would have to be produced very cheaply to be justified, in areas such as flexible Greater packing density of CNTs is required for electronics for instance. They currently do not improved efficiency of thermal management devices, and significantly improve on incumbent classical electronic though transparent electrodes are more durable than technology. CNTs are amongst a number of materials ITO, they aren’t as transparent at similar conductivities being investigated for solar cells. Solar cells are one of and are reported to suffer from birefringence which is a the most intensively researched areas in ICT at present, problem for some display applications.The use of CNTs but research into using the CNT as the active layer has as electron sources in microwave amplifiers is exciting waned recently. but bandwidth still requires optimization. High-current X-ray sources utilize similar technology, but work is still The material which produces the greatest efficiency at ongoing into harnessing the high current densities that a low price first will be employed. In fuel cells, CNTs planar CNT field emitters can produce. have been found to have little net benefit, but more research is needed in this area. IR absorbance, doping Finally, many proposed devices have yet to establish a and functionalization would greatly enhance the market and thus face a large barrier to entry. Sensors, likelihood of tumour treatment, drug delivery and saturable absorbers and electronic propulsion have nanomedicine. Long-term health implications of CNTs relatively small or fragmented markets with a few are currently being explored and the possibility remains players. that they may not be suitable for this application. The application of CNTs to antennae is in its infancy Theoretically, CNTs should be excellent for hydrogen although the technology for device fabrication is storage because of their large surface area; however, it effectively developed. There seems to be little need for is no better than activated carbon which is much CNT gauges. NEMS and microlenses have yet to find a cheaper to produce. Hence, research in this area feasible application in their current form. continues to be disappointing, since their capacity isn’t significantly better than incumbent technology. Finally, More distant applications from the engineering point of view, the heat transfers involved in this hydrogen storage approach make it CNTs have been mooted as the ultimate solution to difficult to both get the hydrogen in and back out within continued semiconductor scaling as devised in Moore’s the timeframe required by industry. law (see figure 2). As semiconductors, the high mobilities of single CNTs and their small dimensions Conclusions would produce devices much faster than today, but the market inertia is colossal. Even if the questions of For CNTs there will always be the possibility that they chirality control, reproducible contacts, doping and may be more harmful to health than they are currently large-scale positional control were answered, a considered to be. Indeed, if ongoing research into their complete overhaul of semiconductor industrial nanotoxicity finds this, the provision of sufficient fabrication would be required for integration. If in the protection for researchers may be too high for many medium term, CNTs were employed to complement research institutions to bear. For industry, extra health silicon, post-fabrication devices would require the and safety costs may also adversely influence the price maximum growth temperature to be 400ºC. Currently, of all the devices proposed above. In the short term, CNTs grown at these temperatures do not produce institutions should be prepared to deal with this optimal device characteristics because of a high defect possibility. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 23
- 25. Strategic Research Agendas Modelling 2.2 Modelling first-principles calculations, there are several important challenges that need to be tackled during the next few M. Macucci (Università di Pisa, Italy), D. Sanchez-Portal years. Probably one of the most important is the ability (CSIC-UPV/EHU, Spain), S. Roche (ICN (CIN2-CSIC), to accurately predict the spectrum of electronic Spain), G. Cuniberti (Technical University Dresden, excitations for molecular systems on surfaces and Germany), H. Sevincli (Technical University Dresden, metallic junctions. The correct alignment of the Germany) and nanoICT Theory and Modelling Working molecular levels with the electronic states of the metal Group. is a prerequisite to have quantitative calculations of the transport properties in molecular systems, as well as for a correct estimation of the interface dipoles formed at There are several challenges that need to be addressed the boundary between molecular layers and metal in the next few years in the field of nanoscale device substrates. To date, most first-principle transport modelling, involving the integration of different calculations are derived from electronic band structures dimensional scales and of different expertises, which in obtained using Density Functional Theory calculations some cases range far away from traditional device within the Kohn-Sham formulation using local or semi- physics or device simulation. local exchange-correlation functionals. Indeed, there is is clear need to make tools for the simulation of nanoscale devices predictive in terms of These calculations are well known to have severe quantitative results and to integrate them within limitations to correctly describe the energy positions of simulation hierarchies paralleling what already exists in the molecular levels of small molecules. Furthermore, terms of modelling for conventional device design. the effect of the dynamical screening by the metallic Models should shift from the idealized structures that leads also causes a substantial modification of the have been explored in the past in order to grasp an position of the molecular levels, affecting in a different understanding of principle of operation, to realistic way the HOMO and the LUMO of the molecule.These device concepts in which i) coupling to phonons (with effects are at the heart of many of the current equilibrium or non equilibrium distributions) is fully disagreements between theory and experiment in the taken into account, ii) thermal transport is handled on field of molecular electronics. Therefore, it is necessary a parallel footing with respect to electric transport, iii) to develop methods to include these effects, methods an ab-initio treatment of transport at the molecular level which should be, at the same time, sufficiently accurate is included, with specific provisions for the interaction and computationally efficient. of molecules with substrates and metallic electrodes, iv) interfacing to bio-molecules is treated in a rigorous Another important issue is the coupling of the electronic fashion, v) issues of spin transport, especially at degrees of freedom with vibrations. At present, non- interfaces, receive a proper quantum treatment, vi) equilibrium Green’s functions (NGEFs) methods mainly coding is done exploiting the most cost/effective considered the case of small electron-phonon coupling hardware that is available. In the following we try to that can be treated perturbatively. This has already provide an overview of most relevant tasks that face allowed for a satisfactory description of the inelastic modelling for nanoscale information devices in the tunneling spectroscopy in many systems. However, the upcoming years; the presentation will be divided into regimes of intermediate and large electron-phonon sections, but distinctions between different fields of coupling are quite relevant for organic systems, modelling (i.e. semiconductor devices, molecular nanotubes and graphene, and are far more difficult to devices, carbon based electronics, etc.) tend to become treat. In particular, the possibility to perform reliable more and more blurred, since there is a convergence transport simulations (at the level of DFT or beyond) in resulting from the common dimensional scale and the the presence of strong electron-phonon couplings is well beyond the existing capabilities. increasing application of ab-initio techniques to all fields. A related issue is the formulation of schemes to perform Modelling for molecular electronics reliable simulations of the coupled dynamics of electrons and nuclei. There are many subtle technical and basic Concerning the understanding of transport properties difficulties behind these simulations. Many of these of molecular junctions, from the point of view of the 24 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 26. Strategic Research Agendas Modelling difficulties are related with the classical limit usually material system. The many advantages of graphene, assumed for the description of the nuclear dynamics such as the very high electron mobility, are (Born-Oppenheimer approximation). unfortunately offset by the fact that it is a zero-gap material, and therefore it is very difficult to achieve a The electron-ion coupled dynamics is interesting in many modulation of conductivity (and on/off current ratio) fields, including photochemistry, but in particular could large enough to be useful for digital applications. It has provide a route to estimate the effects of temperature been suggested that doping would allow opening up a in the electronic transport in molecular junctions and gap in bulk graphene and would enlarge the already the related dissipation issues. In general, the existing gap of graphene nanoribbons. Considering the incorporation of different sources of inelastic scattering difficulties involved in an experimental verification of is a very interesting and active area of research that will this effect, it would be essential to have a detailed allow going beyond the assumption of ballistic transport theoretical understanding, in order to provide clear and behind most first-principles NGEFs simulations to date detailed indications to experimentalists. Such an and to address other regimes of transport. The joint understanding must be rooted in ab-initio approaches, modeling of charge and spin transport through in order to be reliable, but must then be implemented molecular junctions possesses very strong challenges. in such a way as to be useful for efficient simulation of The main issues are due to the electrode-molecule complete devices, for which a full ab-initio treatment contact topology, the atomistic and electronic structures would not be possible. of the electrodes and molecule, the dynamical effects, and time dependent fields. Also, the effects of structural A multi-scale approach is therefore needed, with the fluctuations via molecular dynamics simulations have to extraction and validation of parameters from more be addressed. The numerical implementation of these refined techniques and their inclusion into more issues requires very efficient and accurate algorithms as computationally efficient approaches, such as tight- well as the design of multiscale computational binding. This will require a coordinated multidisciplinary approaches, for eventually tackling more realistic effort with the contribution from different types of description of materials and devices of technological expertises, including chemical physics, electronic concerns. A parallel but more demanding line of structure calculations, electron device simulation, solid research to molecular electronics is bio-electronics. The state physics. These techniques should also be applied to theoretical understanding of the bio/inorganic interface the investigation of the potential of new proposed is in its infancy due to the large complexity of the materials, such as graphane, interest in which is rising systems. Determining the charge migration pathways in both in terms of its usage as an insulator or as a bio-molecular systems is a crucial point, and due to the hydrogen storage medium. highly dynamical character of bio-molecular systems the electronic structure is strongly entangled with structural Spin-based devices fluctuations. Therefore multi-scale simulation techniques are urgently required, which should be able to combine Novel transport functionalities involving the spin of the quantum-mechanical approaches to the electronic carriers have very recently received a particularly strong structure with molecular dynamical simulation attention in the BEYOND-CMOS area. For instance, methodologies dealing with the complex conformational conversion of spin information into large electrical dynamics of biological objects. Recent advances have signals using carbon nanotubes and graphene, or the been achieved on DNA molecules, and mote observation of long spin relaxation times have suggested developments are necessary in the field of organic that carbon based materials (including organic crystals/molecules, especially in low dimensionality. materials) could drive the development of coherent spintronics at room temperature, including joint Modelling for carbon-based nanoelectronics integration of memory storage and data processing devices. The convergence between spintronics and Graphene doping and decoration organic electronics will also open new horizons for low- cost technology and applications in the ICT field. Important experimental results achieved in the last few years have further raised the interest in carbon-based However charge transport phenomena in these nanoelectronic devices, in particular in the graphene materials require advanced theoretical description of nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 25
- 27. Strategic Research Agendas Modelling novel electronic states of matter such as massless Dirac to be able to take advantage of the most advanced fermions or polaronic states. To date, despite an increasing computational platforms available. concern from the scientific community, efficient simulation tools with true predictive capability for assessing real One important aspect is the networking of European devices functionalities are lacking. Particularly in Europe, excellence in Nano-ICT simulation with the existing Pan first-principles calculations have been steadily improved to European Research Infrastructure on High Performance tackle with complex materials, including the treatment of Computing Centers (www.hpc-europa.eu/). spin degree of freedom. For instance, very large values of magnetoresistance have been predicted in ideal graphene Such facilities allow for the most cutting edge advances in nanoribbons-based spin valves, and many other appealing large scale computing, and should also entail great benefits predictions on simplified device configuration have been to simulation at the nanoscale. reported. Additionally, a new and important platform, which has already been applied to several fields of computational science, However, the great challenge to overcome lies in the is represented by Graphic Processor Units (GPUs). Indeed simulation of the full-device including self-consistent GPUs offer large scale parallelism at the low cost afforded by calculation of charge/spin flows and device characteristics, very large scale production; their processing units are with realistic material description (including spin-orbit specifically designed to perform matrix operations, which do couplings, disorder, interfaces, etc.). To date, no simulation represent a very significant portion within modeling codes. tool can tackle both spin injection at complex material This means that large speedups are to be expected, and some (ferromagnetic/semiconductors) interfaces, along with the initial tests have demonstrated factors up to 40 - 50. It is non equilibrium spin transport along the channel, including therefore important to fully assess the possible impact of this spin decoherence mechanisms at a first principles level. In new technology and, if the preliminary evaluations are the near future strong development of first principles non- confirmed, to invest heavily in the development of optimized equilibrium transport methods would be needed to allow codes, implementing advanced simulation strategies for the for more realistic assessments and predictions of the true device structures of main current interest. spintronics potential of carbon-based structures. This will stand as a critical issue for providing guidance and Furthermore, it is essential that some device concepts will interpretation schemes to experimental groups. finally move from the research field to that of actual development and industrial exploitation: to this purpose it is Thermal transport essential that engineers will have advanced simulation codes available and that they will be able to run them for realistic Being one of the areas in which nano-scale fabrication device structures, with the possibility of exploring a vast techniques offer a breakthrough in device performances, parameter space. This is not likely to happen if simulation nano-thermoelectrics is a rapidly growing topic of research codes will run on supercomputers, because the availability of and development. Quasi one-dimensional disordered such facilities is expected to be limited also in the future. GPU quantum wires, engineered molecular junctions, based computation may represent the answer, if modeling superlattices of quantum dots are the possible routes codes are successfully developed on such a platform, because proposed for achieving high thermoelectric figure of merit. it will offer the required computational power at a cost An accurate modeling of large disordered or self-assembled accessible even to small companies. structures is required to guide experimental efforts. For this, fully parallelized O(N) methods for both electronic It is however important to stress that there is still a lack and phononic computations are needed. of coordination of simulation tools development and implementation in the Information and Communication Computational Issues Technologies European programs. The emergent Spanish initiative named M4NANO (www.m4nano.com) is also The computational effort needed for a quantitatively reliable complemented by other national research programs and simulation of nanoscale devices is steadily increasing as networking such as IUNET in Italy or the dimensions are scaled down and new physical phenomena NANOSIMULATION program launched by the CEA have to be taken into account, thereby requiring more (France), but some European scale frame is lacking. elaborate numerical models. In order to cope with this exploding need for computational resources, it is important 26 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 28. Strategic Research Agendas Mono-Molecular Electronics 2.3 Mono-Molecular Electronics precision. Depending on the substrate of choice the means of imaging and manipulation will be different, namely STM Marek Szymonski Jagiellonian University (Krakow, Poland) for conducting and semi-conducting surfaces or nc-AFM and nanoICT Mono-Molecular Electronics Working Group. for insulators. Combining the standard scanning probe techniques with new methods such as tip-enhanced Introduction Raman spectroscopy will greatly increase measurement precision. Future information technologies undoubtedly require radically new ideas and approaches in order to go A scanning tip induced manipulation of single molecules beyond the conventional boundaries of ICT. Present has already been confirmed for various systems and day, transistor-based technology soon will meet the limit may be considered the state-of-the-art, therefore the of its miniaturization. It is dictated by the fact that there possibility of manufacturing molecular assemblies with is a certain, minimum number of atoms on the surface the tip is at hand (see for example [4]). In this context, of a semi-conductor required to define the structure of the technological challenge that remains to be tackled is a transistor in a currently accepted form. the automation of the manipulation process to such a degree that it will allow its industrial implementation. Already in the second half of the 20th century concepts However, this task cannot be realized separately from of using molecular devices instead of conventional ones other important issues concerning the single molecule in hybrid electronics have appeared and been studied based devices, that will be discussed below. since then(see for example famous Aviram and Ratner paper [1]). There are also other ways of realizing desired molecular assemblies on the surface. Namely, intensively studied Recently a brand new modus operandi has been self-assembly process, or the idea of the on-surface- proposed. Namely, the idea of integrating the chemistry. In the former case, either one would have to elementary functions and interconnections required for modify/functionalize the surface in such a manner that desired computation into a single molecule [2].This will guide the self-assembly or find the set of adsorption proposal is not limited to computational tasks, i.e. parameters that lead to the formation of the desired electronics and telecommunication, only. Atomic and nanostructure (see for example [5-7]). molecular scale devices may be designed as mechanical machines and transducers as well (see for example [3]). On the other hand, the concept of the on-surface- chemistry requires a careful choice of the substrate that Challenges of the single molecule based will play a role on the reaction platform and the electronics reactants that will undergo a chemical change in the assumed reaction and finally will form a desired Here we focus on the concept of the single molecule structure or compound directly on the surface. The on- electronics. The core of the single molecule electronics surface-chemistry approach depends strongly on the is an idea to design a molecular processor that would be cross-pollination between physicists and chemists. incorporated into the future nanoelectronic device, interconnected with other elements of the system and Connecting to the outer world especially with an output interface. A preliminary task, that will not be discussed further, is the design and Next crucial aspect of the single molecule electronics is synthesis of the molecule with desired properties. the ability to connect the molecular processor to the Assuming that one possesses the molecular processor of outer world in order to benefit from its computational advantageous features, several technical obstacles arise. properties. Successful communication between the nano- and micro- environment of the molecular Single molecule manipulation and imaging electronic device is a decisive parameter for this approach. One has to realize not only interconnections First of all, one has to master single molecule manipulation between elements of the whole instrument, but and imaging on various substrates to a very high level of especially with a tool’s output interface. These two nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 27
- 29. Strategic Research Agendas Mono-Molecular Electronics types of interconnections would require different Therefore, the next critical issue emerges. In particular, approaches, that may sometimes overlap. First, before very sophisticated molecular electronics systems networking the molecular circuit elements may be are designed and fabricated, the role of the interaction realized with use of molecular wires fabricated as between the molecule and its surroundings must be described in the preceding section (see for example [7]). comprehended. Subsequently, one has to develop However, from time to time one may need to provide not schemes for avoiding a strong coupling of molecules only horizontal connections, but also transversal with the substrate on which they are deposited. Two conductive bridges spanning two different levels of the separate approaches to achieve this goal have recently substrate. Precisely controlled processes of creating such been undertaken. a molecular interconnects inside of a device are of great importance for future technological applications. Search One involves deposition of ultrathin insulating layers for such processes is challenging and requires close between the conducting or semi-conducting substrate cooperation of chemists, on one hand, that design and and the molecule. It has been shown that at least partial synthesize molecules, and physicists, on the other hand, decoupling of the molecule in such a configuration is that test their assembling properties. feasible [11]. The other approach is based on the design and synthesis of molecules equipped with spacer groups Second, connecting to the outer world would be based that in principle should increase the separation between on molecular wires only to some extent. Namely, an active molecular board and the substrate. molecules could be used to connect to some kind of nano- metallic electrodes, that further evolve into A whole family of such molecules, namely, the Lander micro-electrodes and allow addressing the device. molecules family has been already synthesized and Fabrication of gold nanowires on InSb by means of examined on various templates [4, 12-14], being at the thermally-assisted assembling process seems to be a moment regarded as prototypes of large organic molecules consisting of a planar polyaromatic molecular promising solution for such a task [8]. However, other wire and equipped with spacer groups. Although much realizations of the proposed scenario based on different progress has been done in understanding the molecule- materials are needed. substrate interaction and some ideas of decoupling the molecules from the surface have been tested, present The final element of connecting the molecular processor knowledge in this field is still far from being complete or to the outer world will depend on the single molecule even sufficient. manipulation discussed before. Achieving a technologically feasible route that integrates the manufacture nano- and Conclusions micro-metallic pads with assembling of molecular wires, and deposition and positioning of all other molecular Presented analysis of the single molecule based elements of the device is a very challenging, complex and approach to molecular electronics does not cover all high-risk task. possible technical obstacles arising upon experimental realization of that idea. However, highlighting only three Device reliability issues, namely: the single molecule manipulation and imaging, the outer world connection and device Previously considered problems of positioning of the reliability, is enough to express the complexity and high- molecule in the required place within the electronic circuit risk nature of that topic. On the other hand, the or interconnecting it with metal electrodes, are not the successful realization of the single molecule based only difficulties faced by single molecule based electronics. electronics will be a way to overcome current limitations It is obvious that properties of the molecular processor in miniaturization. would rely on its internal structure. Nevertheless, the shape of the molecular orbital and the electronic structure Furthermore, it will not only result in an increase in are very vulnerable to the interaction with the chemical computing power by orders of magnitude and therefore surrounding of the molecule and may be changed by directly influence the development of ICT, but it will interaction with it [9, 10]. That, in turn, implies alternation also open up the field of mechanical machines and of the way the molecular processor operates as well. transducers to atomic and molecular scale devices. As 28 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 30. Strategic Research Agendas Mono-Molecular Electronics an added value, the knowledge gained during Molecules on Clean and Hydroxylated Rutile TiO2(110) examination of the molecule-substrate interaction could Surfaces. ChemPhysChem. 2009, p. to appear. be utilized in the field of surface functionalization, that is a fundamental tool in making advanced materials of [5]. Kolodziej, J. J., et al. PTCDA molecules on an desired bulk and surface properties and devices of InSb(001) surface studied with atomic force microscopy. advantageous features. Nanotechnology. 2007, Vol. 18, pp. 135302-(1-6). That in turn influences many areas of technology such [6]. Goryl, G., et al. High resolution LT-STM imaging of as solar cell industry, ceramics, gas and biosensors, just PTCDA molecules assembled on an InSb(001) c(8 × 2) to mention a few. Although all pointed issues are crucial surface. Nanotechnology. 2008, Vol. 19, pp. 185708-(1- in developing single molecule based devices, one of 6). them could be addressed in the FET 2011-12 Workprogramme, namely the device reliability issue. [7]. Tekiel, A., et al. Nanofabrication of PTCDA Such a choice is dictated by the fact, that each molecular chains on rutile TiO2(011)-(2 x 1) surfaces. development in that particular field will have the biggest Nanotechnology. 2008, Vol. 19, p. 495304. potential to influence other research areas. Exploration in that case could be realized by means of small projects [8]. Szymonski, M., et al. Metal nanostructures <3M€ - 3 yrs. assembled at semiconductor surfaces studied with high resolution scanning probes. Nanotechnology. 2007, Vol. The other points, single molecule manipulation and 18, p. 044016. imaging and the outer world connection, could be studied jointly in later Workprogrammes depending on [9]. Such, B., et al. Influence of the local adsorption the output of the projects devoted to the device environment on the intramolecular contrast of organic reliability. Achieving technologically feasible route that molecules in noncontact atomic force microscopy. Appl. integrates the manufacture of nano- and micro-metallic Phys. Lett. 2006, Vol. 89, p. 093104. pads with assembling of molecular wires, and deposition and positioning of all other molecular elements of the [10]. Kroger, J., et al. Molecular orbital shift of device, is a very challenging, complex and high-risk task. perylenetetracarboxylic-dianhydride on gold. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2007, Vol. 438, pp. 249-253. Therefore, it should be realized as large projects: 4-6 M€ - 4-5 yrs. Moreover, as the aim would be to build a [11]. Such, B., et al. PTCDA molecules on a KBr/InSb working prototype of single molecule based device and system: a low temperature STM study. Nanotechnology. to prove its technological feasibility, the participation of 2008, Vol. 19, p. 475705. high-tech companies in this research is necessary. [12]. Grill, L., et al. Phys. Rev. B. 2004, Vol. 69, p. References 035416. [1]. Aviram, A. and Ratner, M. Molecular rectifiers. [13]. Otero, R., et al. Nat. Mater. 2004, Vol. 3, pp. 779- Chem. Phys. Lett. 1974, Vol. 29, pp. 277-283. 782. [2]. Joachim, C., Gimzewski, J. K. and Aviram, A. [14]. Rosei, F., et al. Science. 2002, Vol. 296, pp. 328- Electronics using hybrid-molecular adn mono-molecular 331. devices. Nature. 2000, Vol. 408, pp. 541-548. [3]. Gao, L., et al. Constructing an Array of Anchored Single-Molecule Rotors on Gold Surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2008, Vol. 101, pp. 197209-(1-4). [4]. Godlewski, S., et al. Adsorption of Large Organic nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 29
- 31. Strategic Research Agendas Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) 2.4 Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) Juergen Brugger (EPFL, Switzerland) and nanoICT NEMS Working Group. In contrast to micro/nanoelectronics, Micro- and Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS/NEMS) have been since the beginning a very multidisciplinary field with very disperse technologies. This has made somehow difficult to define precise roadmaps that foresee the development of MEM devices, and now the same issue is found for NEMS. The two main applications that have been spotted and are confirmed are sensing and electronics. NEMS Sensors Figure 1 shows the evolution of the mechanical sensors from MEMS to NEMS, which includes not only a reduction in size but also a real breakthrough in the applications and the signal to noise ratio that is achievable. NEMS for electronics The other main application, more related to the ICT, is to use NEMS for electronics, i.e. to use NEMS for the same functions that currently are performed using CMOS circuitry. Examples of these functions would be the fabrication of NEM-FET, NEM-based D/SRAM, NEM relay logic, etc. Inherent to any of those applications lays one of the main challenges for the future of NEMS, which is the monolithic integration with CMOS at large scale of mechanical devices. Several groups have been working in the integration of mechanical systems and CMOS, but the number of mechanical elements was always much smaller than the number of transistors and was limited to a few tens per wafer. A clear example is the Analog Devices (ADXL50) accelerometer; with only 1 to 3 on-chip MEM structures of lateral dimensions on the order of 100 μm (see Figure 2). Radio Frequency MEMS for different applications Figure 1. Shows the evolution of the mechanical sensors from (tunable capacitors, high-Q inductors, filters, micro- MEMS to NEMS, which includes not only a reduction in size switches, etc.) have been also integrated with CMOS but also a real breakthrough in the applications and the sig- improving the performance of existing and future nal to noise ratio that is achievable. 30 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 32. Strategic Research Agendas Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) Figure 2. Summary of state of the art and future devices as a function of the number of transistors (NT) and the number of mechanical components (NM). Source: ITRS whitepaper authored by A. Ionescu (EPFL) et al. wireless transceivers. The challenge will be then to (amplifiers, filters, A/D converter, etc.) enhances the achieve the integration of a much larger number of resolution by reducing the influence of external noise mechanical components with a high number of sources. That, combined with the fact that using an transistors, following the path marked by Texas array of mechanical sensors in parallel increases the Instrument with their digital micromirror device (DMD) signal to noise ratio by , will result in unprecedented for projection displays (see Figure 2). sensing performance. With a relatively small number of NEM-FET switches However, in order to achieve this goal, it is very (103) the CMOS power consumption could be managed important to develop standardized NEM fabrication and reduced, which will lead to a new and more energy process flows in a similar way as it is currently stipulated efficient generation of chips. By increasing the number in CMOS foundries, otherwise the integration will not of mechanical devices (up to 107) it would be possible be viable. In some cases, it may not be necessary (or to obtain embedded (mechanically-based) memory. even possible) to have the CMOS and NEM processing in a single foundry. Moreover, arrays of NEM relays could be used for ultra- low-power logic once contact reliability issues are In that case, the combination of a CMOS foundry and a resolved. Finally, NEM structures are also attractive for NEMS foundry would be necessary, which will also imply non-volatile memory (NVM) applications because much the compatibility of wafer sizes between both foundries. lower energy would be necessary to program them as In addition to a reduction of costs, standardized compared with standard current memories. fabrication process flows will also allow the development The integration of NEMS with CMOS will also be of SPICE models and CAD tools for NEMS which will radically beneficial for sensing applications, where it has ease the system design, analysis and verification. been demonstrated that on-chip signal processing nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 31
- 34. 3 Annex 1 NanoICT Working Groups position papers
- 36. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes 3.1 Carbon Nanotubes Electronic applications Field emission (X-ray, Microwave, FEDs, Ionization, W.I. Milne1, M. Mann1, J. Dijon2, P. Bachmann3, Electron microscopy), interconnects, vias, diodes, thin- J. McLaughlin4, J. Robertson1, K.B.K. Teo5, A. film transistors, thin-film electrodes, network Lewalter3, M. de Souza6, P. Boggild7, A Briggs8, transistors, single CNT transistors, thermal K. Bo Mogensen7, J.-C. P. Gabriel9, S. Roche10 management, memory. and R. Baptist11 Optical applications 1 Cambridge University, UK Absorbers, microlenses in LCs, optical antennae, 2 CEA, Grenoble, France lighting. 3 Philips Research Laboratories, Aachen, Germany 4 University of Ulster, UK Electromechanical applications 5 AIXTRON, Germany NEMS (resonators), sensors, nanofluidics, bio-medical. 6 Sheff ield University, UK 7 TU, Denmark Energy applications 8 Oxford University, UK Fuel cells, supercapacitors, batteries, solar cells. 9 CEA-LETI, Grenoble, France (Formely, Nanomix Inc. USA) 10 CEA-INAC, Grenoble, France Blue sky 11 CEA-LETI, France Spintronics, quantum computing, SET, ballistic transport. 1. Introduction KeyWords There has been extensive research into the properties, Growth synthesis and possible applications of carbon nanotubes Carbon nanotubes, multiwall, singlewall, nanofibres (all (CNTs) since they came to prominence following the the words in a and the subtopics), cap structure, Iijima paper [1] of 1991 [2]. Carbon nanotubes are catalysts, adhesion, mechanism, modelling. composed of sp2 covalently-bonded carbon in which graphene walls are rolled up cylindrically to form tubes. Post-growth modification The ends can either be left open, which is an unstable Doping & functionalization, dispersion and separation, configuration due to incomplete bonding, they can be purification, annealing, cap opening/closing, bonded to a secondary surface, not necessarily made graphitization. of carbon, or they can be capped by a hemisphere of sp2 carbon, with a fullerenelike structure [3]. Properties/Characterization Defects, electron transport, phonons, thermal In terms of electrical properties, singlewalled CNTs can properties/conductivity, wetting, stiction, friction, be either semiconducting or metallic and this depends mechanical, chemical properties, optical, toxicity, upon the way in which they roll up, as illustrated in structural properties, contacts. Figure 1. Multi-walled CNTs are non-semiconducting (i.e. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 35
- 37. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes semimetallic like graphite) in nature. Their diameters 2. Catalyst preparation range from 2 to 500 nm, and their lengths range from 50 nm to a few mm. Multi-walled CNTs contain several The catalyst metals most commonly used for nanotube concentric, coaxial graphene cylinders with interlayer growth are Fe, Ni and Co [10]. There are several routes spacings of ~0.34 nm [5]. This is slightly larger than the to the production of catalyst nanoparticles, the two single crystal graphite spacing which is 0.335 nm. main methods being the wet catalyst method and the coalescence of thin catalyst films. The wet catalyst Studies have shown that the inter-shell spacing can range method involves the deposition of metal nitrate/ from 0.34 to 0.39 nm, where the inter-shell spacing bicarbonate colloids onto a surface (shown in Figure decreases with increasing CNT diameter with a 2a). On drying, the salt in the solution crystallizes to pronounced effect in smaller diameter CNTs (such as form small islands of the metal salt. The salt is reduced those smaller than 15 nm) as a result of the high curvature to a metal oxide by heating or calcinations and the oxide in the graphene sheet [6,7]. As each cylinder has a is then reduced by H2 and/or thermal decomposition different radius, it is impossible to line the carbon atoms resulting in the formation of metallic catalyst islands up within the sheets as they do in crystalline graphite. from which the CNTs grow [11,12]. The wet colloid Therefore, multi-walled CNTs tend to exhibit properties of method produces an uneven distribution of catalyst turbostratic graphite in which the layers are uncorrelated. particles, but does have a significant cost advantage over For instance, in highly crystallized multi-walled CNTs, it has vacuum techniques such as sputtering and evaporation. been shown that if contacted externally, electric current is generally conducted through only the outermost shell [8], though Fujitsu have been able to contact the inner walls with resistances of 0.7 κΩ per multi-walled CNT [9]. This position paper summarizes state-of-the-art CNTs dependent on the nature of the desired end-structure. It also summarizes possible electrical, electronic and photonic applications of carbon nanotubes (excluding bulk material composite applications). Figure 1. (top) A graphene sheet rolled up to obtain a sin- glewalled CNT. (bottom) The map shows the different single- walled CNT conf igurations possible. Were the graphene sheet to roll up in such a way that the atom at (0,0) would also be the atom at (6,6), then the CNT would be metallic. Likewise, if the CNT rolled up so that the atom at (0,0) was also the atom at (6,5), the CNT would be semi-conducting. The small circles denote semiconducting CNTs and the large Figure 2. Methods of producing nano-sized catalysts for na- circles denote non-semiconducting CNTs. Two thirds of CNTs notube growth [13-16]. are semi-conducting and one third metallic [4]. 36 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 38. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes The most commonly used form of catalyst preparation using ferrocene and xylene by CVD with the Fe for devices is coalescence (shown in figure 2c). A thin contained within the ferrocene as the catalyst. This film (of thickness typically less than 10 nm) of Fe, Co or produces the best MWNTs if no patterning is required. Ni is deposited onto a substrate by evaporation, sputter For surface-attached growth, Ni, Fe and Co are the coating or electroplating. Upon heating, the thin film most commonly used catalysts, but the quality of the breaks up (known as dewetting) to form nanoislands as resultant MWNTs depends on the research group and a result of increased surface mobility and the strong there is little to discriminate between them for CVD cohesive forces between the metal atoms [17,18]. CNT processes. growth then nucleates from these nanoislands. When grown on silicon and polycrystalline substrates, barrier However, for plasma-enhanced CVD (PE-CVD), most layers such as ITO, SiO2 and TiN are required to prevent groups tend to favour Ni catalyst since they produce the diffusion of catalyst into the substrate [19]. straightest MWNTs with the greatest control over growth rate. 2(a) Catalyst for SWNT growth 2(c) Placement/patterning of catalyst CNT growth is affected by the catalyst and thus different catalysts are required to produce different CNT For device-based applications it is desirable to position structures. Metal underlayers also affect resultant CNT the catalyst on the substrate where CNTs are required growth [20]. Typical catalysts favoured for SWNT to grow. The most desirable positioning method is by growth are an Al/Fe/Mo triple layer 10 nm, 1 nm and lithographical means, where optical or electron beam 0.1 nm thick respectively with the Mo layer on top [21]. lithography exposes spin-coated resist followed by This produces dense, vertically-aligned, SWNTs grown development, catalyst deposition and lift-off, which attached to the substrate. For epitaxial growth on leaves behind catalyst deposited on developed areas. quartz, only a thin layer of Fe is required. Resasco [22] CNTs can then be grown in-situ where desired for uses a Co catalyst in the patented CoMoCat process on device fabrication. This has been done most effectively a silica substrate with a high purity, low diameter by Teo et al. [28], where single, vertically aligned distribution of SWNTs as a result. MWNTs were grown single Ni catalyst dots deposited on silicon (as shown in figure 3). Others use Ni as a SWNT catalyst. The use of ferritin as the catalyst reported by Dai [23] and Rogers [24], or Many others have used this process to demonstrate of polyoxometallates [25] enables tighter control of the positional growth of CNTs [29,30]. Very large scale catalyst particle size and thus the CNT diameter. For integration of SWNTs at the 100 mm wafer level were electronic applications, when the substrate is to play an reported in 2001 using deep UV lithography [31] and insulating role, particular attention needs to be paid to using a more standard available lithography process in the quality of the substrate as well as to the thermal 2003 [32]. Porous substances such as alumina have been treatment of the wafer in order to minimize the used to grow CNTs with catalyst deposited in the pores. diffusion of catalyst into the substrate and to keep The resultant CNTs grow with the support of the pore leakage current low. Dubosc et al. [26] have walls that act as a template for growth [34]. Pores can demonstrated the use of electrochemical deposition of also either be etched into silicon [35] or milled with a Ni catalyst with the resultant CNT growth focused ion beam [36]. indistinguishable from catalyst deposited by other methods. Catalyst can also be positioned by imprinting, where catalyst deposited on templated silicon is pressed onto 2(b) Catalyst for MWNTs a substrate [37]. Laser interferometry can also be used to position catalyst but only for array-like structures and Catalyst thicknesses required for MWNT growth tend with a spacing no greater than the size of the dot [38]. to be much greater than that for SWNT growth The use of nanosphere lithography for self-assembly of because catalyst thickness correlates with CNT nanotube arrays have also been demonstrated by Ren et diameter. Ajayan [27] reported the growth of MWNTs al [39]. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 37
- 39. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes European Position: Bernier and Loiseau optimised developed by Smalley [41], in which the diameter of the catalysts for arc production. grown CNT can be controlled by temperature. A composite graphite target made of Ni and Co produces The USA with CoMoCat and HipCo as well as Hata in the best CNTs with a yield of 70%. This is, however, the Japan with supergrowth have dominated the most expensive common production process. The optimisation of catalysts for mass production CVD highest purity CNTs nucleate from catalysts in a fluidized growth. Europe has made significant contributions to bed and are currently sold by Thomas Swan [42]. The low T growth as well as controlled, patterning for multi- process produces high-quality CNTs, inexpensively in walled CNT growth. large quantities [43]. In Windle’s group CNTs are also grown in a continuous flow furnace. The nanotubes are created rapidly by injecting ethanol and ferrocene into a furnace at 1,200º C. An aerogel then starts to stick to the cooler wall in the furnace to form fibres. A spindle then winds the aerogel fibres into a thread, at several centimetres per second. The result is an extremely fine, black thread consisting of aligned CNTs [44]. Nanocyl also produce purified singlewalled nanotubes [45]. (ii) Vertically aligned single-walled CNTs Water/oxygen/ethanol assisted growth provides Figure 3. (a) Array of MWCNTs of height 5 μm and separation amongst the longest vertically-aligned CNT mats 5 μm[28] (b) Individual MWCNT grown in a micropore etched produced and has been carried out by a number of into SiO2 using a self alignment method [33]. groups including Maruyama and Dai [46], but it is Hata who can produce the longest CNTs with a carbon purity 3. Growth of 99.98%. The process uses ethylene as the carbon source gas with a small amount of water vapour The quality of grown carbon nanotubes is subjective, since incorporated into a hydrogen flow process. However, their quality depends on the structures required. Some there is little control over growth rate because the applications require high purity and crystallinity; others mechanism is not clearly understood [47]. require tight dimensional control, whilst others might require high packing densities and/or alignment. (iii) Horizontally aligned single-walled CNTs Consequently, the state of the art depends on the type of structure required. The latest research indicates that, Horizontally-aligned SWNTs have been grown on contrary to prior understanding, carbon nanotubes do not epitaxial surfaces such as sapphire and quartz with follow a vapour liquid solid (VLS) growth model, but rather varying densities. The growing CNTs follow the crystal a vapour solid solid (VSS) model. Hofmann et al. [40] have planes with a great degree of alignment. The process is observed growth of both single and multi-walled carbon standard CVD but the substrate needs to be annealed nanotubes in-situ in an environmental electron microscope. for surface reconstruction before growth. Among the In all cases, the catalyst particle remains solid, with crystalline best, Tsuji’s group have grown on sapphire [48] and the structure clearly observed. This indicates that growth Rogers group, who have grown on quartz [24] (figure 4). primarily occurs through surface diffusion rather than the Dai et al. have grown horizontally-aligned CNTs with the bulk diffusion proposed by Baker [10]. use of electric fields (figure 4). However, the fields only align metallic CNTs. Semiconducting CNTs are not 3(a) Single-walled CNTs affected by the field. Gas flows have also been used to control the horizontal alignment of SWNTs, but the (i) State of the art for bulk single-walled growth flow needs to be very high and the degree of The highest quality single-walled CNTs (in terms of alignment is poor compared with methods mentioned defects) are produced by laser ablation, a process above [49]. Most recently Hata has used a vertical 38 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 40. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes alignment and then by dipping in alcohol the tubes get orientated and resemble spaghetti. However, under aligned in plane by capillary forces when he pulls up certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a the substrate from the liquid [50]. plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will maintain a vertical growth direction resulting in a dense array of (iv) Challenges for SWNTs tubes resembling a carpet or forest. For this, the ferrocene-catalyzed growth of Ajayan produces The key challenges with SWNTs concern control of MWNTs with the best control over diameter, height chirality during growth. For applications such as and with the greatest degree of alignment [56]. transistors, all grown CNTs need to be semiconducting (and preferably of identical chirality) whilst for interconnects, all CNTs need to be metallic. Control of diameter is related to this issue. The possibility of using very long CNTs cut into many pieces has been discussed as a possibility for chirality control in CNT devices, by using the pieces to act as catalysts for identical tubes. However, the chirality of some CNTs has been found to change along long CNTs (being caused by structural defects [51]). Returning to interconnects, a higher density (of ~ 1013 tubes/cm-3) than that achieved so far is required Figure 4. (a-d) CNTs grown along quartz crystal planes by if it is to replace copper. The yield of SWNTs grown the Rogers group [24]. Reprinted with permission from with templates is very low and must be solved if it is Coskun Kocabas, Moonsub Shim, and John A. Rogers. J. Am. to be seriously considered as a method for growing Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 4540-4541. Copyright (2006) Americal SWNTs. Also, for SWNT growth to be combined Chemical Society, (e) Horizontally aligned CNTs grown by with CMOS, the temperature needs to be reduced to Dai’s group using f ield to align the CNTs [49]. Reused with ~ 400 ºC. permission from Yuegang Zhang, Applied Physics Letters, To a certain extent the chirality problem has been 79, 3155 (2001). Copyright 2001, American Institute of overcome by using devices based on random network Physics. of nanotubes instead. This approach was first brought to light by Snow and co-workers in 2003 [52] although In plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition it was patented by Nanomix in June 2002 [53]. (PECVD), the applied plasma creates a sheath above the substrate in which an electric field perpendicular 3(b) Multi-walled CNTs to the substrate is induced. The deposition gases are broken down by a combination of heat and plasma Though Endo started the injection process, for bulk and vertically aligned CNTs grow following the growth, the best CNTs are again grown by Thomas induced field. For vertically- aligned arrays of single or Swan (as a result of rigorous qualification by Raman and multiple MWNTs, Teo et al. [57] are able to control TEM) and Windle’s group in Cambridge, though diameter (σ = ±4.1%) and height (σ = ±6.3%) by Hyperion [54] are the leading suppliers of nanofibres placing the catalyst by lithographical means and by using a similar process to Thomas Swan. So-called Endo- positioning the substrate on a driven electrode and fibres 150 nm in diameter can also be purchased from within the plasma sheath during a PECVD process. Showa Denko. Bayer produce narrower “Baytubes” 5- Both CVD and PECVD hold a number of advantages 20 nm in diameter [55], but these are impure and need over other synthesis methods. For tip growth, to be purified. nanotube length increases with deposition pressure, and linearly with deposition time up to certain (i) Vertically aligned (including crowding) lengths [58]. The diameter is controlled by the thickness of the catalyst deposited and the position of There is typically no alignment of CNTs with the the CNTs can be controlled by controlling the catalyst CVD process. The grown CNTs are often randomly position. For instance, lithographical techniques can nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 39
- 41. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes be employed to deposit catalyst dots to control the position of grown CNTs that can be employed in field emission devices [28]. This results in much more control over the dimensions of the CNTs and removes the need to purify and separate CNTs grown by other methods. (ii) Challenges for multi-walled CNTs Some of the challenges for MWNT growth are identical to that of SWNT growth. Growth temperature needs to be reduced if CNTs are to be employed in CMOS. Raman spectra of MWNTs grown by CVD/PECVD at low temperatures show them to be highly defective. Post-annealing processes can increase graphitization, but these are typically at Figure 5. Dense forest of Small diameter MWCNT from left temperatures much higher than circuitry can to right: a) Patterned layer on a 200mm layer b) 50μm high withstand. There is also the question of contact forest on conductive layer of TiN c) close view of the material resistance that is often quite high and variable. This with individual CNT making bundles of 60nm of diameter needs to be addressed with still further improvements (courtesy of CEA-LITEN). on dimensional control. European Position: Europe led the way with research in arc deposition but commercialisation was limited. More recently Nanocyl [45], Thomas Swan [42], and Arkema [59] and Bayer [55] have made significant contributions to up scaling CVD and recently AIXTRON [60] and Oxford Instruments [61] have begun to provide large area PECVD capability. The leading universities in Europe will include Cambridge Figure 6. images showing the growth of CNT carpets grown Univ., Dresden and EPFL. Growth of MWNTs on large by an aerosol-assisted process. wafers (200mm) is now routinely done at various locations for microelectronics applications (see for For CNTs grown by arc discharge and laser, various example, images of CVD reactors at CEA-Grenoble in techniques have been employed to purify, given the best figure5). The aerosol-assisted CCVD process allowing samples are only 70% pure (using laser ablation), with the production of carpets of aligned nanotubes is the remainder made up of amorphous carbon. CNTs are produced at CEA-Saclay in the group of Martine Mayne first dispersed by sonification [63]. The gas-phase (and can be seen in figure 6). method developed at the NASA Glenn Research Center to purify gramscale quantities of single-wall CNTs uses a 4. Post growth modification modification of a gas-phase purification technique reported by Smalley and others [64], by combining high- CVD generally produces the poorest quality CNTs with temperature oxidations and repeated extractions with the greatest number of defects. When the growth nitric and hydrochloric acid. This procedure significantly process ends, power is shutdown and the substrate reduces the amount of impurities such as residual allowed to cool, but this often results in the deposition catalyst, and nonnanotube forms of carbon within the of amorphous carbon around the CNT. This can be CNTs, increasing their stability significantly. Once the removed either by hydrogen or ammonia plasma, or a CNTs are separated, the use of a centrifuge enables the rapid thermal annealing process that also increases the isolation of certain chiralities of SWNTs, particularly graphitization, conductivity and contact of the CNT [62]. (6,5) and (7,5) as shown by Hersam’s group at North 40 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 42. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes Western University [65]. This method seems to be the De Jonge et al. [100] demonstrated this happens for way forward for scalable chirality separation. currents as low as 80 nA per tube. The chemical inertness and low surface energy of the graphitic structure of the European Position: The US lead the way in novel CNT is not conducive to functionalization. Recent techniques based on density differentiation but in progress in solubilisation has facilitated chemical Europe, Krupke, Knappes and co-workers at Karlsruhe functionalization of SWNTs for various applications such pioneered the dielectrophoresis method. as catalysis, catalysts support, sensors, gas storage, highperformance composites, biological and 5. Doping organic/inorganic compounds [101-111]. Most functionalization methods involve strong acid treatment Conventional doping by substitution of external of the CNT producing extensive nanotube breakage. A impurity atoms in a semiconductor is unsuited for CNTs, class of functionalization reactions that does not involve since the presence of an external atom breaks the ideal acid treatment is the direct addition to the π-electrons of symmetry properties in the CNT. Theoretically, the CNT [112,113]. The main approaches for substitutional doping by nitrogen (n-type) and boron (p- functionalization can be grouped into the following type) has been widely examined [66-71]. Adsorption of categories: gases such as H2, O2, H2O, NH3, NO2 have been reported in [72-75]. More appropriate doping strategies (a) the covalent attachment of chemical groups through which conserve the mean free path of the charge reactions onto the π-conjugated skeleton of CNT; carriers involve physisorption of alkali metal atoms [76- 91]. Alkali-metal atoms located outside or inside the tube (b) the non-covalent adsorption or wrapping of various act as donor impurities [92,93] while halogen atoms, functional molecules; and Within category (a) reports of molecules, or chains act as acceptors [76,84,94,95]. fluorination [1 15], atomic hydrogen [1 aryl groups 14,1 16], Fullerenes or metallofullerenes, encapsulated inside CNTs, [117], nitrenes, carbenes, and radicals [118], COOH allow good structural stability and have been used to tune [119,120], NH2 [121] N-alkylidene amino groups [122], alkyl groups [123] and aniline [124] amine and amide [125] the band gap and/or Fermi level of the host tube [96-99]. have been reported. Within category (b) are included grafting of biomolecules such as bovine serum albumine “Doping” by physisorption of molecules, lies at the heart [126-128] or horse spleen ferritin [129], poly-Llysine, a of a growing field of chemical sensors, but there are issues polymer that promotes cell adhesion [130,131], with stability. Streptavidin [132] and biotin at the carboxylic sites of oxidized nanotubes [133] and polymers [134-139]. European Position: In Europe Maurizio Prato’s group in Trieste is the most successful in this area. European Position: Haddon and co-workers in the US were early leaders and Carroll and co-workers in Wake 6. Oxidation/Functionalization Forrest University applied functionalization to devices. In Europe Hirsch in Erlangen has made major CNTs can be oxidized by various means. Refluxing in acids contributions and Coleman and co-workers at TCD such as nitric or sulphuric, or with potassium manganate have furthered our knowledge in this area. adds functional groups to the CNTs that alter the wetting angle. 7. Properties/Characterization The caps of CNTs can be opened either by physical means or more commonly, by chemical means, in which the cap CNTs typically have a Young’s Modulus ~10 times that is opened by heating CNTs in the presence of a oxidizing of steel [140] and an electrical conductivity many times gas such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. that of copper [141]. Some important properties of CNTs are listed in table 1. Open-capped CNTs, unless functionalized, are unstable structures because of dangling bonds. Cap closing of open- The properties of CNTs are determined by a number of capped structures often occurs during field emission. methods. Electronic properties are determined by nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 41
- 43. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes adding contacts and the use of probe stations. It should CNTs [147,148]. More recently they have reported a be noted that a drawback to this method is the CNT based Field Emission HDTV [149]. variability in contact quality that can cause significant Over the last 10 years or so various companies variance in measured attributes. Raman spectra are including Philips, TECO Nanotech, ISE Electronics used to characterize defects in the CNTs; the higher the and especially Samsung (SAIT) [150] have worked on Id:Ig ratio, the lower the number of defects. Also, radial the use of CNTs for TV applications. SAIT breathing modes can be used to characterize the successfully produced demos of full colour diameter distributions of the grown CNTs in a sample 39”diagonal TVs and this technology was transferred [144,145]. to Samsung SDI for production in the mid 2000s. However, no displays based on this technology are The band structures of all single-walled CNTs can be yet on the market. More work continues on Field summarized using the Kataura plot [146]. Emission displays but the only recent major announcements are on SEDs (Surfaceconduction Electron-emitter Displays). Formerly a collaboration between Toshiba and Canon, the displays utilise emission from carbon but not CNTs [151]. Legal disputes have prevented this from coming to market thus far. Most recently, Sony have announced a major investment in FEDs based on a Spindt process. Teco Nanotech Co Ltd (a small company based in Taiwan) also market three basic CNT-based FEDs, the largest being 8.9” diagonal [152]. CEA (France) continue to fund research in this area, with typical displays produced shown in figure 7. Table 1. Summary of main properties of CNTs [19]. 8. Electronic applications Various applications for CNTs in the ICT field have been touted but in the near term only a few of these seem feasible: their use in field emission applications and their inclusion in the production of transparent conductors and in interconnects and vias seem most probable. Figure 7. Two stages of development of CNT FED at CEA. On the left: monochrome display with 350μm pixels, on the 8(a) Field emission right: color video display with 600μm pixels. On these display the non uniformity from pixel to pixel is 5% while it Field emission from CNTs can be applied to many is 3% with LCD displays and 2% for CRT (courtesy of CEA- technologies because of their high-current-carrying LITEN). capability, chemical inertness, physical strength and high aspect ratio. The major applications are listed below. (ii) Microwave generators (i) Field emission displays High power/frequency amplifiers for higher bandwidth, more channels and microwave links are Motorola in the early/mid 1990’s investigated the increasingly using the 30 GHz and above frequency use of carbon based materials for Field Emission range. In order to satisfy the power (tens of Watts) Displays including the use of diamond, DLC and and bandwidth requirements (30 GHz), satellites are 42 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 44. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes using travelling wave tubes (TWTs) based on thermionic (iii) X-ray Instruments cathodes. Present day TWTs, however, are bulky and Oxford Instruments have worked together with heavy, and take up valuable space and weight budget in NASA on CNT-based X-ray sources that employ field a satellite, and any miniaturization of the current TWT emission as the electron source, rather than would give rise to cost savings in a satellite launch and thermionic emission, which has much lower power aid the implementation of microsatellites.Solid state efficiency [156]. devices are not used in this high frequency regime because the maximum power attained by solid state devices today at 30 GHz is ~1 W. Attempts have been made to replace the thermionic cathode in a TWT with a Spindt tip cathode delivering the dc electron beam. However, the bulk of the TWT device is still there, since it is the tube (in which the electron beam modulation takes place) that is physically large. The most effective way to reduce the size of a TWT is via direct modulation of the e- beam, for example, in a triode configuration using CNTs as the electron source. Thales, in collaboration with Cambridge University Engineering Department, have successfully demonstrated a Class D (i.e. pulse mode/on-off) operation of a carbon nanotube array cathode at 1.5 GHz, with an average current density of 1.3 A/cm2 and peak current density of 12 A/cm2 (see figure 8); these are compatible with travelling wave tube amplifier requirements (>1 A/cm2) [153]. Recently, they have also achieved 32 GHz direct Figure 8. Simulation of the coaxial resonant cavity (a modulation of a carbon nanotube array cathode crosssection is shown) that was used to generate a high under Class A (i.e. sine wave) operation, with over electric f ield (red) at the carbon-nanotube-array cathode 90% modulation depth. This unique ability to directly from the radiofrequency input; colour scale shows the applied modulate or generate RF/GHz electron beams from macroscopic electric f ield in volts (105) per metre. White carbon nanotube emitters is especially important for arrow, coaxial radiofrequency input; black arrow, emitted microwave devices as it essentially replaces the hot electron beam, collected by an antenna; scale bar 10 mm. b) cathode and its associated modulation stage [154]. Electron micrograph of the carbon-nanotube-array cold cathode at a tilt of 45°. The carbon nanotubes have an Other advantages that carbon nanotube cathodes average diameter of 49 nm, height of 5.5 μm and a spacing offer include no heating requirement and the ability to of 10 μm; scale bar, 15 μm. Inset, photograph of 16 cathodes. turn on or off instantly (for efficient operation). c) Representation of the equivalent electrical circuit, where E Because of their small size, and their ability to is the applied electric field and I is the emitted current; CN, generate and modulate the beam directly on demand carbon nanotube array. d) Measured average current density without the need for high temperatures, CNT plotted against applied radiofrequency electric field using 1.5- cathodes could be employed in a new generation of GHz sinusoidal input. The circled point corresponds to I=3.2 lightweight, efficient and compact microwave devices mA. The cavity-quality factor was 3,160 [153]. Reprinted by for telecommunications in satellites or spacecraft. permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature, K.B.K. Xintek have also been working on CNT-based Teo, E. Minoux, L. Hudanski, F. Peauger, J.-P. Schnell, L. microwave amplifiers for the US Air Force [155]. The Gangloff, P. Legagneux, D. Dieumgard, G.A.J. Amaratunga main problem at present is the limited modulation and W.I. Milne. "Microwave Devices: Carbon Nanotubes as bandwidth associated with such devices. Cold Cathodes", Nature 437, 968 (2005), copyright 2005. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 43
- 45. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes Their application is targeted towards lowpower use Gauges/Sensors for a space mission to Mars (though high power The Physical Metrology Division, Korea Research would be more preferable), once again because of Institute of Standards and Science are using the field their low weight and fast response time. emission effect of a carbon nanotube to characterize Oxford Instruments have also developed and sold a new type of technology for detecting low pressure. hand-held low power X-ray imagers which can be The fabricated low pressure sensor is of a triode type, applied to medicine and for diagnostics in circuit consisting of a cathode (carbon nanotubes field boards [157]. Zhou and co-workers at Xintek (see emitter arrays), a grid, and a collector. figure 9) have developed a fast response, sharp-focus The gauge has a triode configuration similar to that of X-ray tube with quick pulsation [158]. MoXtek have a conventional hot cathode ionization gauge but also also produced similar devices [159]. has a cold emission source. Due to the excellent field Challenges for these devices are in achieving high emission characteristics of CNT, it is possible to make power with stability and reproducibility. a cost effective cold cathode type ionization gauge. For an effective CNT cathode they used the screen-printing (iv) Ionization for propulsion and detection method and also controlled the collector and the grid electric propulsion potentials in order to obtain a high ionization current. Replacing hollow and filament cathodes with field They found that the ratio of the ionization current to emitter (FE) cathodes could significantly improve the the CNT cathode current changes according to the scalability, power, and performance of some meso- pressure in the chamber [165]. and microscale Electric Propulsion (EP) systems. Miniaturised gas ionization sensors using There is considerable interest now in microscale carbon nanotubes spacecraft to support robotic exploration of the solar system and characterize the near- Earth environment. Ajayan et al. from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute The challenge is to arrive at a working, miniature have developed Ionization sensors work by electric propulsion system which can operate at much fingerprinting the ionization characteristics of distinct lower power levels than conventional electric gases [166]. They report the fabrication and successful propulsion hardware, and meets the unique mass, testing of ionization microsensors featuring the power, and size requirements of a microscale electrical breakdown of a range of gases and gas spacecraft. Busek Company, Inc. (Natick, MA), has mixtures at carbon nanotube tips. developed field emission cathodes (FECs) based on The sharp tips of nanotubes generate very high electric carbon nanotubes [160]. The non-thermionic devices fields at relatively low voltages, lowering breakdown have onset voltages about an order of magnitude voltages several-fold in comparison to traditional lower than devices that rely on diamond or diamond- electrodes, and thereby enabling compact, battery- like carbon films. powered and safe operation of such sensors. Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) falls under the The sensors show good sensitivity and selectivity, and programs headed by Professors Blandino and are unaffected by extraneous factors such as Gatsonis. Blandino’s research is largely focused on the temperature, humidity, and gas flow. As such, the study of colloid thrusters for small satellite propulsion, devices offer several practical advantages over and in the development of novel, earth-orbiting previously reported nanotube sensor systems. The spacecraft formations [161]. The Gatsonis activity also simple, low-cost, sensors described here could be includes modelling of plasma micropropulsion [162]. deployed for a variety of applications, such as Groups from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory environmental monitoring, sensing in chemical [163] and Brunel University [164] are studying Field processing plants, and gas detection for counter- emission performance of macroscopically gated multi- terrorism. walled carbon nanotubes for a spacecraft neutralizer. McLaughlin and Maguire [167] at University of Ulster report the use of CNT’s in order to decrease the turn- 44 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 46. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes on voltage associated with microplasmas and the enhancement of emission spectra associated with gas types. In particular the device focuses on mixed gas types such as breath analysis and environmental monitoring. The ability of low cost CNT structured electrodes is key to improving performances related to higher sensitivity and specificity of gases such as NOx. Catalyst free growth techniques have been reported using thermal CVD routes and the study is also looking at the optimum CNT spacing and height required for short time ionisation or FE applications to gas sensors. The main driver at present is to improve the efficiency which currently lies at around 1%. Figure 9. Left, the x-ray tube current versus the gate voltage (v) Backlighting measured with the anode voltage f ixed at 40 kV. It follows Although their use in full colour TVs is still the classic Fowler—Nordheim relation. The distance between problematical, the use of CNTs as electron emitters in the cathode and the gate is 150 μm. Right, X-ray image of FE-based backlight units for AMLCDs is still under a normal mouse carcass (25 g) obtained using a CNT source- investigation by various companies worldwide. Major based imaging system [158]. Reprinted with permission from players in the TFT-LCD display industry, such as J Zhang, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76, 094301 (2005). Copyright Samsung, Corning and LG Electronics (LGE), are keen 2005, American Institute of Physics. to develop carbon-nanotube (CNT) backlight modules, with Taiwan-based backlightmodule makers also ge’s papers [170] for their use in SEM/TEM sources are interested in following suit [168]. In Korea Iljin also have summarized below: several years of experience in this area [169]. Reduced Brightness/(Asr-1m-2V-1) 109 In theory, CNT backlight modules have a lower Energy Spread/eV 0.25 - 0.50 temperature, consume less power and are less Short-term stability % 0.2 expensive to produce than traditional backlight Running Temp/K 700 - 900 modules. It is a good candidate to eventually replace Vacuum Level/mBar < 2×10-8 CCFL (cold cathode fluorescent lamp) backlighting but has strong competition from LEDs, which could be iVirtual source size is analogous to the effective emitting area much cheaper to produce. The challenges are again to on the surface of the carbon nanotube in which the improve the lifetime of the emitters and to reduce cost advantage lies in this area being minimized. to be competitive with other technologies. (vi) Electron microscopy The CNTs act as a cold cathode source and the standard manufacturing procedure is to add them to the tip of a Electron microscopy demands a bright, stable, low- standard tungsten emitter. Several different methods of noise electron source with a low kinetic energy spread attachment/growth have been attempted. Teo et al. to maximise spatial resolution and contrast. Recent used a carbon glue to attach the CNT to the tungsten research has investigated whether the carbon nanotube tip. Growth, rather than attachment is felt to be a better can act as an improved electron source for this process. Riley et al. [171] have shown that a forest of application and how it compares to the other electron highly efective CNTs can be grown on a tungsten tip by sources available today. thermal chemical vapour deposition (TCVD), but in Various groups from FEI, CUED, EMPA, El-Mul etc. order for electron beam equipment to work effectively, Have researched the optimum way to produce CNTs there must be only a single source of electrons, hence for use in microscopy. The most detailed analysis was a single CNT on each tungsten tip. Mann et al. [172] carried out by De Jonge and co-workers and the field therefore used PECVD and describe how such a emission properties of CNTs collated from all of de Jon procedure is scalable with the ability to grow a single nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 45
- 47. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes CNT on each W tip (shown in figure 10). It is also growing such dense arrays in vias of high aspect ratio is possible to grow many tips simultaneously. El Mul has not so straightforward. Numerous groups worldwide developed a silicon-based CNT microcathode in which are trying to optimise the process including CEA but the CNT is grown in an etched pore [173]. Fujitsu [176] (see figure 11) have reported the most significant advances and have recently reported that Though the emission characteristics of the CNT have they have achieved a density of 9x1011 cm-2. They have been found to be extremely promising with the also reported a resistivity of 379 μΩcm for a via 2 μm attachment process has been essentially overcome. in diameter. A Microwave CVD method was employed Progress is also being made in improving stability and to produce CNTs at temperatures compatible with reproducibility. CMOS. However, much improvement is still required before these become a practical proposition. European Position for Field Emission and Applications From a display viewpoint Europe were very much forerunners but then Samsung provided the more recent display drive. As regards work on sources for electron microscopy in Europe De Jonge and co workers did some excellent work on characterisation of single emitters as did Groning on arrays of emitters. Figure 10. Left, electron micrograph of a single CNT grown Thales in collaboration with several universities have on a tungsten tip. Note that the growth is aligned with the continued European interest in the design of high tungsten axis. Centre, a tungsten tip mounted in a suppres- frequency CNT based sources. For X-ray sources sor module. Right, a CNT grown on a tungsten already Oxford Instruments led the way and more recently mounted in the suppressor in situ. Xintek in the US and Philips in Europe have expanded the work. In backlighting as in Displays the Far East leads Problems include choice of catalyst, catalyst deposition, the way. The leaders in the FE based propulsion area depositing top contacts, increasing the packing density are in the US where the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and reducing the overall resistivity. The growth also Pasadena, Busek Co., Inc. and the Worcester needs optimization for back-end processing and must Polytechnic Institute (WPI) lead the way. In Europe the be carried out at low enough temperatures so as not to main groups are from the Rutherford Appleton damage CMOS. If SWNTs are to be employed, the Laboratory, Brunel University, the University of packing density of metallic tubes must be high enough Groningen, and the University of Ulster. to justify replacing metal interconnects. For MWNTs, for a sufficient current density, internal walls must also 8(b) Interconnects, vias contribute to conduction. Neither have as yet been achieved. In order to achieve the current densities/conductivity needed for applications in vias, dense arrays of CNTs European Position: Infineon identified Vias as a are required. Very dense arrays of nanotubes have been possible early application of CNTs in electronics, Intel in grown by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) by various the US evaluated spun-on CNTs for contacts but more groups, following Fan et al. [174]. They are called forests, recently Fujitsu. Japan lead the way. mats or vertically-aligned nanotube arrays. They are usually multi-walled and grown from Ni, Co or Fe 8(c) Transparent, conductive contacts/membranes catalysts. As the use of ITO becomes ubiquitous and indium It has been suggested that a nanotube density of at least becomes more scarce and thence more expensive there 1013 cm-2 was needed in order to produce the required is an ongoing search for alternative transparent conductivity but recently Fujitsu have indicated that conducting contact materials. Initiated at Nanomix 5x1012 cm-2 would be acceptable [175]. However [178], various groups worldwide including those of 46 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 48. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes Rinzler, Roth, Chhowalla and Grüner have worked in the world's first 4-inch QVGA colour LCD display using this area to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) in e.g. LCDs, CNT as the transparent conductive film. The CNT were touch screens, and photovoltaic devices. deposited by spray coating [180]. There is still a need to increase conductivity whilst maintaining a sufficiently high (~95%) transparency and for some applications, roughness is a problem. Also, most recently it has been pointed out by Fanchini et al. [181] that CNT/Polymer films are anisotropic and suffer from birefringent effects which may cause problems in some of its most useful potential application areas such Figure 11. Left, CNT vias grown in pores etched into silicon as OLEDs, Displays and PV. Gruner summarizes the [177], © [2007] IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from M. work in this area well (figure 12). Nihei et al., “Electrical Properties of Carbon Nanotube Via Interconnects Fabricated by Novel Damascene Process”, European Position: US dominates this area through Proceedings of IEEE/ IITC 2007. Right, CNTs grown in pores the work of Eikos Inc, Nanomix Inc., Grüner and co- in Silicon. workers and Rinzler’s group in Florida. Chhowalla at Rutgers has now carried on this work and Roth in Nantero Inc. (Boston), Eikos Inc. Of Franklin, Stuttgart leads the way in Europe. Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. (recently bought by Arrowhead) of Silicon Valley, California are also 8(d) Thermal management developing IP and transparent, electrically conductive films of carbon nanotubes [179]. CNT films are There is also an increasing need to replace indium for substantially more robust than ITO films mechanically, thermal interfaces in eg: CPUs, graphic processors and potentially making them ideal for use in displays for (automotive) power transistors, as price and scarcity computers, cell phones, PDAs and ATMs as well as in increase. Various companies and universities (such as other plastic electronic applications. At SID2008, Ajayan’s group [183]) are working in this area but very University of Stuttgart and Applied Nanotech presented little (if anything) has been published. Current problems in using CNTs are insufficient packing density and problems with graphitisation leading to a reduction in conductivity. European Position: Ajayan is the most notable contributor to this research. Very little work has been published by workers from the EU. 8(e) Transistors and diodes for logic (i) Individual CNT-based transistors Arguably this has been the electronic application on which most research has focused. As shown in table 2. Martel et al. and Tans et al. first reported a bottom Figure 12. The evolution of the mobility of the plastic FET gate individual single walled carbon nanotube field devices over the past decades. The mobility of CNTN FETs effect transistor (SWNT-FETs) with an on/off ratio is indicated by the bold cross towards the top right-hand cor- of ~105 and a mobility of 20 cm2/Vs in 1998 ner. Some application barriers are also indicated on the right [184,185]. Afterwards, Durkop et al. claimed a side of the f igure [182]. G Gruner. J. Mater. Chem., 2006, mobility for bottom-gate SWNT-FET of >105 cm2/Vs 16, 3533 — 3539 — Reproduced by permission of the Royal So- with a subthreshold swing ~100 mV/decade [186]. ciety of Chemistry. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 47
- 49. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes Table 2 This mobility is still the highest reported for bottom gate CNT-FETs thus far. Meanwhile, top gate SWNT- FETs were also attracting attention since such a structure can be readily used for logic circuits. In 2002, Wind et al. First demonstrated a top gate SWNT-FET with an on/off ratio of ~106, a transconductance of 2300 S/m and a subthreshold swing of 130 mV/decade [187]. Rosenblatt et al. And Minot et al. [188,189] using NaCl and KCl solutions as the top gate SWNT-FETs showed a mobility of 1500 cm2/Vs, a subthreshold swing of ~80 mV/decade and an on/off ratio of 105. Yang et al. [190] showed a very high transconductance of 1000 S/m in a top gate device (shown in figure 13, together with a bottom gate device). Javey et al. Also demonstrated high performance SWNT-FETs using high-k dielectric ZrO2 as the top gate insulator. Devices exhibited a mobility of 3,000 cm2/Vs, a transconductance of 6000 S/m and a subthreshold swing of ~70 mV/decade respectively [191]. Several groups have also investigated vertical CNT-FETs (wrap-around gate). Choi et al. reported the first vertical MWNT-FET with a best conductance of 50 mS in 2003 [192] but this only works at low temperatures. Maschmann et al. demonstrate a vertical SWNT-FET in 2006 [193]. Their devices exhibited a good ohmic Figure 13. SWNT-FET transistor characteristics with diffe- SWNTmetal contact, but the gate effect is not as rent contacts. Top, Pd makes and ohmic contact which re- efficient as either the top gate or bottom gate SWNT- sults in p-type conduction. Centre, Ti contacts result in strong FETs. SWNTFET always exhibit p-type operation when ambipolar behaviour. Bottom, Al makes a Schottky contact contacted ohmically, but n-type SWNT-FETs are also which results in n-type conduction but with a strong leakage needed for fabrication of logic circuits. Derycke et al. current. claimed both annealing (removal of oxygen) and doping 48 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 50. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes (e.g. potassium) can convert a p-type SWNT-FET into European Position: The state-of-the-art transistors a n-type and a logic inverter was demonstrated (dependent on characteristics) are those produced by [194,195]. Javey et al. and Chen et al. reported that the groups of Avouris at IBM and in Europe, Bourgoin using different metal electrodes (e.g. Al) they could also at CEA, Saclay, Ecole Polytechnique and Dekker at obtain n-type SWNT-FETs with a ring oscillator also Delft University of Technology. fabricated [196,197]. (ii) Network CNTs In order to overcome the various problems with individual CNT transistors, numerous groups have concentrated on the production of transistors manufactured from CNT networks or even CNT/ Polymer mixtures. In 2002, the first report (a patent) for transistors based on random network of nanotubes and its use in chemical sensors was deposited by Nanomix Inc. [198], followed in 2003 by the disclosure of their integration onto a 100 mm Si wafer [199]. First public disclosure was made in 2003 by Figure 14. (a) Transfer curves from a transistor that uses alig- Snow et al. [200] who demonstrated a SWNT thin ned arrays of SWNTs transferred from a quartz growth subs- film transistor with a mobility of >10 cm2/Vs and a trate to a doped silicon substrate with a bilayer dielectric of subthreshold swing of 250 mV/decade with an epoxy (150 nm)/SiO2 (100 nm). The data correspond to mea- on/off ratio of 10. In 2007, Kang et al. grew highly surements on the device before (open triangles) and after dense, perfectly aligned SWNT arrays on a quartz (open circles) an electrical breakdown process that eliminates substrate which was then transferred to a flexible metallic transport pathways from source to drain. This process plastic substrate (PET). The SWNTFETs were improves the on/off ratio by a factor of more than 10,000. fabricated on the PET substrate and exhibited a mobility of 1000 cm2/Vs and a transconductance of (b) Optical (inset) and SEM images of a transistor that uses 3000 S/m [201]. The Rogers group has exhibited interdigitated source and drain electrodes, in a bottom gate state-ofthe-art network transistors for on-off ratio conf iguration with a gate dielectric of HfO2 (10 nm) on a and mobility (see figure 14). Grenoble have also substrate and gate of Si. The width and length of the chan- investigated this and have made a small chip of 75 nel are 93 mm and 10 μm, respectively. The box indicated such transistors. by the dashed blue lines in the optical image inset delineates the region shown in the SEM image [201]. Reprinted by per- The interest of the networks comes from the fact mission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature (London), that if the average nanotube length is small compared Seong Jun Kang, Coskun Kocabas, Taner Ozel, Moonsub to the distance between source and drain, more than Shim, Ninad Pimparkar, Muhammad A. Alam, Slava V. Rot- one tube is needed to make the connection. Hence kin, John A. Rogers, Nature (London), 2, 230 (2007), copy- the probability of having an electrical path made only right 2007. of metallic tubes is ~(1/3)n where n is tne number of tubes needed to make the junction. Secondly, the Challenges for the future include controlling the on/off ratio increases since, even if two tubes are chirality, improving the yield of working devices, metallic, their contact is not metallic [202]. improving the reproducibility of the contact, ensuring all CNTs are semiconducting, improving the uniformity of Finally, even a single defect is enough to open a the devices, controlling their positioning, and bandgap in a metallic tube, turning it into a developing a process that can be scaled up to mass- semiconductor [203]. This means that controlling the production. number of defects is an important challenge to nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 49
- 51. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes overcome. Note that the first transparent CNT Additionally, amplified spontaneous emission noise based transistor made on a flexible substrate was suppression has been demonstrated with CNT-based achieved by transferring a CNT random network and saturable absorbers, showing great promise for this its contact from its initial silicon substrate onto a technology for multi-channel, all-optical signal polyimine polymer [204]. regeneration in fibre telecom systems [216]. Challenges include justifying the research to industry European Position: Rogers in the USA produces due to the limited market potential. the state of the art thin Film transistors and in Europe, apart from some preliminary work in European Position: There are 5 major research Universities little seems to be happening. groups working on CNT saturable absorber applications around the world: Sakakibara at National Institute for 9. Optical applications Advanced Industrial science and Technology (AIST), 9(a) Saturable absorbers The band gap of semiconducting CNTs depends on their diameter and chirality, i.e. the twist angle along the tube axis [205]. Thus, by tuning the nanotube diameter it is easy to provide optical absorption over a broad spectral range [206]. Single-walled CNTs exhibit strong saturable absorption nonlinearities, i.e. they become transparent under sufficiently intense light and can be used for various photonic applications e.g in switches, routers and to regene-rate optical signals, or form ultra-short laser pulses [207-209]. It is possible to achieve strong saturable absorption with CNTs over a very broad spectral range (between 900 and 3000 nm [210]). CNTs also have subpicosecond relaxation times and are thus ideal for ultrafast photonics [211,212]. CNT saturable absorbers can be produced by cheap wet chemistry and can be easily integrated into polymer photonic systems. This makes a CNT-based saturable absorber very attractive when compared to existing technology, which utilises multiple quantum wells (MQW) semiconductor saturable absorbers and requires costly and complicated molecular beam epitaxial growth of multiple quantum wells plus a post-growth ion implantation to reduce relaxation times [213]. Additionally, the MQW saturable absorbers can operate only between 800 and 2000 nm, a much narrower absorption bandwidth. The major laser systems mode-locked by CNT saturable absorbers demonstrated so far (see figure 15) includes Figure 15. Top, Experimental setup of the Er/Yb:glass laser. fibre lasers, waveguide lasers and solid-state lasers, OC: output coupler; M1-M4: standard Bragg-mirrors; CNT- generating sub-ps pulses in a broad spectral range SAM: Saturable absorber mirror based on carbon nanotubes; between 1070 and 1600 nm [214]. The shortest pulse LD: pigtailed laser diode for pumping the Er/Yb:glass (QX/Er, of about 68 fs was achieved with a solid state Er3+ glass Kigre Inc., 4.8 mm path-length). Bottom, background-free laser by using a CNT-polyimide composite [215]. autocorrelation. The solid line is a sech2 f it with a corres- ponding FWHM pulse-duration of 68 fs [215]. 50 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 52. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes Tsukuba, Japan, Maruyama and Yamashita at Tokyo 9(c) Antennae University & Set in Alnair Labs, and Yoshida at Tohoku University and in Europe. Dr. E. Obraztsova in the Ren at Boston College has demonstrated the use of a Institute for General Physics, Moscow, and Cambridge single multi-walled CNT to act as an optical antenna, University Engineering are the major players. whose response is fully consistent with conventional radio antenna theory [218]. The antenna has a 9(b) Microlenses in LCs cylindrically symmetric radiation pattern and is characterized by a multi-lobe pattern, which is most Microlenses in liquid crystal devices have potential pronounced in the specular direction. Possible applications in adaptive optical systems (where different applications for optical antennae include optical focal lengths are required dependent on position), switching, power conversion and light transmission. One wavefront sensors (which measure the aberrations in an particular application is the “rectenna”, which is the light optical wavefront) and optical diffusers (which take a analogue of the crystal radio in which an antenna is laser beam and redistribute it into any pattern desired). attached to an ultrafast diode. This could lead to a new The use of sparse, MWCNT electrode arrays has been class of light demodulators for optoelectronic circuits, used to electrically switch liquid crystals. or to a new generation of highly efficient solar cells. The nanotubes act as individual electrode sites which European Position: Early stages of research in the produce an electric field profile, dictating the refractive Dept of Engineering at Cambridge University in index profile within the liquid crystal cell (see figure 16). collaboration with Queen Mary College, London and The refractive index profile then acts to provide a series ALPS (Electric), Japan. of graded index profiles which form a simple lens structure. By changing the electric field applied, it is 9(d) Lighting possible to tune the properties of this graded index structure and hence form an electrically reconfigurable There is ongoing work on the use of CNTs for low micro-optical array [217]. energy lighting applications. The use of CNTs as electron emitters to stimulate phosphors has been reported by The problems for the lenslets come mostly from the various groups and the replacement of metallic filaments alignment of the LC and the limited aperture of the with carbon CNTs/Fibres has been investigated by lenslets. More generally, for the kinoform or modal groups mostly in China. Carbon nanotube bulbs made hologram, the problem is to be able to individually from CNT strands and films have been fabricated and address each CNT. Growing them onto a TFT or a VLSI their luminescent properties, including the lighting circuit would be ideal (such as an LCOS backplane). efficiency, voltage-current relation and thermal stability have been investigated. The results show that a CNT bulb has a comparable spectrum of visible light to a tungsten bulb and its average efficiency is 40% higher than that of a tungsten filament at the same temperature (1400-2300 K). The Figure 16. Left, Simulated electrical field profile surrounding nanotube filaments show both resistance and thermal the single carbon nanotube (10 μm high) with an applied stability over a large temperature region. No obvious field of 1V m—1. Right, Defocus of the nanotube lenslet array damage was found on a nanotube bulb held at 2300 K at 40x. a) Defocused image of the array at 0 V μm—1 ap- for more than 24 hours in vacuum, but the cost needs plied f ield. b) Array brought into focus with 2.1 V μm—1 ap- to be significantly reduced and the lifetime significantly plied f ield [217]. increased for this to be considered seriously as an option. European Position: The Engineering Department in Cambridge as far as we know, are the only group in European Position: Mostly in the Far East but Europe working in this area. Bonnard et al at EPFL have worked in this area. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 51
- 53. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes 10. Electromechanical and sensor applications is oversupplied and they frequently have to be sold at a loss, making it difficult for any new technology to break 10(a) NEMS in. In addition, several other major companies are developing their own non-volatile memory technologies Recently Amaratunaga et al [219] demonstrated novel with PRAM perhaps the leading contender at present. non volatile and volatile memory devices based on PRAM, FRAM, MRAM and RRAM are all large vertically aligned MWCNTs (see figure 17). companies. Nanoelectromechanical switches with vertically aligned With Nantero’s relatively small size, market penetration carbon nanotubes have been produced. However, is a big issue. Nantero are the market leaders in this area and have created multiple prototype devices, including an array of European Position: Nantero are the world leaders ten billion suspended nanotube junctions on a single but in Europe ETH, TU Denmark, Cambridge Univ. silicon wafer [220]. Nantero's design for NRAM™ Engineering in collaboration with Samsung and Thales involves the use of suspended nanotube junctions as plus numerous other groups are making significant memory bits, with the "up" position representing bit contributions. zero and the "down" position representing bit one. Bits are switched between states through the application of 10(b) Sensors electrical fields. CNTs for sensing is one of their most interesting In theory the NRAM chip would replace two kinds of electronic applications. Both SWCNTs and MWCNTs, memory. While cell phones, for example, use both flash functionalised and unfunctionalised, have been chips and SRAM or DRAM chips, NRAM would investigated. They have been used as gas, chemical and perform both functions. However the memory market biological sensors and Nanomix Inc was the first to put on the market an electronic device that integrated carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform (in May 2005 they produced a hydrogen sensor) [221]. Since then, Nanomix has taken out various other sensing patents e.g. for carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, glucose, DNA detection etc [222]. The next product to become available should be a breath analyzer detecting NO as a marker of asthma. More recently workers in Cambridge and Warwick University in collaboration with ETRI, South Korea have integrated CNTs onto SOI substrates to produce smart gas sensors (see figure 18) [223]. The CNTs have been locally grown on microheaters allowing back end deposition at T ~700 ºC. Numerous other groups worldwide continue to Figure 17. Left, a schematic diagram showing a cross-section investigate CNTs for sensing because of their ease of of a switch fabricated by Jang et al.. Both contacts and ca- functionality and high surface area. Dekker and his talyst were deposited with e-beam lithography. Right, an group are focusing on biosensors and electrochemical electron micrograph showing the grown CNTs acting as a sensors using carbon nanotubes.There are very many switch [219]. Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Pu- problems to overcome in bringing this technology to the blishers Ltd: Nature Nanotechnolog , J.E. Jang, S.N. Cha, market. Reproducibility of the CNT growth, processing Y.J. Choi, D.J. Kang, T.P. Butler, D.G. Hasko, J.E. Jung, J.M. as well as variable behaviour once integrated in a sensor Kim and G.A.J. Amaratunga. "Nanoscale Memory Cell can result in poor selectivity and sensitivity. In some Based on a Nanoelectromechanical Switched Capacitor", devices, defects play a key role, in others, the Nature Nanotechnology 3, 26 - 30 (2008), copyright 2008. source/drain metal-nanotube contact is key. 52 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 54. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes 10(c) CNT’s in biotechnology and medical devices research Definition: Nanomedicine, for the purpose of this section is defined as the application of nanotechnology to achieve breakthroughs in healthcare. It exploits the improved and often novel physical, chemical and biological properties of materials at the nanometer scale. Nanomedicine has the potential to enable early detection and prevention, and to essentially improve diagnosis treatment and follow-up of diseases. This document addresses the overall roadmaps associated with nanomedicine and in particular identifies the role of CNT’s. The key issues associated with CNT’s related to nanomedicine is mainly related to the following issues: • Some of the main challenges are linked to industrialisation. There is no conventional manufacturing method that creates low cost CNTs. Desirable properties are robustness, reproducibility, uniformity and purity. • Reproducible production relating to surface defects; Figure 18. Top, structural cross-sectional layout of the sensing surface chemistry, size (hight and diameter; area of the chip. Bottom, microscopic images of carbon na- morphology; type etc. notubes grown locally on ultrathin membranes incorporating a tungsten heater [223]. Reprinted by permission from IOP • The ability to functionalise the surface with Publishing Ltd. M.S. Haque, K.B.K. Teo, N.L. Rupesinghe, appropriate chemistries. S.Z. Ali, I. Haneef, S. Maeng, J. Park, F. Udrea, and W.I. • The ability to produce arrays; periodicity; catalyst Milne. "On-chip Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes using freeor tailored catalyst grown from self-assembly. CMOS Microhotplates", Nanotechnology 19, 025607 (2007). Author and Publisher are acknowledged. • To produce lost cost routes to manufacture in the case of disposable or competitive devices. Also, both the nanotube-nanotube junction or even amorphous carbon remaining on the nanotube can play • The ability to integrate into microfluidic systems; a significant role in the detection scheme [224]. Indeed, CMOS circuitry or flexible substrate systems. there are many possible sensing mechanisms, hence a fundamental understanding of them is required to A clear set of studies are required to resolve all the issue enable good optimisation and reproducibility of the of biocompatibility and nanotoxicity associated with the sensors. use, manufacture and purchase of CNT’s of all forms. In the next ten years, the development of biosensors Although Nanomix has already raised $34 millions they and importantly, nanotechnology, will allow the design have yet to deliver a significant, high volume product to and fabrication of miniaturised clinical laboratory the market. However, progress in these areas continues analysers to a degree were it is possible to analyse to be made globally. several laboratory measurements at the bedside with as little as 3μL of whole blood. The use of quantum dots; European Groups Many companies and research self-assembly; multifunctional nanoparticles, nano- institutions are carrying out work in this area, with templates and nano-scale fabrication including THALES, Dekker (Delft), being the most successful. nanoimprinting will have a major impact on the design nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 53
- 55. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes and development of much improved highly sensitive and This has been done by incorporating the nanotubes in rapid diagnostics; thus allowing accurate drug delivery the stationary phase of mainly gas chromatography integration. Nanoenabled high throughput analysis will columns to take advantage of their high surface-to-volume also reduce the time it takes to bring a new drug ratio and better thermal and mechanical stability delivery platform to market. compared to organic phases, which make them ideal for especially temperature programmed separations Nanomix is attempting to put such a device on the [226,227,231]. The carbon nanotubes, in the form of market in the next 12-18 months, with its NO sensor powder, is hard to pack directly in the columns due to its which is applied to monitoring asthma. marked tendency for aggregation and hence channel blockage [226,227,232] so the CNTs have typically either 10(d) Nanofluidics been incorporated in a monolithic column [233] immobilized on the inner channel wall [234] (or deposited The interest in taking advantage of the unique properties on the surface of beads that subsequently were packed) of carbon nanotubes in nanofluidic devices has increased [235]. A major complication of these methods, beside tremendously in the last couple of years. The carbon that they are manual and very labor intensive, is that they nanotubes can either be used directly as a nanofluidic rely on the necessity of forming uniform CNT channel in order to achieve extremely small and smooth suspensions, which is difficult, since CNTs are insoluble pores with enhanced flow properties [225] or be in aqueous solutions and most organic solvents [226]. It embedded into existing fluidic channels to take advantage is therefore typically required to either dynamically or of their hydrophobic sorbent properties and high surface- covalently modify the CNTs to avoid aggregation [227]. to-volume ratio for improving chemical separation systems [226,227].By integrating vertically aligned carbon These problems can be overcome by direct growth of the nanotubes into silicon nitride [228] and polymer CNTs on a surface, in e.g. microfluidic channels membranes [229,230] respectively, it has been possible [236,237,238] so they are anchored to the channel wall to study the flow of liquids and gases through the core of and therefore unable to from aggregates. This also allows carbon nanotubes. a much higher CNT concentration without clogging the fluidic devices. Growing of CNTs in microfluidic systems The flow rates were enhanced with several orders of has the additional benefit that lithography can be used magnitude, compared to what would be expected from for the pattern definition, which should make it possible continuum hydrodynamic theory [225]. The reason for to make much more uniform and therefore more efficient this is believed to be due to the hydrophobic nature of the columns [239].A major limitation of this application is also inner carbon nanotube sidewall, together with the high the lack of low cost CNT deposition equipment, since it smoothness, which results in a weak interaction with the is necessary to use vertically aligned CNTs that are water molecules, thereby enabling nearly frictionless flow attached to the surface to avoid aggregation and to through the core of the tubes. This effect is resemble benefit from the high uniformity of the nanostructures. transport through transmembrane protein pores, such as aquaporins, where water molecules line up in a single file European Position: Montena Components of Switzerland with very little interaction with the sidewall. are in competition with Maxwell Technologies in this area. This application of carbon nanotubes is envisioned to 1 Energy applications 1. result in novel ultrafiltration and size-based exclusion separation devices, since the pores size is approaching the 11(a) Fuel cells size of ion channels in cells [225]. The carbon nanotube membranes are, however, fabricated by CVD and this Carbon nanotubes can be used to replace the porous application is therefore suffering from the lack of large carbon in electrode-bipolar plates in proton exchange scale cost-effective CNT depositing equipment. In the last membrane fuel cells, which are usually made of metal or couple of years CNTs have also been investigated as a graphite/carbon black. The CNTs increase the sorbent material for improving both the resolution and conductivity and surface area of the electrodes which sensitivity of chemical separations [226,227]. means that the amount of platinum catalyst required can 54 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 56. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes be reduced [240]. The state of the art in this area is the European Position: Leader in Europe is Beguin et al. mixing of CNTs and platinum catalyst particles reported [241] who have used multi-walled CNTs mixed with by F. Chen et al. of Taiwan. polymers to create capacitance values of 100-330 F/g. Europe also has a strong industrial; input in this area with Whilst CNTs reduce the amount of platinum required, it companies such as Maxwell (formerly Montena, is only a small percentage, which means that the cost of Switzerland). the fuel cell remains high. Also, CNTs are comparable in price to gold, meaning the saving is minimal. 11(c) Batteries European Position: The leaders in this area are the The outstanding mechanical properties and the high Taiwanese groups. The European leaders are linked to S surface-to-volume ratio make carbon nanotubes Roth (Max Planck Institute, Stuttgart). potentially useful as anode materials [242] or as additives [243] in lithium-ion battery systems. The CNTs give 11(b) Supercapacitors mechanical enhancement to the electrodes, holding the graphite matrix together. They also increase the Electric double-layer capacitors, or supercapacitors have conductivity and durability of the battery, as well as energy densities 1000 times greater than typical increasing the area that can react with the electrolyte. electrolytic capacitors. This occurs because they use the Sony produce the best CNT enhanced lithium-ion high surface area of porous carbon or nanotubes, and batteries. The main problem is the high cost of CNTs. the narrow thickness of the electrochemical double layer Recently, a so-called paper battery has been developed, as the capacitor separation. Supercapacitors allow where CNTs are used as electrodes which are attached to inverters in electric trains to transform between voltages. cellulose immersed in an electrolyte. The technology is They allow electric vehicles to have greater acceleration cheap, the batteries are flexible and no harmful chemicals than from simple batteries. They would allow smoothing are required [244]. The main problem with this is the high of power supplies on mobile phones. production cost of the battery, which needs to be reduced for mass production. The ambition is to print the Experimental devices replace the activated charcoal batteries using a roll-to-roll system. required to store the charge with carbon nanotubes, which have a similar charge storage capability to charcoal European Position: Although much of the innovation (which is almost pure carbon) but are mechanically in this are has been carried out in the US and the Far arranged in a much more regular pattern that exposes a East, in Europe there are various groups notably in much greater suitable surface area. The figures of merit Germany contributing in this area. are energy density, related to the capacitance per unit volume of the carbon, and thereby the surface area of 11(d) Solar cells the porous carbon, and secondly the power density, related to the series resistance. There has been much research into incorporating carbon nanotubes into solar cells. One application is the Activated carbon is close to the theoretical surface area dispersion of CNTs in the photoactive layer. of carbon layers already, so going to nanotubes does not Amaratunga [245] has observed enhancement of the gain so much. But nanotubes have lower electrical photocurrent by two orders of magnitude with a 1.0% resistance than porous carbon, so there is a gain in power by weight single-walled CNT dispersion. However, the density. In order to gain in energy density, development power efficiency of the devices remains low at 0.04% is towards hybrid CNT-polymer supercapacitors, using suggesting incomplete exciton dissociation at low CNT polypyrrole etc. Ionic displacement within the Ppy acts as concentrations. At higher concentrations, the CNTs a pseudo capacitance/battery. The weakness of short-circuit the device. More recently, a polymer supercapacitors in electric vehicle applications is that they photovoltaic device from C60-modified SWCNTs and must be priced against conventional batteries which are P3HT has been fabricated [246]. P3HT, a conjugated very low in price. polymer was added resulting in a power conversion efficiency of 0.57% under simulated solar irradiation (95 nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 55
- 57. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes mW cm-2). An improved short circuit current density The target set by the US Department of Energy is 6% by was attributed to the addition of SWCNTs to the weight hydrogen by 2010. Whilst most groups have composite causing faster electron transport via the found hydrogen uptake to be in the 1-2% region [252], network of SWCNTs. amongst the highest reported are Gundish et al. [253] at 3.7% and Dai’s group [254] at 5.1%. It should be noted Further optimization is required to improve the that Hirschler and Roth found most values to be false efficiency still further. Furthermore, photoconversion [255], for example due to Ti take up during sonication. efficiencies of 1.5% and 1.3% have been achieved with SWCNTs deposited in combination with light harvesting From a more fundamental point of view, since the CdS quantum dots and porphyrins, respectively [247]. average adsorption energy of hydrogen on CNTs is not significantly different from its value on amorphous CNTs have also been developed as a replacement for carbon. It is mainly the surface area which plays a crucial transparent conductive coatings to replace ITO which is role. Hence 5.8% was achieved a long time ago on becoming more expensive as supply runs out. Studies super-high surface area activated carbon [256]. have demonstrated SWCNT thin films can be used as conducting, transparent electrodes for hole collection European Position: Over the last 10 or so years there inOPV devices with efficiencies between 1% and 2.5% have been numerous groups worldwide working in this confirming that they are comparable to devices area; especially in the USA, Japan and China. Europe too fabricated using ITO [248,249]. has made a significant investment, notably through groups in Germany, France, Greece (theoretical work) Finally, CNTs have been investigated for application in and the UK but still the DoE 6% target remains elusive. dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). CNT networks can act as a support to anchor light harvesting semiconductor 12. Future/Blue Sky particles. Research efforts along these lines include organizing CdS quantum dots on SWCNTs. Other 12(a) Spintronics varieties of semiconductor particles including CdSe and CdTe can induce charge-transfer processes under visible Spin transport has been demonstrated over lengths of light irradiation when attached to CNTs [250]. The hundreds of nanometers in CNTs [257], and the limit SWNTs facilitate electron transport and increase the may be much longer. The Kondo effect has been photoconversion efficiency of DSSCs. Other researchers demonstrated [258], and Fano resonances have been fabricated DSSCs using the sol-gel method to obtain found [259]. Spin blockade has been demonstrated in a titanium dioxide coated MWCNTs for use as electrodes double dot structure [260]. [251]. Problems to overcome include the production of European Position: Although much of the work in uniform, defect-free SWNTs, free from paramagnetic this area has been driven by the USA and Japan impurities, and with a single chiral index and fabrication significant input on both the incorporation of the CNTs of reproducible devices with uniform contacts. as part of the active layer and in transparent contact materials has been made in universities across the European Position: Hitachi, Cambridge Laboratory, European community. the Cavendish Lab Charles Smith, in collaboration with Andrew Briggs at Oxford are the leaders in the field; 11(e) Hydrogen storage Others include Delft (Leo Kouwenhoven) and the Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen. CNTs have been suggested as potential candidates for hydrogen storage. However, the reported hydrogen 12(b) Quantum computing uptake varies significantly from group to group, with the mechanism not clearly understood. Current methods Arrays of qubits have been created in the form of involve compressing the CNTs into pellets which are then endohedral fullerenes in SWNTs, to make so-called subjected to hydrogen at high pressure. peapod [261]. The interactions between the spins have 56 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 58. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes been characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance, Monte Carlo simulations including electron-phonon showing transitions from exchange narrowing to spin- interactions yield mobility values similar to those under spin dephasing. ballistic transport (~ 104 cm2/Vs) in semiconducting tubes of radii up to ~ 2 nm [271]. It is worth noting Theoretical architectures have been developed for global though that onset of ambipolar conduction in CNTFETs control of qubits [262]. The spin properties of N@C60 has been found to be modified by phonon scattering have been shown to make it one of the strongest [272]. Monte Carlo simulations have also revealed candidates for condensed matter quantum computing steady-state velocity saturation due to optical phonon [263]. scattering and negative differential mobility at high electric fields [273]. Quantum memories have been demonstrated, in which information in the electron spin is transferred to the Regarding other scattering mechanisms, by using a k.p nuclear spin, and subsequently retrieved. In this system approximation, Ando and co-workers provided an the gate operation times is of order 10 ns, and the elegant proof of the suppression of back scattering for storage time is in excess of 50 ms, which clearly needs to impurities with smooth potential range, much larger be improved. Problems to overcome include the than the lattice constant [274]. However the nature of development of the technology for single spin read out disorder in nanotube-based materials and devices is in CNTs and the demonstration of entanglement using more complex, including topological defects, chemical peapods. impurities, vacancies, etc.. European Position: Oxford leads the world in The impact of such defects can strongly jeopardize initial peapods for quantum computing, in collaboration with good ballistic capability of otherwise clean nanotubes, Princeton (Steve Lyon), Nottingham (Andrei and its study is therefore genuinely relevant. Several Khlobystov), Cambridge (Charles Smith), EPFL (Laszlo advanced computational scheme based on first Forro), There is also activity in Berlin (Wolfgang principles (see reference [273]) allow a realistic Harneit), at L. Néel Institute in Grenoble and at CEMES- description of scattering potentials, with quantitative CNRS in Toulouse [264]. estimation of associated elastic mean free paths and charge mobilities. 12(c) Ballistic transport Additionally, even though transport in CNTs can be Owing to their perfect geometry, carbon nanotubes are considered largely ballistic, CNTFETs have been expected to exhibit ballistic transport for most radii demonstrated to be Schottky barrier FETs [275]. Even encountered in experimentation [265]. However, undoped CNTFETs, with zero-Schottky-barrier contacts backscattering due to electron-phonon interactions has are limited by voltage-controlled tunnelling barriers, been demonstrated in single-wall carbon nanotubes at presented by the body of the CNT, at the source and biases of several volts [266]. This scattering is drain [276]. As a result, the current is strongly controlled nonetheless only manifested in relatively low-energy by the CNT diameter, chirality, contact geometry/ electrons in devices of lengths of several hundred type/thickness and oxide thickness, all of which nanometers [267]. modulate the barriers and present problems such as ambipolar conduction. The mean free path for acoustic phonon scattering in CNTs is long (~ 1 micron) and hence its impact on the Both inter and intraband tunnelling needs to be taken drain current for a 50 nm channel length is negligible into account when modelling the transport. [268,269]. The mean free path for optical scattering is Furthermore, a correct treatment requires taking into about 10 nm and the energy of emission is ~ 0.16 eV account quantum confinement around the tube [270]. The injected hole can be backscattered near the circumferential direction, quantum tunnelling through drain, but the likelihood of it scattering back to the Schottky barriers at the metal/nanotube contacts, source is small on account of the higher Schottky quantum tunnelling and reflection at barriers in the barriers encountered at the drain [6]. nanotube channel. Limitations in predicting CNTFET nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 57
- 59. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Carbon Nanotubes transport arise both from theory and experiment. To metallic island in which electrons are confined. date there has not been any demonstration of the Therefore, it is sometimes compared with a natural relationship of the electrical property of a CNTFET to atom, where electrons are confined in the Coulomb its physical structure. Notwithstanding limitations of potential on a much smaller scale. When the discrete experimental techniques, limitations of theory include levels and the shell structure are clearly formed, the many-body effects in the atomistic modelling of the quantum dot is called an artificial atom. In the SWCNT CNT and the dependence of transport modelling on QD, electrons are confined in the axial direction as well “fitting” parameters. as the circumference direction. The main remaining challenges is to better understand Single electron transistor (SET) operation in single- high-bias transport regimes because of their relevance in walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) to estimate the device performances (high flow of current densities), as length of ballistic conduction in laser-synthesized well as the possible control of Schottky-Barrier features SWNTs has been investigated. The devices were by a proper choice of metal contacts/nanotubes fabricated by an alternating current-aligned method and characteristics/ environment exposure/chemical the SWNTs were sidecontacted to the electrodes. functionalization, and so forth. Furthermore, the performances of nanotubebased vias also need to be At 5 K, Coulomb oscillation and Coulomb diamonds increased by optimised control of tube growth were observed and the Coulomb island length, i.e., the processes. In that respect, sophisticated computational ballistic conduction length, was calculated to be about modelling tools and expertise are clearly essential 200-300 nm. Whilst many groups have published work factors to allow the indepth exploration of transport in this area, as far as it can be ascertained, this is the properties and device performance optimization. only report of a true SET action in CNTs [278]. European Position: In Europe, several groups have European Position: Major efforts have been made in brought key contributions [277] to the fields of Japan including work in various companies such as modelling carbon nanotubes physical (and transport) Toshiba, Hitachi, NEC and NTT. The work in Europe properties, mainly in Belgium (Jean-Christophe Charlier tends to be at the more fundamental/University level. at University of Louvain), France with Xavier Blase (Institut Néel, Grenoble) and Stephan Roche (CEA 13. Conclusions Grenoble, France), and Spain with Angel Rubio (University of San Sebastian). CNTs have many unique and indeed useful properties for applications in the ICT area. Research into CNTs will These scientists are leading the international community continue for at least the next several years especially in several fields from ab-initio computation of growth into quantum effects and associated behaviour, as well- processes, electronic and vibrational properties, to the characterized, high-quality SWCNTs become more simulation of quantum transport in nanotubes-based available.Although CNTs are still being touted for materials and devices. Several other European groups various industrial applications, much more investment is are also contributing to the field of device simulation necessary for them to reach commercial viability. The such as Giuseppe Iannaconne in Pisa (Italy), USA and Japan lead in this development but Europe has Kosina/Selberherr at TU Vienna, Giovanni Cuniberti at made significant impact in many areas despite the fact TU-Dresden in Germany, to cite a few. This community that investment in Europe is but a fraction of that in the expert in theory and simulation is extremely important other major high-tech industrial zones. to sustain experimental efforts and device optimisation. References 12(d) Single electron transistors [1] S. Ijima, Nature 354, 56 (1991). A single electron transistor (SET) is a device in which a quantum dot (QD) is connected with source and drain [2] For a historical overview of carbon nanotube discovery contacts through small tunnel junctions. A QD is a small see: Monthioux, Marc; Kuznetsov, Vladimir L. (2006). "Who 58 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
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- 70. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices 3.2 Status of modelling for nanoscale In order to meet the needs of the MOS industry and to information processing and storage make practical exploitation of new device and solid-state devices* or molecular material concepts possible, a new integrated approach to modelling at the nanoscale is M. Macucci1, S. Roche2, A. Correia3, J. Greer4, X. needed, as we will detail in the following. A hierarchy of Bouju5, M. Brandbyge6, J. J. Saenz7, M. Bescond8, D. multi-scale tools must be set up, in analogy with what Rideau9, P. Blaise10, D. Sanchez-Portal11, J. Iñiguez12, G. already exists for microelectronics, although with a Cuniberti13 and H. Sevincli13 more complex structure resulting from the more intricate physical nature of the devices. 1 Università di Pisa, Italy; 2CEA-INAC, France; 3Phantoms Foundation, Spain; 4Tyndall National Institute, Ireland; 5CNRS- A coordinated effort in the field of modelling is apparent CEMES, France; 6Technical University of Denmark, Denmark; in the United States, where significant funding has been 7 Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain; 8CNRS-L2MP, awarded to the Network for Computational France; 9STMicroelectronics, France; 10CEA-LETI-MINATEC, Nanotechnology, which is coordinating efforts for the France; 11CSIC-UPV/EHU, Spain; 12Instituto de Ciencia de development of simulation tools for nanotechnology of Materiales de Barcelona (CSIC), Spain; 13Technical University interest both for the academia and for the industry. Dresden, Germany. Although the required integrated platforms need to be During the 2009 meeting of the Theory and Modelling developed, the efforts made in the last few years by the working group the current status of modelling for modelling community have yielded significant advances nanoscale information processing and storage devices has in terms of quantitatively reliable simulation and of ab- been discussed and the main issues on which collaboration initio capability, which represent a solid basis on which within the modelling community is needed have been a true multi-scale, multi-physics hierarchy can be built. pointed out. An analysis of the current situation in Europe The combination of these new advanced software tools in comparison with that in the rest of the world has been and the availability of an unprecedented and easily performed, too. The previous version of the present accessible computational power (in particular report (resulting from the 2008 meeting) has been considering the recent advances in terms of GPU-based updated reflecting the new issues that have been general purpose computing) make the time ripe for a recognized as relevant and of significant current interest. real leap forward in the scope and performance of computational approaches for nanotechnology and Introduction nanosciences. We are presently witnessing the final phase of the Current status of MOS simulation and industrial downscaling of MOS technology and, at the same time, needs the rise of a multiplicity of novel device concepts based on properties of matter at the nanoscale and even at The continuous downscaling of MOSFET critical the molecular scale. dimensions, such as the gate length and the gate oxide thickness, has been a very successful process in current Ultra-scaled MOS devices and nanodevices relying on manufacturing, as testified, e.g., by the ITRS new physical principles share the reduced dimensionality requirements. However, conventional scaling down of and, as a result, many of the modelling challenges. In MOSFET channel length is declining as the physical and addition, new materials and process steps are being economic limits of such an approach are coming closer. included into MOS technology at each new node, to be Novel solutions are increasingly being used in MOSFET able to achieve the objectives of the Roadmap; these channel engineering within the industry. changes make traditional simulation approaches inadequate for reliable predictions. So far modelling at Among the new technological features of very advanced the nanoscale has been mainly aimed at supporting devices, high-k dielectrics, the archetype of which is research and at explaining the origin of observed hafnium oxide, can significantly reduce gate leakage. phenomena. Mechanical strain applied in the channel and substrate * 2nd Position Paper for nanoICT Theory and Modelling Working Group nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 69
- 71. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices orientation can also significantly improve carrier Non-Equilibrium Green Function Method, in which carrier mobility. Moreover, alternative geometries, such as transport is treated using the full quantum Green function double-gated devices, in which the channel doping level formalism. In the second category one can include the is relatively low, must be evaluated within the Monte Carlo Solvers, that model carrier transport via the perspective of an industrial integration. In particular, the Boltzmann equation. This equation is solved in a stochastic subsequent effects of the high-k gate dielectric and of way, using a classical description of the free fly of the the double-gate geometry on channel mobility must be electrons but a quantum description of the interactions. clearly quantified. The currently available high-level NEGF [1] and MC solutions [2] are still in the development phase, and no Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) refers to ready-to-use industrial solutions are available so far to the use of computer simulations to develop and meet the requirements of the 32 nm node and beyond. optimize semiconductor devices. State-of-the-art commercial TCAD device simulators are currently From the point of view of technology development working using the Drift-Diffusion (DD) approximation support, the Monte Carlo simulators should be able to of the Boltzmann transport equation. Quantum effects provide reliable electrical results on a regular basis for 32 are accounted for using the Density Gradient nm MOS devices. However the need for full-band Monte- approximation, that works well for traditional bulk Carlo codes together with band structure solvers that devices, but that can be unreliable for advanced devices account for strain and are capable of dealing with new such as the double-gated-MOS structure or for new materials must be highlighted. Indeed, some commercial materials. Moreover, emerging materials also 3D Schroedinger solvers [1] combined with NEGF solvers significantly challenge the conventional DD-based tools, start being available. These solvers can be used to model mostly due to a lack of appropriate models and ballistic quantum transport in advanced devices with parameters. It becomes urgent to develop new strong transverse confinement. However, they do not physically-based models with a view of integrating them include any inelastic scattering mechanism, and thus are into a standardized simulation platform that can be not suitable for the calculation of transport properties in efficiently used in an industrial environment. For this the 32 nm node devices and near-future nodes. purpose, tight collaborations between world-class universities and research institutions, CAD vendors and On the other hand, high-level device simulation tools are industrial partners must be established. at an early stage of development in universities and research institutions. These codes generally include Within the framework of these collaborations, there will advanced physical models, such as strain-dependent band be the best chances of success, both in terms of structure and scattering mechanisms, and should provide academic model development and theoretical accurate predictions in complex nano-systems. However, achievements, but also in terms of concrete such simulation tools are in general difficult to use in an implementations and benchmarks of new models in industrial environment, in particular because of a lack of TCAD tools. Innovative concepts based on nano- documentation, support and graphical user interface, materials or molecular devices, new models and although an increasing number of academic codes are now simulation tools would provide our ICT industries a including graphic tools [3,4]. Taking advantage of these competitive advantage for device development and ongoing research projects, it should be possible to optimization in terms of time-cycle and wafer-costs. integrate such high-level codes into industrial TCAD tools or to use them to obtain calibrated TCAD models useful Commercial v.s. academic quantum-transport for the industry. Concerning this latter point, the quantum solvers drift-diffusion-based solution must be “customized”, in order to make fast and accurate simulations of advanced In response to the industrial need of new simulation tools, devices possible. For instance, the effect of the high-k gate a class of quantum and transport solvers is emerging. dielectric stack on device performance must be addressed These commercial state-of-the-art solvers can be divided with a particular attention to its impact on carrier into two categories. In the first category, one can find the transport properties. This is definitely one of the most quantum-transport solvers, such as those based on the challenging issues in semiconductor industry at present. 70 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 72. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices Efficient modelling tools, as well as accurate physics (linear with current), leading to a progressive highlights, would certainly bring a significant competitive degradation of the signal-to-noise power ratio. advantage for the development and the optimization of the 32 nm CMOS technology and for future technologies, Disorder has demonstrated all of its disruptive power including molecular devices. on nanodevices in the case of single-electron transistors: as a result of their extreme charge sensitivity, stray Importance of modelling variability charges, randomly located in the substrate, are sufficient to completely disrupt their operation. Near the end of the current edition of the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) in Fluctuations associated with the granularity of charge 2018, transistors will reach sub-10 nm dimensions [5]. In and spatial disorder are fundamental roadblocks that order to maintain a good control of the electrical affect any effort towards handling information on an characteristics, new transistor architectures have to be increasingly small scale. developed. It is widely recognized that quantum effects and intrinsic fluctuations introduced by the discreteness It is thus of strategic importance to develop device of electronic charge and atoms will be major factors simulation tools that are capable of efficiently exploring affecting the scaling and integration of such devices as the extremely large parameter space induced by such they approach few-nanometer dimensions [6-11]. variability and evaluate the actual performance limits of new nanodevices. Strategies to decrease the amount of For instance, in conventional one-gate nanotransistors, naturally occurring disorder or to cope with it need to variations in the number and position of dopant atoms be devised as emerging devices are developed into new in the active and source/drain regions make each nano- technologies aiming at the limits of the downscaling transistor microscopically different from its neighbours process. [12-16]. In nanowire MOS transistors the trapping of one single electron in the channel region can change the cur- Integration between material and device rent by over 90% [17,18]. Interface roughness of the simulation order of 1-2 atomic layers introduces variations in gate tunnelling, quantum confinement and surface/bulk Both for decananometric MOSFETs and for most mobility from device to device. The inclusion of new emerging devices, the distinction between material and materials such as SiGe will induce additional sources of device simulation is getting increasingly blurred, because fluctuations associated with random variations in the at low dimensional scales the properties of the material structure, defects, strain and inelastic scattering [19,20]. sharply diverge from those of the bulk or of a thin film These intrinsic fluctuations will have an important impact and become strongly dependent on the detailed device on the functionality and reliability of the corresponding geometry. Such a convergence should start being circuits at a time when fluctuation margins are shrinking reflected also in research funding, because, at the due to continuous reductions in supply voltage and dimensional scale on which research is currently increased transistor count per chip [7,8]. focused, a project cannot possibly take into consideration only one of these two aspects. This was The problem of fluctuations and disorder is actually not the case until a few years ago, when a material could more general and affects fundamental aspects of be investigated within the field of chemistry or material information storage and processing as device size is science and then parameters were passed on to those scaled down. The presence of disorder limits the active in the field of device physics and design, who capability of patterning by introducing a spatial variance: would include them in their simulation tools. when the pattern size approaches the spatial variance, patterns are unavoidably lost. An analogous problem Fortunately, the nanoelectronics simulation community exists as a result of time fluctuations (shot noise) is not starting from scratch in terms of atomic scale associated with the granularity of charge: as current materials computations. Computational physics and levels are reduced, the signal power decreases faster quantum chemistry researchers have been developing (quadratically with current) than the shot noise power sophisticated programs, some with on the order of mil- nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 71
- 73. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices lions of lines of source code, to explicitly calculate the Codes using atomic orbitals were initially developed quantum mechanics of solids and molecules from first within the Quantum Chemistry community, although principles. Since quantum mechanics determines the recently have also become popular within the Materials charge distributions within materials, all electrical, Physics community. Quantum Chemistry codes rely optical, thermal and mechanical properties, in fact any heavily on the expansion of the atomic orbitals in terms physical or chemical property can in principle be of Gaussian functions. This is mainly due to the fact that, deduced from these calculations. with the use of Gaussians, the four-center-integrals associated with Coulomb and exchange interactions However, these programs have not been written with become analytic and easy to calculate. H wever, within nanoelectronics TCAD needs in mind, and substantial the framework of Density Functional Theory, due to Figure 1. Codes such as SIESTA can be used for the ab-initio simulation of relatively large structures. theoretical and computational problems remain before non-linear dependence of the exchange - correlation their application in process and device modeling reaches energy and potential with the density, the evaluation of maturity. However, the coupling of electronic structure such contributions to the energy and Hamiltonian has to theory programs to information technology simulations be necessarily performed numerically and the advantage is occurring now, and there is nothing to suggest this of using Gaussian functions is mainly lost. This has trend will not continue unabated. Quantum electronic opened the route for the use of other types of localized structure codes come in essentially two flavours: those basis sets optimized to increase the efficiency of the using plane wave expansions (or real-space grids) and calculations. For example, localized basis orbital can be those using basis sets of atomic orbitals to span the defined to minimize the range of the interactions and, electronic wave functions. Plane wave codes are suitable therefore, to increase the efficiency of the calculation, for solid state calculations and have been mainly the storage, and the solution of the electronic developed within the Solid State Physics community. Hamiltonian [21]. 72 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 74. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices In particular, so-called order-N or quasi-order-N methodologies have been developed over the last two decades that, using the advantages of such local descriptions, allow for the calculation of the electronic structure of very large systems with a computational cost that scales linearly or close to linearly with the size of the system [22,23]. This is in contrast with traditional methods that typically show a cubic scaling with the number of electrons in the system. Order-N schemes are particularly powerful and robust for insulators and large biomolecules. However, the design of efficient and reliable order-N methods for metallic systems is still a challenge. The most widely used codes for ab initio simulations of solids and extended systems rely on the use of the Density Functional Theory, rather than on Quantum Chemistry methods. Many of them have been developed in Europe, and some of them are commercial, although their use is mostly limited to the academic community. Among the commercial code, we can cite the plane-wave codes VASP [24] and CASTEP [25], and the Hartree- Fock/DFT code CRYSTAL [26] that utilizes Gaussian basis functions. Other widely used plane-wave codes are the public domain CP2K [27] and Abinit [28]. Abinit is distributed under GNU license and has become a very complete code with a rapidly growing community of developers. Among the most popular DFT codes using local atomic orbitals as a basis set we can mention the order-N code SIESTA [21,29], which uses a basis set of numerical atomic orbitals, and Quickstep [30], that uses a basis set of Gaussian functions. One of the reasons why codes using basis sets of atomic orbitals have recently become very popular is that they provide the ideal language to couple with transport codes based on Non-Equilibrium-Green’s functions (NEGFs) to study transport properties in molecular junctions and similar systems. Using the local language implicit behind the use of atomic orbitals (with tight-binding-like Hamiltonians) is trivial to partition the system in different regions that can be treated on different fotings. For example, it becomes relatively simple to combine information from a bulk calculation to describe the electrodes with information obtained from a simulation that explicitly considers the active part of the device. Again Europe has taken the lead along this path. Two of Figure 2. With the help of ab-initio calculations, the effect the most popular simulation tools for ballistic transport of functionalization on graphene nanoribbon conductance using NEGFs combined with DFT have been developed can be evaluated. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 73
- 75. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices based on the SIESTA code: tranSIESTA [31] and Smeagol information but they are obtained from DFT calculations [32]. In particular, tranSIESTA was developed by a for simple systems (mainly diatomic molecules) [36]. collaboration of Danish and Spanish research groups and, The parameters obtained in this way have proven to be although there is a public domain version that will be transferable enough to provide a reasonable description distributed with the latest version of the SIESTA code of systems like large molecules and even solids. (siesta.3.0), it has also given rise to a commercial simulation package called QuantumWise [33]. Electronic structure theory represents the lowest and most sophisticated level of computation in our simulation hierarchy. At this level there are many different degrees of rigor and associated errors in the computations. The most accurate results are provided by post-Hartree-Fock Quantum Chemical methods. Unfortunately, they are extremely demanding and not well suited for simulations of solids and condensed matter systems. As already mentioned, the most popular approach to study such systems is Density Functional Theory, which provides a good balance between the computational cost and the accuracy of the results. However, even at the DFT level, ab initio calculations are computationally too demanding to perform realistic simulations of devices. Therefore, it is necessary to develop more approximate methods Figure 3. Ultra-high-vacuum STM image of a substrate after and, finally, to combine them in the so-called multi-scale the fabrication with single-atom manipulation, of a complete approaches, in which different length scales are interconnection circuit for an OR gate, obtained by removing described with different degrees of accuracy and detail. hydrogen atoms from a silicon hydride surface. An interesting intermediate stage between DFT The ability to treat varying length and time scales, within calculations, which take into account the full complexity varying degrees of approximation, leads to the already of the materials, and empirical models, which disregard mentioned requirement for a multi-scale approach to most of the chemistry and structural details of the coupled materials/device simulation. Although a multi- system, is provided by the tight-binding approaches. scale approach is more than ever needed at this stage, Here a minimal basis of atomic orbitals is used to parameter extraction cannot be performed for a describe the electronic structure of the system. As a generic material, but must be targeted for the particular consequence, only the valence and lowest lying device structure being considered, especially for single- conduction bands can be accurately treated. molecule transistors. There has to be a closed loop Traditionally, the hopping and overlap matrix elements between the atomistic portion of the simulation and the were considered empirical parameters that were higher-level parts, guaranteeing a seamless integration. adjusted to describe the electronic band structure of the This convergence between material and device studies material and its variation with strain. This has proven a also implies that a much more interdisciplinary approach quite powerful approach to describe complex system than in the past is needed, with close integration like, for example, quantum dots containing thousands between chemistry, physics, engineering, and, in a or millions of atoms [34, 35]. growing number of cases, biology. A very interesting variation of these methods has been To make an example, let us consider the simulation of a developed in recent years: the so-called DFT-tight- silicon nanowire transistor: atomistic calculations are binding. Here the tight-binding parameters (hoppings, needed to determine the specific electronic structure overlaps and short-ranged interatomic repulsive for the cross-section of the device being investigated, potentials) are not obtained by fitting to empirical then this information can be used in a full-band solver 74 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 76. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices for transport or parameters can be extracted for a involve the design of nanometer scale optical simpler and faster transport analysis neglecting architectures with new properties that may differ interband tunneling; then the obtained device considerably from those of their macroscopic characteristics can be used for the definition of a higher- counterparts. level model useful for circuit analysis. It is apparent that, for example, the atomistic simulation is directly This requires the development of new numerical tools dependent on the device geometry, and that, therefore, able to describe electromagnetic interactions and light work on the different parts of the simulation hierarchy propagation at different length scales. They should be has to be performed by the same group or by groups able to describe the electromagnetic field from the scale that are in close collaboration. Indeed, the dependence of a few light wavelengths (already of the order of the between results at different length scales sometimes whole micro-device) down to the nanometer scale requires the combination of different techniques in the elements. These new tools should include a realistic same simulation, not just the use of information from description of the optical properties including electro- more microscopic descriptions to provide parameters and magneto-optical active nanostructures and for mesoscopic or macroscopic models. Following the plasmonic elements which are expected to be key previous example, the electronic properties of a silicon ingredients of a new generation of active optoelectronic nanowire are largely determined by its geometry. components. However, the geometry of the wire is determined by A mayor challenge of the “multi-physical” modelling will the strain present in the region where it grows, which in be to simulate a full nanodevice where electronics, turn is a function of the whole geometry of the device, mechanics and photonics meet at the nanoscale. For its temperature and the mechanical constraints applied instance, the coupling between mechanical vibrations and to it. Thus, a reliable simulation of such device can quantum conductance of single nanotubes has been require, for example, a quantum mechanical description recently observed. The interaction of an optical field with of the nanowire itself, coupled to a larger portion of a device takes place not only through the electromagnetic material described using empirical interatomic properties, but also through the mechanical response potentials, and everything embedded in an even much (radiation pressure forces). The physical mechanisms and larger region described using continuum elastic theory. Although still at its infancy, this kind of multi-scale simulations has already been applied very successfully to the study of quite different systems, like biological molecules, crack propagation in mechanical engineering or combustion processes [37, 38]. This is certainly one of the most promising routes towards the simulation of realistic devices. Another example where multi-scale and multi-physics simulations become essential is represented by the effort to merge electronics with nanophotonics. The integration of CMOS circuits and nanophotonic devices on the same chip opens new perspectives for optical interconnections (higher band widths, lower-latency links compare with copper wires) as well as for the possible role of photons in the data processing. These involve the modelling of “standard” passive components, such as waveguides, turning mirrors, splitters and input and output couplers, as well as active elements, such as modulators and optical switches. Modelling of ultra-scaled optoelectronic components Figure 4. Functionalized graphene nanoribbons can be used to detect organic molecules. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 75
- 77. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices possible applications of optical cooling of mechanical physical and chemical properties. Diamond (3D), resonators are being explored. Modelling Nano-Electro- fullerenes (0D), nanotubes (1D-CNTs), 2D graphene Mechano-Optical (NEMO) devices is going to play a key and graphene ribbons are selected examples. Because of (and fascinating) role in the development and their remarkable electronic properties, CNTs or optimization of new transducers and devices. graphene-based materials should certainly play a key role in future nanoscale electronics. Not only metallic Thus, one of the main challenges for modelling in the nanotubes and graphene offer unprecedented ballistic next few years is the creation of well organized transport ability, but they are also mechanically very collaborations with a critical mass sufficient for the stable and strong, suggesting that they would make ideal development of integrated simulation platforms and interconnects in nanosized devices. Further, the intrinsic with direct contacts with the industrial world. semiconducting character of either nanotubes or graphene nanoribbons, as controlled by their topology, Carbon-based electronics and spintronics allows us to build logic devices at the nanometer scale, as already demonstrated in many laboratories. In Amongst the most promising materials for the particular, the combination of 2D graphene for development of beyond CMOS nanoelectronics, Carbon interconnects (charge mobilities in graphene layers as Nanotubes & Graphene-based materials and devices large as 400.000 cm2V-1s-1 have been reported close to deserve some particular consideration. Indeed, first, the charge neutrality point) together with graphene Figure 5. A carbon nanotube consists of a rolled up sheet of graphene. their unusual electronic and structural physical properties nanoribbons for active field effect transistor devices promote carbon nanomaterials as promising candidates could allow the implementation of completely carbon- for a wide range of nanoscience and nanotechnology made nanoelectronics. applications. Carbon is unique in possessing allotropes of each possible dimensionality and, thus, has the Besides the potential of 2D graphene and GNRs for potential versatility of materials exhibiting different electronic device applications, transport functionalities 76 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 78. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices Figure 6. Functionalization of graphene nanoribbons. involving the spin of the carriers have very recently metallic contact to inject spin-polarized electrons. Thus, received a particularly strong attention. First, although it could be a way to circumvent the problem of spin injection through ferromagnetic metal/ “conductivity mismatch” [47-49] which possibly limits semiconductor interfaces remains a great challenge, the the current spin injection efficiency into a conventional spectacular advances made in 2007 converting the spin semiconductor from a ferromagnetic metal. These information into large electrical signals using carbon phenomena and the corresponding devices need to be nanotubes [39] has opened a promising avenue for investigated using the appropriate models of relativistic- future carbon-based spintronic applications. The further like electron transport in 2D graphene structures. demonstration of spin injection in graphene [40] and the Additionally, the presence of spin states at the edges of observation of long spin relaxation times and lengths zigzag GNRS has also been demonstrated [50-52], and [41] have suggested that graphene could add some may be exploited for spintronics. Using first-principles novelty to carbon-based spintronics. For instance, taking calculations, very large values of magnetoresistance have advantage of the long electronic mean free path and been predicted in GNR-based spin valves [53,54]. negligible spin-orbit coupling, the concept of a spin field- effect transistor with a 2D graphene channel has been Additionally, the potential for 3D based organic proposed with an expectation of near-ballistic spin spintronics has been recently suggested by experimental transport operation [42]. A gate-tunable spin valve has studies [55]. Organic spin valves have shown spin been experimentally demonstrated [43]. Finally, a relaxation times in the order of the microsecond and ferromagnetic insulator, such as EuO, may be used to spin tunnel junctions with organic barriers have recently induce ferromagnetic properties into graphene, through shown magnetoresistance values in the same order of the proximity effect [44] and also to control the spin magnitude as that of inorganic junctions based on Al2O3. polarization of current by a gate voltage [45, 46]. This However, spin transport in these materials is basically configuration does not make use of any ferromagnetic unknown, and many groups are trying to decipher the nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 77
- 79. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices impressive experimental complexity of such devices. Organic materials, either small molecules or polymers, The related challenges for device fabrication need to be will definitely allow large scale and low cost production observed from different perspectives. Indeed, recent of alternative non volatile memory technologies, with experiments in 13C nanotubes reveal surprisingly strong reduced power consumption. These new materials have nuclear spin effects that, if properly harnessed, could therefore the potential to create an entirely new provide a mechanism for manipulation and storage of generation of spintronics devices, and the diverse forms quantum information. of carbon-based materials open novel horizons for This may help to overcome the performance limitations further hybridization strategies and all-carbon of conventional materials and of the conventional spintronics circuits, including logic and memory devices. technology for spin valve devices. The real potential of graphene-based materials for FET and related The performance of these spintronic devices relies spintronics applications thus requires advanced heavily on the efficient transfer of spin polarization modelling methods, including ab initio techniques, and a across different layers and interfaces. This complex precise description of spin degree of freedom. transfer process depends on individual material properties and also, most importantly, on the structural To date, the development of nanotubes and graphene and electronic properties of the interfaces between the science have been strongly driven by theory and different materials and defects that are common in real quantum simulation [57,58]. The great advantage of devices. Knowledge of these factors is especially carbon-based materials and devices is that, in contrast to important for the relatively new field of carbon based their silicon-based counterparts, their quantum spintronics, which is affected by a severe lack of suitable simulation can be handled up to a very high level of experimental techniques capable of yielding depth- accuracy for realistic device structures. The complete resolved information about the spin polarization of understanding and further versatile monitoring of novel charge carriers within buried layers of real devices. forms of chemically-modified nanotubes and graphene will however lead to an increasing demand for more In that perspective, it is noteworthy to remark that the sophisticated computational approaches, combining first fantastic development of first principles non-equilibrium principles results with advanced order N schemes to transport methods is progressively allowing for more tackle material complexity and device features, as and more realistic assessment and anticipation on the developed in some recent literature [59]. true spintronics potential of carbon-based structures. This aspect also stands as an essential point for providing The molecular scale and the end of the road guidance and interpretation schemes to experimental groups. As a matter of illustration, a few years ago it has Molecular electronics research continues to explore the been theoretically shown that organic spin valves, use of single molecules as electron devices or for even obtained by sandwiching an organic molecule between more complex functions such as logic gates [60]. magnetic contacts, could manifest large bias-dependent Experimentally and theoretically the majority of magnetoresistance, provided a suited choice of research work focuses on single molecules between two molecules and anchoring groups was made, which is metallic electrodes or on molecular tunnel junctions. now confirmed by experiments [56]. Reproducibility of the measurements and accurate predictions for currents across single molecule tunnel Finally one also notes that in addition to the potential junctions remains a challenging task, although the results for GMR in carbon-based materials, the spin of theory and experiment are converging [61]. To manipulation and the realization of spin Qubits deserves achieve the goal of using molecular components for a genuine consideration. Recent theoretical proposals computing or storage, or indeed for novel functions, have shown that spin Qubits in graphene could be requires refinement of the theoretical techniques to coupled over very long distances, as a direct better mimic the conditions under which most consequence of the so-called Klein paradox inherent to experiments are performed and to more accurately the description of charge excitations in terms of describe the electronic structure of the molecules massless Dirac fermions. connected to the leads. 78 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 80. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices treatments, beyond standard DFT calculations. Fortunately, part of the effects of screening can be included using a simple non-local self-energy model that basically contains image charge interactions that affect differently the HOMO and LUMO levels [68]. Another interesting issue is that of the coupling of the electrons with structural deformations and vibrational modes. Within the framework of NEGF+DFT calculations inelastic effects associated with the excitation of localized vibration within the contact region have been successfully included in recent years. Most of the approaches rely on different perturbative expansions or on the so-called self-consistent Born approximation [69]. This allows for accurate simulations of the inelastic signal in molecular junctions and, therefore, the characterization of the path followed by Figure 7. Molecule connected to seven atomic wires on a ionic crystal. This setup is composed of 2025 atoms and more than 9700 atomic orbitals are needed to accurately calculate the function of the molecule (from “Picotechnologies : des tech- niques pour l'échelle atomique”, C. Joachim, A. Gourdon and X. Bouju in Techniques pour l'ingénieur NM130, 1-16 (2009). Most simulations of transport in molecular junctions to date are based on the combination of the non- equilibrium Green’s functions techniques with DFT calculations [62,63]. Although this approach has proven quite powerful, it also presents important shortcomings. In particular, the transport calculation is based on the Kohn-Sham spectrum as calculated using standard local or semi-local exchange-correlation functionals. These functionals usually give a reasonable description of the electronic spectrum for the normal metals that constitute the leads. However, they are known to be much less reliable to predict the energy spectrum of small molecules. This is extremely important, since the relative position of the molecular levels and the Fermi energy of the leads is crucial to determine the transport characteristic. Some of the deficiencies of DFT to describe localized levels can be corrected by including the so-called self-interaction corrections [64]. Still, the Figure 8. Connection of a molecule to four atomic wires. position of the molecular levels is also strongly Each wire has been fabricated (left panel) with f ive gold influenced by the dynamical screening induced by the atoms deposited on the substrate; the molecule has then metallic leads [65,66]. An accurate description of all been placed at the center of the device (right panel), slightly these effects requires more elaborate theoretical modifying the structure of one of the wires. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 79
- 81. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices the electrons by identifying which vibrations are excited and biophysical processes via molecular electronic circuits, during the conduction process. Unfortunately, the self- and (ii) the exploitation of self-assembling and self- consistent Born approximation does not allow recognition properties of many biomolecules as scaffolds accounting for polaronic effects that are crucial to in the integration of nano- and sub-nanoscale devices, and understand the electronic transport in flexible organic (iii) exploring the potential of arrays of biomolecules (like molecules [70]. In these cases more sophisticated DNA and its artificial modifications) to serve as molecular methods are necessary, the coupling of which to ab wires interconnecting different parts of molecular initio DFT simulations is still an open question. electronic devices. Obviously, great challenges from both the experimental and from the theoretical side exist on Hence much of the work to date has focused on the the road to achieve such goals. underlying physical mechanisms of charge transport across molecules, whereas very little is understood in The theoretical understanding of the bio/inorganic terms of the use of molecular components in complex, interface is in its infancy, due to the large complexity of or even simple, circuits. This research area could also the systems and the variety of different physical be categorized as in its infancy in that very little is known interactions playing a dominant role. Further, state of the about time-dependent or AC responses of molecules in art simulation techniques for large biomolecular systems tunnel junctions or other circuit environments. To are to a large degree still based on classical physics exploit molecules in information processing, the use of approaches (classical molecular dynamics, classical statistical multi-scale tools [71] as described previously are needed physics); while this can still provide valuable insight into to embed molecular scale components between what many thermodynamical and dynamical properties of are essentially classical objects: leads, drivers, and biomolecular systems, a crucial point is nevertheless circuits. Further development of the simulations is missing: the possibility to obtain information about the needed to accurately describe the transport processes electronic structure of the biomolecules, an issue which is in molecular junctions and its coupling to structural essential in order to explore the efficiency of such systems degrees of freedom and, in particular, to molecular to provide charge migration pathways. Moreover, due to vibrations also in the time-dependent response of the the highly dynamical character of biomolecular systems - molecules to external voltages and their interaction with seen e.g. in the presence of multiple time scales in the light needs to be studied. atomic dynamics- the electronic structure is strongly entangled with structural fluctuations. We are thus Finally, to position a single molecule at the right place, confronting the problem of dealing with the interaction of experimental equipment has to be developed with strongly fluctuating complex molecules with inorganic accurate manipulation capabilities, as well as precision systems (substrates, etc). electrical probes for four terminal measurements [72]. Further development of the simulation techniques is As a result, multi-scale simulation techniques are urgently needed to describe the time-dependent response of required, which should be able to combine quantum- molecules to external voltages and their interaction with mechanical approaches to the electronic structure with light. As the size of molecules considered as a molecular dynamical simulation methodologies dealing component remains quite large, adapted methods using with the complex conformational dynamics of biological a scattering approach seem to be more relevant than objects. Conventional simulation tools of semiconducting high-level NEGF or other sophisticated methods [73,74]. microdevices can obviously not deal with such situations. The concept of a molecular logic gate has emerged recently and specific approaches including quantum Thermoelectric energy conversion Hamiltonian computing [75] will be used for a numerical integration. The importance of research on thermoelectric energy conversion is growing in parallel with the need for Nano-bio-electronics alternative sources of energy. With the recent developments in the field, thermoelectric energy A further fundamental research line which emerged in generators have become a commercial product in the parallel to the development of molecular electronics is market and their efficiencies are improving constantly, bio-electronics. It mainly aims at (i) mimicking of biological but the commercially available products did not take the 80 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 82. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices advantage of nano-technology yet. In fact, Indeed, it has recently been shown that Si nano-wires thermoelectricity is one of the areas in which nano-scale with rough surfaces can serve as high performance fabrication techniques offer a breakthrough in device thermoelectric materials, since the edge roughness performances.It was predicted theoretically that, suppresses phonon transport by a few orders of lowering the device dimensions, it is possible to magnitude whereas the electronic transport is weakly overcome the Wiedemann-Franz Law and enhance the affected from surface roughness in these wires. Similar device performances significantly [76]. behavior is also reported for graphene nanoribbons where edge disorder reduces lattice thermal Quasi one-dimensional quantum wires [77], engineered conductivity while electrons in the first conduction molecular junctions [78,79], superlattices of quantum plateau stay almost intact [82]. dots [80] are the other possible routes proposed for achieving a high thermoelectric figure of merit, ZT. At the sub-band edges, however, the electronic mean free path is discontinuous which yields a large increase The thermoelectric figure of merit includes three of the Seebeck coefficient and ZT. Another criteria for properties of the material, namely the electrical high ZT is to have a narrow distribution of the energy of conductivity σ, Seebeck coefficient S, the thermal the electrons participating in the transport process [83]. conductivity κ=κel+κph with electronic and phononic In molecular junctions, it is shown that the Seebeck contributions as well as the temperature T, ZT =σ S2 coefficient is maximized when the electrode-molecule T/κ. In order to optimize ZT, an electron-crystal coupling is weak and the HOMO level is close to the together with a phonon-glass behavior is required [81]. Fermi energy, these fulfill Mahan's criterion in the zero- dimensional case [84]. The weak coupling condition is also in favor of the need of reduced vibrational thermal conduction. Therefore self- assembled layers of molecules between semiconducting surfaces are supposed to yield high ZT values. These developments offer new challenges for increasing device performances and also for the modelling of new devices. An accurate modelling of the disordered structures or of the layered structures of self-assembled molecules between surfaces requires a lot of improvements Figure 9. Diffusion processes are of fundamental importance in many disciplines of physics, both from the methodological chemistry and biology. A low diffusion rate may hinder progress in many issues related to and from the computational technology and health improvement. For example high viscosity may prevent tailored che- point of view. Simulation of mical reactions or work as an undesired barrier for targeted nano-engineered drug deli- these systems entails very in bio-chips. The classical diffusion of a small particle in a fluid can be greatly consideration of very large enhanced by the light field of two interfering laser beams. Langevin Molecular Dynamics number of atoms, of the order simulations show that radiation pressure vortice, due to light interference, spin the parti- of 106 to 108. Therefore fully cle out of the whirls sites leading to a giant acceleration of free diffusion. The effective vis- parallelized order - N methods cosity can then be notably reduced by simply increasing the laser intensity. [Albaladejo et for both electronic and al., Nano Letters 9, 3527 (2009)]. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 81
- 83. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices phononic computations are needed. Though important Finally, it should be stressed that the field is rich in progress has been achieved in order-N electronic opportunities for the emergence of novel effects and calculations, such methods are still lacking a proper concepts that go beyond the current prospects in the description for the phonons. Adoption of the methods general area of electronics, the recent discovery of high already developed for electrons to phonons is a first goal electronic mobilities in all-oxide heterostructures (i.e., at to be achieved. the interfaces between LaAlO3 and SrTiO3) being a remarkable example. Multifunctional oxides Quantum-mechanical simulation is playing a key role in the Multifunctional oxides, ranging from piezoelectrics to progress in multifunctional oxides. This has been historically magnetoelectric multiferroics, offer a wide range of physical the case, with many key contributions from the first- effects that can be used to our advantage in the design of principles community to the understanding of ferroelectric, novel nanodevices. For example, these materials make it magnetic and magnetoelectric bulk oxides [85,86]. This possible to implement a variety of tunable and/or trend is just getting stronger in this era of nanomaterias, switchable field effects at the nanoscale. Thus, a for two reasons: (i) there is greater need for theory to magnetoelectric multiferroic can be used to control the explain the novel physical mechanisms at work in systems spin polarization of the current through a magnetic tunnel that are usually very difficult to characterize experimentally, junction by merely applying a voltage; or a piezoelectric and (ii) modern deposition techniques offer the unique layer can be used to exert very well controlled epitaxial-like chance to realize in the laboratory the most promising pressures on the adjacent layers of a multilayered theoretical predictions for new materials. heterostructure, which e.g. can in turn trigger a magnetostructural response. Thus, the importance of first-principles simulation for fundamental research in functional oxides is beyond doubt, These are just two examples of many novel applications and very recent developments, e.g. for the first-principles that add up to the more traditional ones -- as sensors, study of the basic physics of magnetoelectrics [87], actuators, memories, highly-tunable dielectrics, etc. -- that ferroelectric tunnel junctions [88] or novel oxide can now be scaled down to nanometric sizes by means of superlattices [89], clearly prove it. modern deposition techniques. In fact, nanostructuring of different types, ranging from the construction of oxide The contribution from simulations to resolve more applied nanotubes to the more traditional multi-layered systems, is problems (e.g, that of the integration with silicon) is, on opening the door to endless possibilities for the the other hand, just starting, and its progress will critically engineering/combination of the properties of this type of depend on our ability to develop novel multi-scale compounds, which are strongly dependent on the system's simulation methods that can tackle the kinetics of specific size and (electrical, mechanical) boundary conditions. growth processes (from pulse-laser deposition to sputtering methods under various oxygen atmospheres) directly. This The current challenges in the field are plenty, from the is a major challenge that will certainly generate a lot of more technical to the more fundamental. At the level of activity in the coming couple of decades. the applications, the outstanding problems include the integration of these materials with silicon or the Major current deficiencies of TCAD identification of efficient and scalable growth techniques for complex oxide heterostructures. A clear gap, which has in part been addressed in the previous sections, has formed in the last few years At a more fundamental level, there is a pressing need to between what is available in the TCAD market and what identify new systems and/or physical mechanisms that can would actually be needed by those working on the materialize some of the most promising concepts for the development of advanced nanoscale devices. As already design of devices; for example, we still lack a robust room- mentioned, classical TCAD tools have not been temperature magnetoelectric multiferroic system that can upgraded with realistic quantum transport models yet, be integrated in real devices, we still have to understand suitable for the current 32 nm node in CMOS the main factors controlling the performance of a technology or for emerging technologies, and, in ferroelectric tunnel junction, etc. addition, there are some fields of increasing strategic 82 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 84. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices importance, such as the design of photovoltaic cells, for operations, but last generation GPUs, such as the which no well-established TCAD platforms exist. FireStream 9170 by AMD, are advertised as capable of handling double precision in hardware, although at a Bottom-up approaches, which, if successful, could somewhat reduced rate (possibly by a factor of 5). provide a solution to one of the major bottlenecks on Another impressive feature of GPU computation is the the horizon, i.e. skyrocketing fabrication costs, are not extremely high energy efficiency, of the order of 5 supported by any type of TCAD tools as of now. This Gigaflops/W in single precision or 1 Gigaflop/W in may be due to the fact that bottom-up approaches are double precision, an aspect of growing importance still in their infancy and have not been demonstrated in considering the costs for supplying power and air any large-scale application, but the existence of suitable conditioning to computing installations. process simulation tools could, nevertheless, facilitate their development into actual production techniques. The latest GPU hardware opens really new perspectives Sophisticated tools that have been developed within for simulation of nanodevices, also in "production research projects are available on the web, mainly on environments," because GPU based systems could be academic sites, but they are usually focused on specific easily standardized and provided to end-users along with problems and with a complex and non-standardized the simulation software. Overall, this is a field that user interface. deserves investing some time and effort on the part of the device modelling community, because it could result An effort would be needed to coordinate the research in a real breakthrough in the next few years. groups working on the development of the most advanced simulation approaches, the TCAD companies Overview of networking for modelling in and the final users, in order to define a common Europe and the United States platform and create the basis for multi-scale tools suitable to support the development of nanoelectronics In the United States, the network for computational in the next decade. nanotechnology (NCN) is a six-university initiative established in 2002 to connect those who develop New computational approaches simulation tools with the potential users, including those in academia, and in industries. The NCN has received a The development of highly parallel and computationally funding of several million dollars for 5 years of activity. efficient graphic processors has recently provided a new and extremely powerful tool for numerical simulations. One of the main tasks of NCN is the consolidation of Modern Graphic Processing Units (GPU) approach a the nanoHUB.org simulation gateway, which is currently peak performance of a Teraflop (1012 floating point providing access to computational codes and resources operations per second) thanks to a highly parallel to the academic community. According to NCN survey structure and to an architecture focusing specifically on [23], the total number of users of nanoHUB.org data processing rather than on caching or flow control. reached almost 70.000 in March 2008, with more than This is the reason why GPUs excel in applications for 6.000 users having taken advantage of the online which floating point performance is paramount while simulation materials. memory bandwidth in not a primary issue. In particular, GPU hardware is specialized for matrix calculations The growth of the NCN is likely to attract increasing (fundamental for 3D graphic rendering), which do attention to the US computational nanotechnology represent also the main computational burden in many platform from all over the world, from students, as well types of device simulations. as from academic and, more recently, industrials researchers. In Europe an initiative similar to the As a result, speed ups of the order of 30 - 40 have been nanoHUB, but on a much smaller scale, was started observed, for tasks such as the simulation of nanoscale within the EU funded “Phantoms network of transistors, with respect to state-of-the-art CPUs. Up excellence” and has been active for several years; it is to now the main disadvantage was represented by the currently being revived with some funding within the availability, in hardware, only of single-precision nanoICT coordination action. (www.europa.iet.unipi.it) nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 83
- 85. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Status of Modelling for nanoscale information processing and storage devices In a context in which the role of simulation might widely used techniques and with a large body of become strategically relevant for the development of references. nanotechnologies, molecular nanosciences, nanoelectronics, nanomaterial science and This review has been written by experts in the fields of nanobiotechnologies, it seems urgent for Europe to set computational modelling; most of them have strongly up a computational platform infrastructure similar to contributed to the development of European excellence NCN, in order to ensure its positioning within the in recent years, and have been leading EU-initiative over international competition. The needs are manifold. First, FP5, FP6 and FP7. Although more efforts will be needed a detailed identification of European initiatives and to bridge different communities from ab initio networks must be performed, and de-fragmentation of development to device simulation, such initiatives need such activities undertaken. A pioneer initiative has been to be supported considering that contributors of this developed in Spain through the M4NANO database report are overviewing promising methodologies to fill (www.m4nano.com) gathering all nanotechnology- the gap between scientific communities, establishing related research activities in modelling at the national some framework for further promoting European- level. based networking activities and coordination. This Spanish initiative could serve as a starting point to Past, present and future European advances in extend the database to the European level. Second, clear computational approaches. incentives need to be launched within the European Framework programmes to encourage and sustain This novel initiative should be able to bridge advanced networking and excellence in the field of computational ab-initio/atomistic computational approaches to nanotechnology and nanosciences. To date, no structure ultimate high-level simulation tools such as TCAD such as a Network of Excellence exists within the ICT models that are of crucial importance in software programme, although the programme NMP supported companies. Many fields such as organic electronics, a NANOQUANTA NoE in FP6, and infrastructural spintronics, beyond CMOS nanoelectronics, funding has been provided to the newly established ETSF nanoelectromechanical devices, nanosensors, (European Theoretical Spectroscopy Facility, nanophotonics devices definitely lack standardized and www.etsf.eu). This network mainly addresses optical enabling tools that are however mandatory to assess characterization of nanomaterials, and provides an open the potential of new concepts, or to adapt processes platform for European users, that can benefit from the and architectures to achieve the desire functionalities. gathered excellence and expertise, as well as The European excellence in these fields is well known standardized computational tools. There is also a and in many aspects overcomes that of the US or of coordinated initiative focused on the specific topic of Asian countries. Within the framework of a new electronic structure calculations, the Psi-k network initiative, specific targets should be addressed in relation (www.psi-k.org). with the modelling needs reported by small and medium sized software companies active in the development of An initiative similar to the American NCN would be commercial simulation tools, such as needed in Europe, within the ICT programme that encompasses the broad fields of devices and QUANTUM WISE (www.quantumwise.com) applications or, better, in conjunction between the ICT SYNOPSYS (www.synopsys.com) and the NMP programme, since the full scope from NANOTIMES (www.nanotimes-corp.com) materials to devices and circuits should be addressed. SILVACO (www.silvaco.com) Other initiatives such as the “Report on multiscale NEXTNANO3 (www.nextnano.de) approaches to modelling for nanotechnology” [90] TIBERCAD (www.tibercad.org) intends to provide an overview, albeit limited and certainly not exhaustive, of relevant aspects of modelling Similarly, larger companies such as STMicroelectronics, at the nanoscale, pointing out some important issues Philips, THALES, IBM, INTEL make extensive usage of that are still open and affording the reader that is not commercial simulation tools to design their yet active in the field with an introduction to several technological processes, devices and packaging. The 84 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
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- 91. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities 3.3 Mono-molecular electronics on a encompasses all types of devices, including mechanical surface: challenges and opportunities machines and transducers. Meeting the atom technology challenge for ICTs requires new understanding in four now well identified fields of science and technology: C. Joachim1, J. Bonvoisin1, X. Bouju1, E. Dujardin1, A. Gourdon1, L. Grill2, M. Maier3, D. 1. Learning the kinds of architectures for molecule- Martrou1, G. Meyer4, J.-P. Poizat5, D. Riedel6, machines (or atom surface circuits) which will permit M. Szymonski7. to perform for example complex logic operations 1 stabilized at the surface of a solid where the required Nanoscience Group, CEMES-CNRS, 29, Rue J. Marvig, BP interconnection will be constructed. 94347, 31055 Toulouse, France. 2 Institut für Experimentalphysik, Freie Universität Berlin, 2. Creating a surface multi-pads interconnection Arnimallee 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany. technology with a picometer precision, respecting the atomic order of the surface which is supporting the 3 Omicron NanoTechnology GmbH, Limburger Strasse 75, nano-system assemblage. 65232 Taunusstein, Germany. 4 IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Säumerstrasse 4 / 3. Cultivating molecular surface science accompanied Postfach, CH-8803 Rüschlikon, Switzerland. with molecule synthesis (respectively atom by atom UHV-STM fabrication on a surface). 5 CEA-CNRS group « Nanophysique et Semi-conducteurs », Institut Néel — CNRS / UJF, 25, av des Martyrs, BP 166, 4. Creating a packaging technology able to protect a 38042 Grenoble cedex 9, France. functioning atom-technology-based machine, while at the same time insuring its portability. 6 Laboratoire de Photophysique Moléculaire, CNRS, Bât. 210, Université Paris Sud, 91405 ORSAY, France. Those 4 topics were discussed during the 1st nanoICT mono-molecular electronics Working Group meeting in 7 Centre for Nanometer-Scale Science and Advanced Toulouse, France between the 8th and the 10th of Materials, NANOSAM, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy, and December 2008. Applied Computer Science, Jagiellonian University, ul. Reymonta 4, 30-059 Krakow, Poland. 2. The architecture 1. Introduction Molecular devices i.e. hybrid molecular electronics are on the agenda of the micro-electronics roadmap since Technology continues to produce functioning transistors the seminal Aviram-Ratner paper in 1974 [2]. Until the on ever smaller scales. The day will come soon, turn of the century, such a futurist possibility of using however, when there will not be enough atoms on the molecules instead of solid state devices for electronics surface of a semi-conductor to define the structure of a was just considered as a game for exploring the limits of transistor and, consequently, of complex electronic calculating machines and memory devices. Approaching circuits. At this stage, new approaches and new the end of the ITRS roadmap, things are now changing. technologies are necessary for building computers, memory or telecommunication devices [1]. Anticipating Thanks to an intense experimental and theoretical effort, this challenge, researchers in a few laboratories around molecular electronics has now positively evolved from the world are now looking for the maximum number of concepts to the first measurements and comparison with atoms required to fabricate, for example, a calculating calculations [3]. There is now a real shift towards the full unit able to perform a computation by itself. integration of a computing power in a single and the same molecule i.e. the mono-molecular approach [4]. This problem of creating an atom based techno-logy is This is now followed by exploring also the possibility of not limited to electronics or to telecommunication and 90 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 92. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities using atomic circuit fabricated on the surface of a passivated semi-conductor surface for implementing quantum dot based computer approach [5] and may be one day a mixture of both approaches. The different possible architectures for a single molecule (or an atomic circuit) to compute include the design of single molecule circuits in a standard electrical architecture, electronic wave-like atomic or molecule circuits located on the surface of a semi-conductor or quantum Hamiltonian like computing architectures. All those approaches are now studied by quantum chemistry software able to take into account the surface electronic structure, the interconnects and the local quantum Figure 1. A possible surface implantation of a molecule logic structure of the computing circuit. Let us take the simple gate. The presented molecule fi adder was designed follo- example of a logic gate. There are 3 ways of designing a wing a Quantum Hamiltonian Computer approach [9]. The logic gate at the atomic scale: interconnection architecture is constructed using metallic ato- mic wires. The logic inputs are located directly on the mole- (1) The use of surface missing atom to fabricate an cular board, supposing 2 switchable chemical group current atomic scale circuit mimicking the topology of a driven inputs. macroscopic electronic circuit. Those surfaces are Solutions (1) and (2) have been proposed long ago but generally passivated semi-conductor surface with a are not very compatible with the quantum level where relatively large gap. Atoms are extracted one at a time to those atom circuits or molecule logic gate are supposed create a specific surface electronic structure in the to work. For solution (3), a quantum Hamiltonian design electronic surface gap. This new electronic structure will of AND, NOR and even fi adder logic gates have been form the surface atomic circuit [6].The STM vertical designed followed by proposal of chemical structure manipulation of the single surface atoms can automated functioning on the manipulation of molecular orbitals [9]. and proceed in parallel. Extreme care has to be taken here for the optimization (2) The full molecule, instead of the surface can be the of the chemical structure of those molecule-gates taking electronic circuit. In this case, it is the π system of such into account their future adsorption for example on a an extended molecule which will define the circuit and passivated semi-conductor surface [10]. In particular, the the π skeleton will ensure the full chemical stability of the optimization of the electronic contact between the molecular architecture [7]. Such a molecule will have to surface atomic wires and the molecule will be obtained be directly chemisorbed to the required number of nano- by selecting with care the chemical composition of the metallic pads or in a very dedicated approach to surface end group of the molecule [11] for running current atomic wires more able to interact with specific part of through the gates with the objective to reaching peak the π molecular orbitals. values in the range of 10 to 100 nA. All those architectures give us an indication of the richness of (3) Molecular orbitals (from a large molecule or defined quantum behavior to design molecule like logic gate up from a specific surface atomic circuit) can be manipulated to the complexity of a digital 2 by 2 full adder. by chemically bonding on a π conjugated board specific chemical groups able to shift the corresponding molecular At the Working Group meeting, the question was: to states [8]. Switchable lateral group can be very active what extend the complexity of such a logic function playing donor or acceptor group to modify very locally embedded in a single molecule or in a small amount of the nodes distribution of a give molecular orbital. Such an dangling bond created on purpose on a surface can be effect can be used to design single molecule logic gate increased up for example to a N x N full adder. There (See Figure 1) without forcing the molecule to have the is no theoretical answer yet to this question. But the topology of an electrical circuit [9]. interesting fact is that a careful quantum design will nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 91
- 93. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities certainly shift up the elementary unit of a logic circuit of the meeting that this fantastic technique will from the transistor level to the logic function level. For progressively be abandoned because there is no way to example, no gain at the gate level is required in the determine the number of molecule in the junction, Hamiltonian logic gate approach. This will simplify a lot because the conformation of the molecules located in the interconnections. But at the same time, cascading this junction is unknown and because it is difficult to the building block at the logic gate level will certainly foresee a multi nano-electrodes version of the break require some power gain. This will consequently junction technique. increase the complexity of the interconnection procedure in between the logic gate units. The quantum In 1999, a new planar nano fabrication technique, the designer will have to define the most interesting building nanostencil was introduced in an attempt to solve the block complexity (of course beyond the transistor) to surface cleanness problem [21]. Then, nanostencil was find an optimum between the computing power on proposed as a new way to interconnect electrically a board of a molecule and the required interconnects. single molecule. Nanostencil has a great advantage over There is no solution yet for designing dynamic memory nano-lithography because it is supposed to preserve the cell at the atomic scale. atomic cleanness of the surface supporting the planar interconnection electrodes. By varying systematically all 3. N-Interconnects the parameter of the nanostencil technique, including the testing of a large variety of surfaces from SiO2 to Creating ultra precise interconnects on a single molecule NaCl or mica, it was demonstrated that on the good has often been a bottleneck for molecular electronics surfaces, this technique reaches its limits in the 20 nm [4,12]. But there are now two well-known avenues to range with no possibility to master the atomic structure realize a full interconnection scheme depending if the at the end of the so fabricated nano-pads [22]. supporting surface is a small or large electronic band gap semi-conductor. The first tentative characterization Facing this interconnection problem, lab scale of a single molecule switch was reported already in 1988 experiments were performed: the fabrication of a using the HV-STM machine [13]. Since then, a lot of pseudo-planar interconnection on metal surface taking progresses have been accomplished using the end atom benefit from native mono atomic step edge and of the STM tip apex as a pointer to contact one atom designing specific Lander molecules with legs to level up [14], one molecule [3,15] and to practice single atom or the molecular wire as compared to the mono atomic molecule manipulation [16,17]. The first measurement step edge [11,15,23]. Those low temperature UHV STM of the conductance of a single molecule was realized in experiments unambiguously demonstrated the need for 1995 using an UHV-STM machine [3]. an ultra clean atomic scale mastered interaction between for example the molecular wire end and the In parallel, nanolithography has been developed to quit conducting contact entity [24]. the vertical STM interconnection configuration for a fully planar configuration. In year 2001, what is Following the Working Group discussions, it seems that considered no was the nanolithography limit was all the standard planar interconnection strategies reached. The world record of an inter-electrode explored since the end of the 80's like e-beam nano distance of 2 nm was obtained between 2 metallic nano- lithography, nano-imprint and Nanostencil will soon be electrodes fabricated on a silicon oxide [18]. But this abandoned. A new surface science approach respecting nanotechnology technique was progressively abandoned the exact atomic order of the surface with an because (1) it is limited to a maxi-mum of 2 to 3 interconnection precision better than 0.1 nm between electrodes [19] and (2) the use of resists and chemical the atomic wire (or the molecular wire) and the atomic in the process to define the nano-fabricated pattern is scale pads will have to be developed. This challenge not clean enough with respect to the size of a single triggers a new approach for interconnects, a formal molecule and the order of the surface atoms. As a generalization of the technique developed at Bell labs in variant, break-junctions are also now used because of the 50's to interconnect a bar of a Germium the very unique precision in the tuning of inter-electrode semiconductor material (See Figure 2 page 29). At that distance [12,20]. But it was analyzed by the participants time, 4 probes measurement were practiced using 4 92 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 94. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities metallic tips approaching the semiconductor bar under seems to be a good number [28]. There is here clearly an optical microscope. The bar was manipulated by a need to roadmap the computing power capacity micro metric screws together with the tips and stabilized increase embedded in a single molecule or with a by metallic springs [25]. surface atomic circuit and the number of possible In our days, atomic scale interconnection machines are starting to be built in a few labs around the world. There are basically low temperature (LT) UHV machines made of 3 LTUHV interconnect separated chambers, one for the atomic scale preparation of the supporting surface, one for single atom or molecule manipulation and one for the atomic scale to mesocale or more interconnection procedure. Depending on the surface, the navigation on the surface is still using an optical microscope completed by a NC- AFM for a large surface electronic gap (See Fig. 2). For small gap passivated semiconductor surface, the navigation is ensured by an Figure 2. History of planar multi-electrodes interconnects. (a) 1950's Bell Labs UHV-SEM with a resolution system equiped with an optical microscope and 4 electrodes for germanium in- generally around a few terconnects [25]. (b) the 20th century multi-probes chip interconnects technology nanometers (See Fig. 2). For the (courtesy of IBM). (c) A new generation of interconnection system involving an op- nano interconnection step, well tical microscope plus an AFM microscope using 10 metallics cantilever positioned faceted and ultra flat metallic under the AFM head [28]. (d) A more recent version where the optical microscope nano-island are now in use. Those had been substituted by an UHV scanning electron microscope and the metallic nano-interconnect pads are cantilevers substituted by nanoscale apex STM tips [26] (courtesy of the A*STAR positioned at will with an 0.1 nm VIP Atom tech project, Singapore). precision on the surface using the manipulation ability of the STM [26]. For the nano to interconnects converging towards this ultra small meso and more interconnection stage, one technique computing unit [19]. for small gap semiconductor is to use multiple conducting STM tips in a top or back surface approach. For example, it may happen that a well designed For large gap surfaces, the nanostencil technique can molecule offers too much computing power locally in still be used at its 20 nm in width limit and in its dynamic regards with the maximum number of interconnects form [27]. that one can physically be achieved in parallel on a surface. Then, a multiplexing like approach may be Those interconnection machines are so new that it is more appropriate, asking for more bandwidth and not clear how one can build up a roadmap to anticipate pushing the technology towards optical interconnects. how many contacts it will be possible to achieve. In the Thus, efforts should be made in the future to extend case of multiple STM tips positioned under the SEM, 4 experiments which aim to combine optics and local is the actual limit for stability of the interconnects (See probe microscopy in an ultra clean environment with a Fig.2).For the optical microscope-NC-AFM case, 10 prospect of a fully planar technology. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 93
- 95. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities 4. Atom and Molecule Surface science issues on the surface will be very low, well below the fA range, an advantage as compared with the above mentioned The stabilization of an atomic scale computing semi-conductor surface. The drawback is that there is no machinery on a surface (be it self stabilized by its easy solution to fabricate or stabilize atomic wire on those chemical structure or by the surface itself) requires a surfaces. During the Working Group meeting, two gigantic effort in exploring the properties of a large solutions were discussed to bypass this problem: the use molecule of a surface at the atomic scale. During the of molecular mold to stabilize metallic atomic wires or the Working Group meeting, a lot of questions were asked use of long molecular wires between the metallic nano- starting from the choice of the surface. Of course, the pads and the central computing units. This second solution discussions were targeting lab scale logic gate handling may be a good way to boost the research on long and interconnects. For a fully packaged molecule logic molecular wires characterized by an extremely small gate, a more realistic choice of surfaces is actually out of tunneling inverse decay rate [32]. the range of what can be discussed (see the corresponding section below). Graphene, the new comer was also discussed in Toulouse as a mean to pass directly from the Depending of the atomic scale interconnection machine mesoscopic to the atomic scale with a “perfect” to be used, a first delicate problem is the choice of the chemical like continuity between the 2 scales. This will supporting surface. A list of criteria were discussed during be another choice of surface self supporting the the meeting: the electronic surface gap, the stability of the interconnection and the computing unit. The open atomic surface structure, the stability of metallic nano- question is whether or not progresses in the fabrication island on the surface. For example, we know 2 extreme techniques will allow an atom by atom fabrication cases of passivated semi-conductor surface: SiH(100) and technique respecting the absolute atomic scale precision MoS2. SiH(100) has a surface gap around 2.1 eV. The surface H atoms can be vertically STM manipulated one at a time to create p dangling bond like surface atomic wires or Hamiltonian computing structures [5,6]. But depending on the bulk doping, those H surface atoms are not so stable with temperature which precludes a thermal growth process to shape the contacting metallic nano- island. The lamellar MoS2 compound has a self passivated semi conducting surface with a surface gap around 1 eV. The surface S atoms are extremely difficult to vertically STM manipulate [29]. But if manipulated, they also offer the possibility to create surface atomic wires with a band structure much more complicated that the SiH(100) [30]. The surface MoS2 surface is extremely stable up to 1200°C [31] and metallic nano-pads can easily be shaped and manipulated to construct any multi-electrode interconnections pattern with an atomic scale precision [26]. But the low surface gap of this material will certainly preclude its direct use as a supporting interconnection surface. A better exploration of the surface properties of Figure 3. Exploring the surface science of interconnects: fa- diverse semi-conductor surfaces (See for example Figure brication of Au nanowires on the InSb(001) surface in the 3 page 31) and their possible passivation is here urgently UHV to be interconnected on a Fig. 2D UHV interconnection needed. Large electronic gap surface are even less machine.(a) High resolution STM image of Au alloy nano- explored that their semi-conductor counter parts. The wire formed on InSb(001) surface by a good selection of the nice property of those surfaces is the fact that leakage surface annealing temperature. Bias voltage: -0.5V, tunne- surface current between 2 metallic nano-pads adsorbed lling current: 25pA. (b) STS conductance measured using an 94 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 96. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities STM tip as a function of bias voltage on an Au alloy nanowire (red dots) and directly on the InSb substrate (blue dots) (Courtesy of the Jagiellonian University, Krakow). Discussions in Toulouse about molecular surface science in- dicate how far we are from a very good understanding of molecular processes and behaviors of a large molecule on a surface at the atomic scale. There is here a wide range of un- derstanding and know how which need to be acquired be- fore creating a full atomic scale technology for molecular computing. Figure 4. Playing with single molecules on a surface. Instead required for such a circuit [33]. It is also not clear how far of sublimating a large molecule on a surface, it may be bet- can we go by playing with a single and large molecule ter to bring f irst the monomers and to make them self re- adsorbed on a surface be it the one of a semi-conductor acting with each others by controlling the spontaneous 2D or of a bulk insulating materials. There is the difficult diffusion. STM image (left) of a molecular network on a challenge of sublimating of a large molecular weight Au(111) surface with the corresponding scheme (right). The molecule on a surface in an ultra clean manner respecting network is grown from single porphyrin (TPP) molecules mo- the integrity of the molecule [34]. Maybe better to nomers ("on-surface-synthesis") by forming covalent bonds perform the chemistry in situ sublimating only the between the individual building blocks [35]. monomers and playing with them after to construct or assemble the final large molecule (See Figure 4 and [35]). Moore’s law like trend when analyzing the complexity growth of the system per year, a trend which appears It remains to be explored if such an approach can be threatened in the near future for microelectronics. The performed for example at the surface of a semi-conductor. mono-molecular approach of molecular electronics with its compulsory atomic scale technology offers way to 5. Packaging push past possible limitations in miniaturization and to gain further increases in computing power by orders of At the nanoICT meeting, packaging was not on the official magnitude by relying of a full development of an atom agenda. Off site discussions about packaging indicate that or molecule based technology for both electronics and we are far from being ready to study those questions machines. To reach this stage, each of the 4 issues well simply because even the lab scale interconnection identified during this seminar will require a specific machines are just about to be assembled. Packaging is discussion and more than that a specific research and always associated with the number of interconnects which technological development program. have to be stabilized with the encapsulation technology selected for the circuit [19]. There is not yet a clear path Acknowledgements on how to create a packaging technology for surface mono-molecular electronics. A specific mono-molecular The authors would like to acknowledge financial NanoICT seminar may be dedicated in the future to this very strategic problem. But it is so advance and so contribution from the European Commission through strategic [36] that it may turn out to be very difficult to the Coordination Action nanoICT (ICT-CSA-2007- trigger an open discussion about packaging. 216165). 6. Conclusion 7. References The first mono-molecular nanoICT Working Group [1] C. Joachim, Nanotechnology, 13, R1 (2002). seminar was the occasion to cluster in a very Cartesian [2] A. Aviram and M. Ratner, Chem. Phys. Lett., 29, 277 (1974). way all the 4 major issues under grounded in the mono- molecular approach of molecular electronics. In all areas [3] C. Joachim, J. Gimzewski, R.R. Schlittler et C. Chavy, of technology, the construction of a complex system by Phys. Rev. Lett., 74, 2102 (1995). assembling elementary pieces or devices leads to a nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 95
- 97. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups - Position papers Mono-molecular electronics on a surface: challenges and oportunities [4] C. Joachim, J.K. Gimzewski and A. Aviram, Nature, 569 (2008). 408, 541 (2000). [21] R. Luthi, R.R. Schlittler, R. Berger, P. Vettiger, M. E. [5] M. B. Haider, J.L.Pitters, G.A. Dilabio, L. Livadaru, J. Y. Welland and J.K. Gimzewski, Appl. Phys. Lett., 75, 1314 Mutus and R.A. Wolkow, Phys. Rev. Lett., 102, 046805 (1999). (2009). [22] Thet Naing Tun, Ma Han Thu Lwin, Hui Hui Kim, N. [6] AJ Mayne, D. Reidel, G. Comtet and G. Dujardin, Prog. Chandrasekhar and C. Joachim, Nanotechnology, 18, 335301 Surf. Sci., 81, 1 (2006). (2007). [7] S. Ami, M. Hliwa and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett., 367, [23] F. Morecsco, L. Gross, M. Alemani, K.H. Rieder, H. Tang, 662 (2003). A. Gourdon and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. Lett., 91, 036601 (2003). [8] C. Venegas, T. Zambelli, S. Gauthier, A. Gourdon, C. Barthes, S. Stojkovic, and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett. 450, [24] S. Stojkovic, C. Joachim, L. Grill and F. Moresco, Chem. 107 (2007). See also: J. Repp, G. Meyer, S. Stojkovic, A. Phys. Lett., 408, 134 (2005). Gourdon and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. Lett., 94, 026803 (2005). [25] W. Schockley, Electrons and holes in semiconductors, (D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, 1950). [9] I. Duchemin and C. Joachim, Chem. Phys. Lett., 406, 167 (2005). [26] JianShu Yang, Deng Jie, N Chandrasekhar and C. Joachim, Jour. Vac. Sci. Tech.B, 25, 1694 (2007). [10] P.G. Plva, G.A. Dilabio, J.L. Pitters, J. Zikovsky, M. Rezeq, S. Dogel, W.A.Hofer and B. Wolkow, Nature, 435, [27] H.M. Guo, D. Martrou, T. Zambelli, J. Polesel-Marie, A. 658 (2005). M. Lastapis, M. Martin, D. Riedel, L. Hellner, G. Piednoir, E. Dujardin, S. Gauthier, MAF van der Bogeert, L.M. Comtet and G. Dujardin Science, 308, 1000 (2005). Doeswijk and J. Brugger, Appl. Phys. Lett., 90, 0931 (2007). 13 [1 L. Grill, F. Moresco, K.H. Rieder, S. Stojkovic, A. Gourdon 1] [28] T. Ondarcuhu, L. Nicu, S. Cholet, C. Bergaud, S. Gerdes and C. Joachim, NanoLett., 5, 859 (2005). and C. Joachim, Review of Scientific Instruments, 71, 2087 (2000). [12] C. Kerguelis, J.P. Bourgoin, J.P. Pallacin, D. Esteve, C. Urbina, M. Magoga and C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. B, 59, 12505 [29] S. Hosoki, S. Hosoka and T. Hasegawa, Appl. Surf. Sci., (1999). 60/61, 643 (1992). [13] A. Aviram, C. Joachim and M. Pomerantz, Chem. Phys. [30] K.S. Yong, D.M. Oltavaro, I. Duchemin, M. Saeys and C. Lett. 146, 490 (1988). Joachim, Phys. Rev. B, 77, 205429 (2008). [14] A. Yazdani, D.M. Eigler and N.D. Lang, Science, 272, 1921 [31] R.K. Tiwari, J. Yang, M. Saeys and C. Joachim, Surf. Sci., (1996). 602, 2628 (2008). [1 V. Langlais, R.R. Schlittler, H. Tang, A. Gourdon, C. 5] [32] L. Lafferentz, F. Ample, H. Yu, S. Hecht, C. Joachim and Joachim et J.K. Gimzewski, Phys. Rev. Lett., 83,2809 (1999). L. Grill, Science, in press (2009). [16] D. Eigler and E. Schweizer, Nature, 344, 524 (1990). [33] J.F. Dayen, A. Mahmoud, D.S. Golubov, I. Roch-Jeune, P. Salles and E. Dujardin, Small, 4, 716 (2008). [17] T.A. Jung, R.R. Schlittler, J.K. Gimzewski, H. Tang, et C. Joachim, Science, 271, 181 (1996). [34] T. Zambelli, Y. Boutayeb, F. Gayral, J. Lagoute, N.K. Girdhar, A. Gourdon, S. Gauthier, M.T. Blanco, J.C. [18] MSM Saifullah, T. Ondarcuhu, D.F. Koltsov, C. Joachim Chambon and J.P. Sauvage, Int. Journ. Nanoscience, 3, 230 and M. Welland Nanotechnology, 13, 659 (2002). (2004). [19] O. Cacciolati, C. Joachim, J.P. Martinez and F. Carsenac, [35] L. Grill, M. Dyer, L. Lafferentz, M. Persson, M.V.Peters Int. Jour. Nanoscience, 3, 233 (2004). and S. Hecht, Nature Nano, 2, 687 (2007). [20] S.M. Wu, M.T. Gonzales, R. Huber, S. Grunder, M. [36] Thet Naing Tun , C. Joachim, and N. Chandrasekhar Mayor, C. Schonenberger and M. Calame, Nature Nano., 3, IMRE Patent 200630 filled in 2007. 96 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 98. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers BioInspired Nanomaterials 3.4 BioInspired Nanomaterials Viruses are self-assembled nanomaterials providing biological materials of well-defined size and shape. Moreover, capsids have surface properties that are well Jean-Pierre Aimé defined down to the atomic scale and viral materials are Université Bordeaux 1 and C’nano GSO (France) amenable to genetic engineering. Introduction Nature uses two types of information: the genome’s digital information, and environmental information such Over the last decades, biology has made significant as cell-surface signals from other cells or chemical advances in providing a rational understanding of the gradients. Treatment of the information at such a molecular mechanisms governing life’s processes. New complex level requires multi-scale structures with materials have emerged from life systems, which physicists appropriate integration steps. It is a formidable task to and chemists have then promptly fabricated, manipulated understand and copy such multi-scale systems; we face and addressed at the molecular scale. The emblematic the challenges of determining the different levels of example is DNA technology, which affords the elaboration integration and engineering the interfaces from the of programmable chemical synthesis routes to build molecular scale up to several micrometres. These complex architectures and functions with molecular challenges are well known in the fields of nanoscience precision, and sheds light on a new generation of robust and nanotechnology. For instance, the ability to tools. precisely position distinct functional components at the nanometre scale is still limited and this is a key goal at During this same period, the semiconductor industry’s the interface between nanoscience and materials. development has lead to impressive performance in miniaturisation. Its current challenge though, is to develop State of the art lithographic technology for feature sizes below 20 nm and explore new classes of electronic devices based on carbon Bio-inspired fabrication methods allow the nanotubes and nanowires. A central challenge in unprecedented capability to use algorithms to build technology is constructing multi-scale structures used to elaborate, complex, architectures and functions. The organize nanodevices and functional materials. bio-inspired strategy also shows capability to organise inorganic materials through biominarelisation processes Bio-Inspired based information system that can readily design biosensors, plasmonic and nanoelectronic networks or electroactive materials. Nature possesses an extraordinary capacity to assemble complex nanostructures that have active and specialised Bio-inspired materials provide new routes to build functions. Our ability to precisely position distinct interface properties using genetic engineering, biological components providing rich functions on the nanometre combinatorial methods or targeted chemical synthesis, scale is still limited but remains a key goal in thus increasing the efficiency of inorganic nano objects. nanotechnology and materials science. Another important route that should lead to significant improvement in the design of new materials and To name but a few: DNA is emerging as an attractive functions is the development of a new class of bio- tool for nanoscience and nanotechnology; Watson-Crick inspired micro nanosystems that lead to new base pairing can be translated into binary sequences (0, conceptions of logical functions and dynamic patterning 1) to organise nanomaterials in a programmable way. with error corrections. DNA can be used to dictate the precise positioning and connection of materials and molecules in any deliberately A number of European groups are involved in the use of designed structure. Phage and cell display can be used DNA and virus technology. Since the seminal work of to design new peptide sequences with dedicated N.E. Seeman (http://seemanlab4.chem.nyu.edu/ functionality, binding organic to inorganic materials. nanotech.html), DNA as a material for nanotechnology 1 In April 2010 a new nanoICT Working Group, dedicated to BioICT issues was launched. This is the first version of the BioICT position paper, dealing meanly with the BioInspired Nanomaterials topic. An updated and more extended version will be published (beginning 2011). nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 97
- 99. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers BioInspired Nanomaterials has been widely used to connect or functionalize different nanostructures, through which versatile 2D and 3D shapes are obtained. Using DNA scaffolding to build DNA origami has further boosted the DNA origami can also be used as an information-bearing seed for nucleating algorithm. Self-assembly of defined- Figure 1. Stretched DNA molecules transfer-printed on a sur- structure geometry may introduce errors that can be face after directed assembly on a microstructured PDMS reduced by controlling the competition between stamp (Courtesy Phd thesis A. Cerf, LAAS-Toulouse). nucleation and growth process. Origami, as a self- supporting information seed, controls a computed structure’s growth and prevents competition from the nucleation process. The key point is the encoding of the molecular or macromolecular units so that an appropriate design of short sequences can be reduced to information bits 0, 1. Figure 2. Dark field and SEM images of 100 nm gold nano- particles transfer-printed on silicon after directed assembly on a nanopatterned PDMS stamp (Courtesy Phd thesis A. Cerf, LAAS-Toulouse) and A. Cerf Colloïds and surfaces (2009). development of DNA nanotechnology (P.W.K. Rothemund (Nature, V 440, March 2006). Available 3D Figure 3. Algorithmic Self-Assembly of DNA Tiles: Robert D. structures prove new routes of basic units with enough Barish, Rebecca Schulman1, Paul W. K. Rothemund, and capability to already provide complex properties at their Erik Winfree. PNAS, April 2009, vol. 106, no. 15 6054—6059. output. The complexity, precision, and yield are limited by our abi- 98 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 100. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers BioInspired Nanomaterials lity to encode assembly instructions into the molecules them- Viruses are self-assembled materials with controlled selves. Nucleic acids provide a platform for investigating arrangement at the molecular scale. Through genetic these issues, as molecular structure and intramolecular inter- engineering, viruses provide functionalized actions can encode growth rules. DNA tiles and DNA ori- arrangements of systems and devices. A known result is gami can be used to grow crystals, AFM image (A), the genetically engineered M13 virus, which serves as a containing a cellular automaton pattern (B). model system and is used as a programmable molecular building block to template inorganic materials’ growth. The marriage of the top-down and bottom-up Combined top-down, in particular using microcontact fabrication methods paves the way to arrange complex printing technology, and bio-inspired bottom-up molecular nano units, to electronically address and fabrication methods have been used to assemble integrate them into a functional device. nanowires, fabricate microbattery electrodes with viruses (A. Belcher) or microreactor design arrays to investigate biomolecular motor activity. Synergie between Bio-Inspired methods and information This fast-growing field and its mature bottom-up fabrication methods provide an almost infinite variety of bio-inspired materials and functions. Within this framework, there is a pressing need to face the challenges to design multi-scale structures with well- defined integration levels and to engineer interface properties from the molecular scale up to several micrometres. Challenging complexity and providing concrete outcomes are at the heart of the bio-inspired fabrication method. Conception and fabrication of complex arrangements of functional materials and nanodevices is thought to be a key step towards overcoming Moore’s Law. In biological systems, the same starting material has the potential to form an infinite variety of structures with dedicated functions. Beyond achieving powerful 2D-3D bio-inspired structures, a key aim is to assemble and organise functional materials and systems at increasing levels of complexity. Designing multi-scale structures to create hierarchical order requires the cooperative development of new experimental tools that record information at different scales. The following key challenges are: • identifying different integration levels used to process Figure 4. Assembly of bridged DNA origamis, a DNA single information in multi-scale structures strand is kept unpaired to curve and bridge DNA origamis. Above scheme of the calculated structure. (courtesy JM Ar- • theoretical modelling of equilibrium and non- bona, J. Elezgaray, JP Aimé. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 99
- 101. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers BioInspired Nanomaterials equilibrium interaction in different contexts, from the field of nanotechnology and to combine bio-inspired molecular recognition to controlling the growth bottom up and top down fabrication methods by process bridging multidisciplinary scientific fields and centres on DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) technology, affording • a rationalized route for efficient strategies to the elaboration of programmable chemical synthesis engineer interface properties from the molecular routes to build complex architectures and functions with scale up to several micrometres molecular precision, and shedding light on a new • a rationalized route for instrumentation to record generation of robust tools. data at different scales Key challenges addressed are indentifying different EU and outside integration levels used to process information in multi- scale structures, theoretical modelling of equilibrium and Definitely the Bio-inspired method is a fast growing non-equilibrium interaction in different contexts, from research topic emerging principally in USA, Japan and molecular recognition to controlling the growth process, Israel. Especially, in USA there is a wealth of creative a rationalized route for efficient strategies to engineer and innovative results. Numerous functionalities interface properties from the molecular scale up to emerge; dynamic patterning, elaborate 3D structures several micrometres and a rationalized route for with controlled shape, precise positioning of inorganic instrumentation to record data at different scales. materials and devices, control of nanoparticles arrangements… At the same time, there is an increasing efficiency in designing and fabricating short sequences with specific functions. Several European groups are already involved in this research topic, see for instance the Danish group with the noticeable results: Dolphin and DNA Box, Oxford, Munich etc. Numerous European laboratories have developed high-throughput protocols for biomolecule selection, e.g., aptamers fabricated with the SELEX process or peptide sequences using phage and cell display methods, optimised for chemical or biological applications. Nucleic acid ligands and aptamers are characterized by high affinity and specificity for their target, a versatile combinatorial selection process and small physical size, which collectively make them attractive molecules for targeting diseases or as therapeutics. Aptamers were first conceived as a medical tool. The other important field concerns nanostructure and nanodevice. Here again, the main interest lies in that the high affinity and specificity as well as their small size, make aptamer tools good candidates for handling interface properties. These properties will enable aptamers to facilitate innovative new nanotechnologies. The recently EU funded COST Action “BioInspired nanotechnologies: from concepts to applications” aims to bring bio-inspired nanosystems and nanomaterials in 100 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 102. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) 3.5 Nanoelectromechanical Systems NEMS appeared following the so-called “top-down (NEMS) approach”. In parallel, the development of nanofabrication “bottom-up approaches”, based on materials growth or self-assembly, has constituted Guillermo Villanueva1, Julien Arcamone2, Gabriel another alternative to fabricate NEMS. Abadal3, Liviu Nicu4, Francesc Pérez-Murano5, Herre Van der Zant6, Philippe Andreucci2, NEMS are characterized by small dimensions, which Christofer Hierold7 and Juergen Brugger1 determine the devices functionality. However, it is 1 sometimes difficult to decide if a given device can be Microsystems Laboratory, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de defined as a NEMS or not. Therefore, we consider Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne (Switzerland). necessary to establish a definition for the term in this 2 paper. CEA-LETI MINATEC, 17 rue des Martyrs, F-38054 Grenoble (France). 1.I Definition 3 Departament d'Enginyeria Electrònica, Universitat Nano Electro Mechanical System (NEMS) is a system: Autònoma deBarcelona (UAB), ETSE (Edif ici Q). Campus UAB 08193-Bellaterra (Spain). - which involves electronic and mechanical elements 4 CNRS-LAAS, 7 avenue du Colonel Roche, F-31077 Toulouse - whose main functionality is based on at least a (France). mechanical degree of freedom 5 IMB-CNM (CSIC), E-08193 Bellaterra (Spain). - whose size has the following characteristics: • at least two out of its three dimensions are below 6 Kavli Institue of Nanoscience, Delft University of 1 μm OR Technology, Delft(The Netherlands). • its functionality is given by a thin layer smaller than 7 Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH 10 nm Zurich CH-8092 (Switzerland). - which can include: 1. Introduction • actuation • signal acquisition (sensing) Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) have been studied and developed for more than 3 decades [1]. • signal processing They bring together silicon-based microelectronics with • vehicles for performing chemical, biochemical micro-machining technology, making possible the reactions and bioelectrical interactions realization of complete systems-on-a-chip. The fundamental and characteristic element on every MEMS is a mechanical (movable) component with dimensions 1.2. Interest ranging from few microns up to millimeters in some cases. These system shave been proven to be very useful Since they first appeared in the literature [8, 9], several for a plethora of different applications, e.g. ink-jet heads groups all around the world have been actively for printers [2], accelerometers for automotive contributing in the field of NEMS. Besides the possibility applications [3], micromirrors for beam splitting [4], of increased device density, the growing activity in the chemical sensors [5], etc. Following the evolution of field has been mainly motivated by the benefits that microfabrication technologies for integrated circuits, these systems provide. pushing downwards the resolution limits, the dimensions of the mechanical components in MEMS were also Among the interesting properties of NEMS, many can reduced below 1 μm, yielding the first Nano Electro be explained using scaling laws. Let us consider a Mechanical Systems (NEMS) [6, 7]. This is the way mechanical device and scale down its three dimensions: nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 101
- 103. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) thickness (t), width (w) and length (L). The effect of a more applied point of view, nanomechanical scaling on important parameters can be illustrated resonators have been used for (bio)chemical detection through simple formulas given in Table 1. [20] and it has already been possible to detect a single virus [21]. However, one of the most promising applications is still under development and this is the “Single-Molecule Mass Spectrometry (NEMS-MS)” [11]. Regarding force sensing, the lower resolution limit attained by a NEMS up to date is within the femtonewton range at room temperature and atmospheric pressure (Figure 1.iii, [22]). However, the geometries that are proved to be more sensitive to force are much longer than standard NEMS [23, 24] and in some cases the search for higher measurement stability requires the systems to be much thicker [25- 27]. Using those systems, a single base-mismatch in between two different DNA-strands of 18 bases has been detected [25] and also, as shown in Figure 1.iv [28], Table 1. Table summarizing how the properties of a me- label-free detection of interferon-induced genes has chanical system scale down with the reduction of its dimen- been achieved. sions [10]. i Therefore, NEMS offer [11] fundamental resonance frequencies in the microwaves [12], high mechanical quality factors [13], active masses in the femtograms (1 fg = 10-15g) [14, 1 heat capacities below the yoctojoule (1 yJ = 10-24J) 5], [16, 17], ultra-low operating power level (for 1 device 1 pW = 10-12W) [1 etc. All these properties make NEMS 1], interesting for a series of different applications because they improve previous MEMS devices functionalities by orders of magnitude. ii 2. Applications As it can be understood from the discussion above, the natural applications of NEMS can be mainly divided into three different groups: sensors, electronics (signal pro- cessing) and new tools for fundamental studies. 2.1. Sensors Mass and force sensors have been the most studied because they allow the detection of different species iii after proper connection to chemistry/biology by means of proper functionalization. For mass sensing, the race has been pushing down the limits of detection passing through the attogram (1 ag = 10-18g) [14, 18], the zeptogram (1 zg = 10-21g) (Figure 1.i, [15]) and finally ending with the detection of a single individual atom using a carbon nanotube (CNT) (Figure 1.ii, [19]). From 102 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 104. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) Bulk Acoustic Resonators (BAR), Surface Acoustic iv Wave (SAW), metal contact switches, etc.) and “Beyond CMOS” that basically involves NEMS integration with CMOS. The main advantage to include mechanical parts (both NEMS and MEMS) in circuits is on one hand, that the quality factors of mechanical oscillators are much higher than of electrical oscillators. This is highly demanded for filtering and communication applications [30, 31] and Figure 1. i) Resonance frequency shift of a nanosized free- even more taking into account that they can be easily standing beam while N2 molecules are deposited on the tuned [32, 33]. On the other hand, it is possible to build structure in an “on/off ” conf iguration. The device is ope- mechanical transistors and diodes [34] with a much rated at cryogenic temperatures. Each step in the data co- lower power consumption when they are inactive [35]. rresponds to approximately a 100 zg mass (2000 N2 When moving into the NEMS regime [36, 37] (Figure molecules). The root mean square frequency fluctuations of 2.i), the obvious advantage of a higher integration allows the system correspond to a mass resolution of 20 zg for the more density for the devices, their high frequencies 1 s averaging time employed. Extracted from [15]. increase the circuit speed and their ultra-low operating power reduce the power consumption when the devices ii) Resonance frequency shift of a CNT-based nanomecha- are active. As a consequence, a reduction in power nical resonator as a function of time while gold atoms are consumption keeping a fast behaviour is accomplished being deposited in an “on/off ” conf iguration. The device is by integrating NEMS with CMOS. operated at room temperature, and presents a mass sensi- tivity of 1.3•10-25 kg/Hz1/2, i.e. 0.40 gold atoms•Hz-1/2. Ex- i (a) tracted from [19]. iii) Output voltage noise spectrum a 127 MHz self-sensing undriven cantilever measured at 1 atm and 300 K (black trace). A d.c. bias of 100 mV is used during the measure- ment. The red line is a Lorentzian f it to thermomechanical noise combined with uncorrelated white background noise. i (b) Off-resonance, the displacement sensitivity attained is 39 fm/Hz-1/2. Extracted from [22]. iv) Label-free gene fishing of an interferon-induced gene. The red line (ME15+) indicates the response of the cantilever co- ated with an interferon-a-sensitive human 1-8U gene frag- ment. The black line represents the differential mechanical i (c) response of the cantilever sensitized with the human aldo- lase A oligonucleotide. Extracted from [28]. 2.2. Electronics The trends in Integrated Circuits (IC) technology [29] can be divided into three groups: “More Moore” (referring to the continuous reduction of dimensions of MOS transistors with classical gate/source/drain architecture), “More than Moore” (including a series of additions to current and future CMOS technologies like nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 103
- 105. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) ii i ii Figure 2. i) Fabrication and modeling of a lateral resonant gate FET (NEMS-FET). (a) ID (VG) characteristics and (b) transconductance gM(VD) of the transistor shown in a SEM micrograph in (c). Extracted from [37]. ii) Optical picture and SEM micrograph zoom of a micro fa- bricated 32x32=1024 2D cantilever array chip from IBM Zü- rich. It has been designed for ultrahigh-density, high-speed data storage applications using thermomechanical writing and readout in thin polymer f ilm storage media. Extracted from [38]. A different approach is the one pursued by IBM within the Millipede project (Figure 2.ii, [38-42]) in which an array of small scanning probes is used to read and write bits of information from a substrate (data storage). 2.3. Fundamental studies Another group of applications have a more fundamental origin. By their properties, NEMS constitute themselves new tools for scientific purposes. They can help in exploring scientific phenomena previously unobservable Figure 3. i) Nanometer-scale charge detector. The inset sche- by other means. In particular, the fact that NEMS with matically depicts its principal components: torsional me- given dimensions are mesoscopic systems could lead to chanical resonator, detection electrode, and gate electrode the observation of quantum effects. used to couple charge to the mechanical element. In this de- 104 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 106. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) vice the fundamental resonance frequency of the structure i is 2.61 MHz, with a quality factor measured to be Q=6500. A charge sensitivity of 0.1 e/Hz1/2 is achieved, with a thermal noise limit of the order of 10-6 e/Hz1/2 comparable with charge detection capabilities of cryogenic single-electron transistors, but responding at higher temperatures (>4.2 K) and over a larger bandwidth than other techniques. Extrac- ted from [43]. ii) Thermal conductance data for a fabricated mesoscopic phonon system consisting in a free-standing structure. A quantized limiting value for the thermal conductance, Gth, at very low temperatures is observed at 16 occupied modes, 16 g0. For temperatures above Tco=0.8K, a cubic power-law behavior is observed, consistent with a mean free path of 0.9 μm. For temperatures below Tco, a saturation in Gth is observed at a value near the expected quantum of thermal conductance for phonon transport in a ballistic, one-dimen- sional channel: at low temperatures, Gth approaches a ma- ii ximum value of , the universal quantum of ther- mal conductance. Extracted from [17]. Initially, NEMS were aimed as an instrument to determine the quantum for the electrical (Figure 3.i, [43]) and thermal conductance (Figure 3.ii, [17, 44-46]). Currently, quantum electromechanical systems (QEMS) are aimed [47-52] which could represent a new source of experiments and a number of applications that cannot be envisaged at the moment. In the last years a quite complete theory on cavity optomechanics has been developed which has been accompanied by several experiments demonstrating cooling of resonators down to their ground level by dynamical backaction (Figure 4.i, [53-57]). An additional topic of extreme interest is the study of non-linear [58, 59] and/or complex systems [59-63], which can yield applications of localized energy modes [64, 65], as can Figure 4. i) Cooling of a 58 MHz micromechanical resona- be a selectivity increase [66, 67], or directly the tor from room temperature to 11 K is demonstrated using ca- oscillators synchronization (Figure 4.ii, [68]). vity enhanced radiation pressure. (a) Normalized, measured noise spectra around the mechanical resonance frequency There are more examples on the use of NEMS as new and varying power (0.25, 0.75, 1.25, and 1.75 mW). The ef- tools for science: in [69], a specific type of NEMS mass fective temperatures were inferred using mechanical dam- sensor serves as transduction platform for the study of ping, with the lowest attained temperature being 11 K. (b) physical-chemical phenomena which are currently Increase in the linewidth (damping) of the 57.8 MHz mode unobservable with any other tool. In [70], it is shown as a function of launched power, exhibiting the expected li- that Casimir forces, which are very difficult to observe near behavior. (c) Physical origin of the observed cooling me- experimentally, cannot be neglected anymore in very chanism due to the asymmetry in the motional sidebands. small NEMS and could be experimentally observed. Extracted from [56]. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 105
- 107. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) ii) SEM micrograph of the fabricated device (A) consisting generated in a perfect defectless crystal and losses due in two parallel resonating beams whose movement is recor- to impurities and/or defects in the bulk crystal lattice ded by magnetomotive detection technique and an additio- structure and in surfaces. Within the former group, nal transversal beam coupling both oscillations. (B) Thermo Elastic Damping (TED) [79] and Akhiezer effect Synchronization at subharmonic driving. A signal generator [80] are setting a top limit for the Q. Surface defects drives one beam (at frequencies close to fres/2), and the res- are shown to be much more important than bulk ones ponse of the second beam is measured with a spectrum as suggested by the quality factor decrease when analyzer (at fres). The contours represent the response in increasing the surface to volume ratio [11, 81]. In dBm. The synchronized regions become visible in the con- addition, experiments led in ultra high vacuum (UHV) tour plots when the response exceeds the noise level of −136 have shown that surface oxides, defects and adsorbates dBm. One of the beams is driven at a frequency f0/n while increase energy dissipation but, on the opposite, the response of the second beam is recorded. This could be annealing under UHV increased the Q in one order of fundamentally important to neurocomputing with mechani- magnitude [71, 82, 83]. cal oscillator networks and nanomechanical signal proces- sing for microwave communication. Extracted from [68]. More recently, however, Craighead’s group has shown that it is possible to increase the quality factor of a 3. Challenges doubly clamped beam by increasing the tensile stress of its material (Figure 5, [84, 85]), in this case silicon The wide range of applications and the huge interest of nitride. Moreover, silicon nitride has additional NEMS have been demonstrated up to now. However, advantages such as chemical inertness (difficult to together with the plethora of interesting properties, a oxidize) and high robustness (difficult to break). multitude of questions and challenges arise and constitute hot topics in NEMS research. 3.1. High Quality factor Achieving a high quality factor in a NEMS is of great importance because it means low energy dissipation, higher sensitivity to external forces, reduction of the minimum operating power level, etc. The energy losses of a resonator have internal and external sources [71, 72]. The latter includes losses due to gas damping, clamping losses and coupling losses related to the transducing scheme. Air damping affects the vibration because the mechanical structure must displace some material in order to perform its movement. That is the reason why this contribution decreases when the pressure decreases [73]. In addition, a resonator can lose energy via acoustic coupling to its clamps [74], which can be minimized by engineering them, e.g. free-free beams present higher quality factors than clamped-clamped [75, 76] ones. The last contribution to the external losses can come from the transducers, so this contribution will be different depending on the read-out technique and it has to be studied individually as it has been done for magneto- motive detection [77] or for SET-based detection [78]. Internal losses can also be classified in two groups: losses 106 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 108. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) Figure 5. Results of added stress on low-stress silicon nitride optical detection (laser beam deflection, beams. A 5μm x 500nm x 110nm device with initial f and Q interferometry…) and electrical detection (capacitive, of 14.6 MHz and 1200 respectively was stretched to an in- piezoresistive, piezoelectric, gate effect…). However, creased f and Q of 35.5 MHz and 6700. A 10μm x 1 μm x when moving down to NEMS, the transduction 110nm device, with an initial f and Q of 8.6 MHz and 3400, techniques are not as efficient because of the size was stretched to an increased f and Q of 23.8 MHz and reduction [86]. The optimal transduction technique 23000. The arrows indicate the direction of the experiments should present actuation and read-out that strongly in which stress was added to increase both frequency and interact with the mechanical element but with really weak quality factor. Extracted from [85]. couplings between each other, a large operation bandwidth and ultrahigh sensitivity [11]. 3.2. Modeling Optical detection is affected by diffraction effects, which On the modeling side, the major issues involve multi- limit the smallest size of the mechanical device. Some scale problems, inclusion of quantum effects and authors have shown successful extension of Michelson or incorporating the electric environment on individual Fabry-Pérot interferometers into the NEMS domain [87], device models (i.e. circuit modeling). The first problem but the technique however is mainly convenient for is exemplified by “sticking” which is anatomic scale NEMS-based force sensors (or surface stress) because phenomenon with a typical timescale in the femtosecond their sizes are larger than the wavelength of the laser. On range (1 fs = 10-15s): the typical operational time scale of the other hand, optical actuation by means of a device is in the nanosecond range (1 ns = 10-9s), and photothermal effect or radiation pressure has been incorporating these two in a secure way is currently demonstrated [88-90], which makes this technique more undoable from the point of view of simulation time. Even interesting provided that a fully integrated scheme is on a larger length scale, there are problems with the large accomplished. fields in the small length scales: classical expressions such as Q2/2C are meaningless if C is too small. In addition, A transduction scheme that behaves properly for NEMS, the basic theory and models only stand for simple beams both for detection and actuation is the magnetomotive or cantilevers. For more complex geometries, only Finite technique [77], which involves the application of an Element Modeling (FEM) is available. external magnetic field and an AC current through the mechanical device. Therefore a Lorentz force arises, Dissipation mechanisms, electro/mechanical modeling which will drive the mechanical element and, in addition, and circuit architecture modeling are also important generates an electromotive force in the circuit that can issues that need to be addressed and solved. be transduced as a read-out voltage. Highly sensitive Finally, it would also be interesting to incorporate measurements with very low noise have been made using quantum effects in device models (e.g. describing the this technique, e.g. zeptogram detection [15], hydrogen coupling between two closely-located nanoscale objects detection [91] and modes synchronization [68]. However, simply through capacitances is certainly incorrect but the there are major drawbacks for this technique: (i) it only way to do it currently). cannot be integrated and (ii) very low temperatures and very high magnetic fields are required. 3.3. Transduction in the nanoscale Piezoresistive detection is affected by the reduction of Actuation and detection (transduction) are two of the the resistors dimensions, which implies a huge resistance, major issues when considering a mechanical system. By meaning high Johnson noise and high losses by transduction we refer to the conversion of one type of nonmatching impedance. This issue is more important if energy to another type, e.g. converting the mechanical we take into account that the piezoresistivity response of energy of an oscillator into an electronic signal that can be Si or Ge decreases with dopants concentration [92]. interpreted by subsequent circuitry. However, high resolution measurements have been performed using resonating piezoresistive structures Transduction has already been a “hot spot” for MEMS with silicon resistors [23, 93]. It was at the beginning of technology and different techniques became popular, e.g. 2007 when Roukes’group published some results which nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 107
- 109. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) meant a cornerstone for this type of detection [22], resonators, as has been recently demonstrated [104] by using metallic resistors with a very low piezoresistive Roukes group. coefficient as transducers. In this case they were overcoming the initial issue of a low sensitivity with an Apart from the aforementioned techniques, it is possible ultra low noise and proper matching impedance, finally to find several other techniques that are less yielding an unprecedented resolution for a NEMS conventional but that have proven to be useful or operating at room temperature and atmospheric interesting in some cases and whose potential in some pressure. On the other hand, elec-trothermal actuation cases is still unknown. Atomic Force Microscope has using small metallic resistors has also been been used to detect the vibration amplitude of some demonstrated [94] up to several MHz (1 MHz = 106Hz) systems with an unprecedented spatial resolution [105- thanks to the small thermal mass of these devices. 108], although this is mainly limited to research samples. Detection of motion based on tunneling effect has also However, this technique features a major drawback in been used in many cases, in some cases pursuing the sense that the resulting power dissipation is high and monolithic integration [109] and in some other cases locally elevates the temperature which can be just seeking for the best transduction technique. This problematic for mass sensing and other applications. In has been particularly successful in the case of CNTs, forthcoming years, very small structures may feature where a nanotube-radio has been built [110] and with novel interesting properties that could result in which the detection of a single gold atom has been improved transduction schemes [95], as it recently performed [19]. As for the actuation, an alternative happened for Si nanowires (Si-NWs, below 200 nm technique could be Kelvin polarization force [111], which diameter) and their newly discovered giant can be used on insulating materials, unlike electrostatic piezoresistive effect [96]. actuation. Capacitive transduction, which is really convenient for 3.4. Fabrication MEMS as it allows a simple two ports detection and actuation scheme, is really affected by the size As it has already been introduced, two different reduction, mainly because the dynamical capacitance approaches can be chosen for NEMS fabrication, i.e. changes, i.e. changes in the capacitance due to the top-downand bottom-up. In the first case, there are motion of the resonator, are very low (10-18F) and three basic fabrication steps: the deposition of material therefore are obscured by parasitic capacitances, that (easy to go for thin layers down to 10-20 nm), the are some orders of magnitude higher. Some specialized removal of material (by anisotropic Reactive Ion Etching, measurement techniques have been developed [13, 97- RIE, whose loss of lateral dimensions can be minimized 99] in order to cancel the effect of those parasitic down to the same amount of 10-20 nm) and the capacitances. Some other solutions involve the use of definition of the zones where the material is going to geometries allowing high capacitive coupling but still be deposited and/or removed. This last step is called preserving NEMS properties [100] or using the lithography and the most standard isoptical UV. Due to resonator not only as a capacitor’s plate but also as, e.g. diffraction effects and to other particular considerations the gate of a MOS transistor [35, 37]. Monotlihic of each mask aligner, the lateral resolution achieved integration of capacitive NEMS with CMOS circuitry using this technique can barely reach 1 μm. greatly enhances the detection efficiency [101,102]. Therefore, as soon as one of the lateral dimensions of Less effort has been devoted to piezoelectric the structure goes into the submicrometer range, transduction, but it has also been explored both for complications arise because nano-lithographic processes sensing and actuating NEMS. The read-out is based on are needed. These lithographic processes (see Figure 6) the measurement of the polarization fields caused by can be either serial (more flexible) or parallel (higher the vibration of the lever. Those changes in polarization through-put). Different examples can be EBL [6, 7], can be detected by working at the location where the Direct Laser Writing lithography [112], AFM lithography variation is the largest as the gate of a transistor [103]. [113], etc. For the serial approach and DUV lithography In addition, this technique can be used to drive [36, 37], NIL [114], nano-Stencil lithography [115], etc., 108 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 110. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) for the parallel approach. Each of the lithographic present, the growth of the CNTs [116] or the NWs [117- processes mentioned present advantages and 119] being subsequently performed. The second one disadvantages which are discussed in detail here. involves the growth of the nano-elements in a separate However, if an eventual mass production is pursued, substrate and then, with the use of electrical fields, serial processes should be discarded. placing them in between two electrodes [120-122]. In fact, the major challenge from the fabrication point of 3.5. System Integration view is not the selection of the optimum lithographic process but the achievement of a reproducible and Maybe the most important issue that NEMS are facing stable fabrication process with a fair control of the final now and will be facing in the near future is how to turn mechanical properties of the fabricated devices. As an these promising devices into effective, real systems. example of how difficult it can be to attain such Most of the works we have referenced up to now can reproducibility, one can take the example of the most be considered as handcrafted and just facing the controlled fabrication processes, i.e. CMOS circuitry applications from a research point of view. There are fabrication. In this case, transistors and circuits are still a lot of steps to overcome in order to make these generally working in a digital mode and therefore two ‘stand-alone’resonators (with discrete electronics states only have to be distinguished (0 or 1), and around them) evolve towards complete systems that can consequently there is a relatively large tolerance with be produced in masse for an eventual commercialized the individual properties of each transistor. On the application. Integration of NEMS with CMOS seems to other hand, a very small variation in the length of a be one of the most promising approaches. One cantilever, e.g. 5 %, would become a variation of the approach can consist inusing CMOS steps to define the resonant frequency of a 10%, which might result resonators and at the end finishing with a post- unacceptable in some applications. processing step to release the mechanical structures [36, 37, 124]. Industrial foundries are generally reluctant to this so- called In-IC approach since it can perturb the stability and the ‘cleanliness’ of the CMOS process. However, in a near future, this method could progressively become more applicable because of the increasing convergence between nano-transistors and NEMS in terms of size. Figure 6. Scheme taken from [123] summarizing the diffe- rent lithographic techniques for nano-patterning def inition. For the bottom up approach the aforementioned problems also apply in some cases, as for example the growth of nanowires or nanotubes out of catalytic Figure 7. Picture of the f irst 200 mm wafer fabricated within nanoparticles whose size must be controlled prior to the “Alliance for NEMS-VLSI” [125]. In one single wafer, 2.5 growth. However, the main problem still remains the million NEMS are included, which represents more than the integration of the nanostructures with connections to total amount of NEMS fabricated during the previous 15 the macro-world or even circuitry. Two approaches are years. The process consists in a 4 lithographic levels with a followed to accomplish this integration. The first one hybrid DUV and EBL approach and all the devices present involves the deposition of the catalytic particles on a thermoelectric actuation and piezoresistive detection [22, substrate where the circuits (or similar) are already 94]. Extracted from [126]. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 109
- 111. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) The other approach consists in post-processing pre- [3] L.M. Roylance and J.B. Angell, "Batch-Fabricated fabricated CMOS substrates in order to fully define the Silicon Accelerometer", Ieee Transactions on Electron mechanical structures [113, 115]: this solution can be Devices, 1979,26(12), pp. 1911-1917. useful to reduce fabrication costs if an advanced CMOS is not available or required. [4] G. Nasserbakht, Texas Instruments Incorporated, 1997, Patent number: US5658063. Up to now, the biggest step for the integration of NEMS as a system has been achieved by the collaboration [5] H.P. Lang, R. Berger, F. Battiston, J.P. Ramseyer, E. between LETI-CEA in France and the California Institute Meyer,C. Andreoli, J. Brugger, P. Vettiger, M. Despont, of Technology (Caltech) in the US [125, 126] which are T. Mezzacasa, L.Scandella, H.J. Guntherodt, C. Gerber, directly aiming at the large integration of NEMS into a and J.K. Gimzewski, "A chemical sensor based on a system (Figure 7). micromechanical cantilever array for the identification of gases and vapors", Applied Physics Materials Science 4. Conclusions & Processing, 1998, 66, pp. S61-S64. We have shown that NEMS have unique and useful [6] A.N. Cleland and M.L. Roukes, "Fabrication of high properties that make them suitable for a plethora of frequency nanometer scale mechanical resonators from different applications in various fields, ranging from bulk Si crystals", Applied Physics Letters, 1996, 69(18), Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) pp. 2653-2655. until bio-chemical detection, including some applications that are not yet known but that for sure will emerge [7] D.W. Carr and H.G. Craighead, "Fabrication of together with the development of these systems. They nanoelectromechanical systems in single crystal silicon have the potential to become a revolution for the using silicon on insulator substrates and electron beam market in the same way that MEMS have caused an lithography", Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology enormous impact during the last 20 years. However, B, 1997, 15(6), pp. 2760-2763. there are some important issues to be solved before NEMS can have actual applicability, e.g. integration of [8] M. Roukes, "Nanoelectromechanical systems face the the mechanical part with circuitry into a complete future", Physics World, 2001, 14(2), pp. 25-31. system, reduction of fabrication costs in order to make them competitive against existing sensors, etc. [9] H.G. Craighead, "Nanoelectromechanical systems", Science, 2000, 290(5496), pp. 1532-1535. Acknowledgements [10] M.L. Roukes, "NEMS: ...some questions", in OMNT The authors would like to acknowledge financial Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008. contribution from the European Commission through the Coordination Action nanoICT (ICT-CSA-2007- [11] K.L. Ekinci and M.L. Roukes, 216165). We also would like to thank the input provided "Nanoelectromechanical systems", Review of Scientific by the “Observatoire des Micro et Nano-Technologies” Instruments, 2005, 76(6), pp.061101 - 061113. (OMNT) organization. [12] X.M.H. Huang, C.A. Zorman, M. Mehregany, and 5. References M.L.Roukes, "Nanodevice motion at microwave frequencies",Nature, 2003, 421(6922), pp. 496-496. [1] K.E. Petersen, "Silicon as a Mechanical Material", Proceedings of the IEEE, 1982, 70(5), pp. 420-457. [13] K.L. Ekinci, Y.T. Yang, X.M.H. Huang, and M.L. Roukes,"Balanced electronic detection of displacement [2] E. Bassous, H.H. Taub, and L. Kuhn, "Ink Jet Printing in nanoelectromechanical systems", Applied Physics Nozzle Arrays Etched in Silicon", Applied Physics Letters, 2002, 81(12),pp. 2253-2255. Letters, 1977,31(2), pp. 135-137. [14] K.L. Ekinci, X.M.H. Huang, and M.L. Roukes, 110 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
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- 117. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Nano Electro Mechanical Systems (NEMS) Perez-Murano, L. Forro, A. Aguasca, and A. Bachtold, [1 A. Jungen, C. Stampfer, J. Hoetzel, V.M. Bright, and 16] "Mechanical detection of carbon nanotube resonator C.Hierold, "Process integration of carbon nanotubes into vibrations", Physical Review Letters, 2007, 99(8), pp. 85501- micro-electromechanical systems", Sensors and Actuators 85504. a-Physical, 2006, 130, pp. 588-594. [108] D. Garcia-Sanchez, A.M. van der Zande, A.S. Paulo, [1 A.I. Hochbaum, R. Fan, R.R. He, and P.D. Yang, 17] B.Lassagne, P.L. McEuen, and A. Bachtold, "Imaging "Controlled growth of Si nanowire arrays for device mechanical vibrations in suspended graphene sheets", Nano integration", Nano Letters, 2005, 5(3), pp. 457-460. Letters, 2008,8(5), pp. 1399-1403. [1 R.R. He, D. Gao, R. Fan, A.I. Hochbaum, C. Carraro, 18] [109] S. Sadewasser, G. Abadal, N. Barniol, S. Dohn, A. R.Maboudian, and P.D. Yang,"Si nanowire bridges in Boisen,L. Fonseca, and J. Esteve, "Integrated tunneling microtrenches: Integration of growth into device sensor for nanoelectromechanical systems", Applied Physics fabrication", Advanced Materials, 2005, 17(17), pp. 2098. Letters,2006, 89(17), pp. 173101-173103. [1 A. San Paulo, N. Arellano, J.A. Plaza, R.R. He, C. 19] [1 K. Jensen, J. Weldon, H. Garcia, and A. Zettl, 10] Carraro,R. Maboudian, R.T. Howe, J. Bokor, and P.D. Yang, "Nanotube radio", Nano Letters, 2007, 7(1 pp. 3508- 1), "Suspended mechanical structures based on elastic silicon 3511. nanowire arrays", Nano Letters, 2007, 7(4), pp. 1100-1104. [1 1] S. Schmid, M. Wendlandt, D. Junker, and C. Hierold, 1 [120] J.Y. Chung, K.H. Lee, J.H. Lee, and R.S. Ruoff, "Nonconductive polymer microresonators actuated by the "Toward large-scale integration of carbon nanotubes", Kelvin polarization force", Applied Physics Letters, 2006, Langmuir, 2004,20(8), pp. 301 1-3017. 89(16), pp.163506-163508. [121] X.F. Duan, Y. Huang, Y. Cui, J.F. Wang, and C.M. [1 E. Forsen, S.G. Nilsson, P. Carlberg, G. Abadal, F. 12] Lieber, "Indium phosphide nanowires as building blocks for Perez-Murano, J. Esteve, J. Montserrat, E. Figueras, F. nanoscale electronic and optoelectronic devices", Nature, Campabadal,J. Verd, L. Montelius, N. Barniol, and A. 2001, 409(6816),pp. 66-69. Boisen, "Fabrication of cantilever based mass sensors integrated with CMOS using direct write laser lithography [122] M.W. Li, R.B. Bhiladvala, T.J. Morrow, J.A. Sioss, K.K. on resist", Nanotechnology, 2004,15(10), pp. S628-S633. Lew,J.M. Redwing, C.D. Keating, and T.S. Mayer, "Bottom- up assembly of large-area nanowire resonator arrays", [1 M. Villarroya, F. Perez-Murano, C. Martin, Z. Davis, 13] Nature Nanotechnology, 2008, 3(2), pp. 88-92. A.Boisen, J. Esteve, E. Figueras, J. Montserrat, and N. Barniol, "AFM lithography for the definition of nanometre [123] F. Perez-Murano, "Integration of NEMS on CMOS: scale gaps: application to the fabrication of a cantilever- Fabrication approaches and mass sensing applications", in based sensor with electrochemical current detection", OMNT Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008. Nanotechnology, 2004,1 5(7), pp. 771-776. [124] G. Villanueva, F. Perez-Murano, M. Zimmermann, [1 C.C. Huang and K.L. Ekinci, "Fabrication of freely 14] J.Lichtenberg, and J. Bausells, "Piezoresistive cantilevers in a suspended nanostructures by nanoimprint lithography", commercial CMOS technology for intermolecular force Applied Physics Letters, 2006, 88(9), pp. 93110-93112. detection", Microelectronic Engineering, 2006, 83(4-9), pp. 1302-1305. [1 J. Arcamone, M.A.F. van den Boogaart, F. Serra- 15] Graells, J.Fraxedas, J. Brugger, and F. Perez-Murano, [125] Leti-Caltech, "The Alliance for Nano-Systems VLSI". "Full-wafer fabrication by nanostencil lithography of Available from: www.nanovlsi.org/. micro/nanomechanical mass sensors monolithically integrated with CMOS", Nanotechnology, 2008, 19(30), [126] P. Andreucci, "Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) of pp. 305302-305314. NEMS based on top-down approaches", in OMNT Workshop on NEMS, Grenoble, 2008. 116 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 118. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 3.6 Semiconductor nanowires: conclusion of NODE, when the “NODE Workshop on Status of the field - research and Nanowire Electronics” was organized in Lund in September 2009. Here we also summarize the input and applications recommendations as provided by the invited experts: W. Hänsch (IBM), M. Passlack (TSMC), J. Knoch (TU Introduction Dortmund), T. Mikolajick (NAMLAB), H. de Man (IMEC), and L. Tilly (Ericsson). List of experts / Contributors: With the core of this report based on the final publishable report from the Other central areas of nanowire research and EU/IST funded NODE-project, basically all 12 partners of applications deal with fundamental studies of nanowire this program have contributed in different ways. Most growth, as very actively pursued through the significant have been the over-all coordination by C. arrangements of a series of four European Workshops Thelander and L. Samuelson (Lund University) and the site on Growth on Nanowires, most recently the 4th leaders of the 12 partners: L-F. Feiner (Philips), W. Riess arranged in Paris in October 2009. We include as an (IBM), G. Curatola (NXP), L. Ledebo (QuMat), W. Weber appendix a summary of the status as revealed from this (NamLab, previously Qimonda), J. Eymery (CEA), U. workshop (written by J-C Harmand and F. Glas). Gösele (MPI), P. Vereecken (IMEC), L. P. Kouwenhoven Incorporated in this article is also a status of the field (TU Delft), A. Forchel (Univ. Würzburg), A. Tredicucci description provided by J. Johansson and P. Caroff. (SNS-Pisa). Other people that have contributed are V. Zwiller (TU Delft), J-C Harmand and P. Caroff (LPN- In order to provide a more detailed description of the CNRS), J. Johansson, C. Prinz, J. Tegenfeldt, K. Deppert level of understanding and control of physical properties and H. Linke (Lund Univ.). Many others have directly and of nanowires, a special chapter has been provided for indirectly contributed to this report. this by L. P. Kouwenhoven and V. Zwiller. This chapter also deals in more detail with the opportunities for opto- Keywords: Nanowire, growth, processing, physics, electronic devices based on NW technology. characterization, devices, integration, energy, biology. Another important area of NW research relates to their application for Energy harvesting as implemented in solar Institutions acronyms: cells and thermoelectrics. For the use of NWs in LU: Lund University; PRE: Philips Research Laboratory photovoltaics was recently started an EU-project cal-led Eindhoven; MPI: Max-Planck-Institut; IBM: IBM Zurich; AMON-RA. We enclose two short descriptions of WV: University Wurzburg; QM: QuMat; TUD: Nanowires for energy, provided by K. Deppert. Technical University of Delft; NL: NamLab, previously Qimonda; IMEC: Interuniversity Microelectronics An increasingly important aspect of nanowire research Center; SNS: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa; CEA: deals with their use in biology and in medical applications. Commissariat à l´Énergie Atomique; CNRS/ IEMS: We include here also a description of the state of the art Centre National de la Recherche Cientifique / Institut as provided by C. Prinz and J. Tegenfeldt. For each of these d´Electronique, de Microelectronique et de areas we try to provide some of the key references but Nanotechnologie. these are far from complete lists of references. The field of semiconductor nanowires (NWs) has during 1. Overview of nanowire electronics1 the last five years developed very rapidly. Within the European frame-work the strongest efforts have been in The integrated project “NODE” developed and the development of nanowire-based electronics, i.e. evaluated technologies for growth and processing of nanowire transistors, as performed in the largest semiconductor nanowire devices for their possible Integrated Project within ”Emerging Nanoelectronics”, impact as key add-on technologies to standard called ”Nanowire-based One-Dimensional Electronics semiconductor fabrication. The partners in NODE (NODE)”. Considering the rather high maturity of the worked on generating a deepened understanding of the research field reached through NODE, we use the final physics phenomena of one-dimensional semiconductor publishable report as the core of this report. We also materials and nanowire-based devices, and on attach as an appendix a summary of impressions from developing new functionalities not found in traditional the dissemination workshop that was organized at the higher-dimensional device structures. 1 Based on the NODE project executive summary nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 117
- 119. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications A set of key device families based on semiconductor temperature during growth we were able to fabricate nanowires were studied in detail; such as tunneling superlattices with alternating zinc blende and wurtzite devices, and field-effect transistors. Also unique structure. [1] opportunities that may be offered by nanowires in different areas are explored, e.g. memory applications. Crystal phase and twin superlattices (PRE) NODE maked a dedicated effort to evaluate the The crystal phase of III-Vs NWs can be determined by potential for integration of nanowire-specific processing the dopant precursor flows during growth. In InP the methods and to assess the compatibility with use of Zn-precursor favors the ZB phase, whereas the requirements from conventional semiconductor use of S-precursor favors the Wz phase. Moreover, processing, as well as evaluating novel architectural highly regular twin superlattices can be induced in the device concepts and their implementation scenarios. ZB phase by tuning the Zn concentration, wire diameter This chapter is based on the NODE project executive and supersaturation. The effect was explained in a summary. Detailed information about objectives and model based on surface energy arguments. [2] main achievements of the NODE project are available in Annex 2. 1.1. Nanowire growth 1.1.1. General growth control Controlling the crystal structure of InAs nanowires (LU) Gold-particle seeded nanowires fabricated in materials with zinc blende as the bulk crystal structure are often observed to have wurtzite crystal structure. The general trend is that thin wires are wurtzite and thick wires are Figure 2. TEM image of the top part of an InP NW, closely below the Au catalyst particle, showing the highly regular twin superlattice structure. Synergetic growth (PRE) A counter-intuitive effect controlling the influence of wire spacing on growth rate was uncovered, synergetic Figure 1. Polytypic superlattice, with alternating zinc blende and wurtzite structure, along an InAs nanowire. Figure 3. GaP wires next to a thick wire are taller than the se- zinc blende. That is, there is a cross-over diameter for cond-nearest wires, which are taller than those in the middle of the preferential polytype. This cross-over diameter is the field (furthest from the thick wire), showing that the growth temperature dependent. By carefully varying the rate of one wire is enhanced by the presence of another one and dependent on the catalytic alloy amount. 118 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 120. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications growth, which implies that at smaller spacing the competition for available material, reducing the growth rate, is counteracted by the increase in surface density of catalyst metal particles on neighboring nanowires, providing more decomposed material. [3] 1.1.2. Heterostructures Epitaxial Ge/Si nanowires (MPI) Epitaxial Ge/Si hetero-structure nanowires on Si (100) substrates were prepared in AAO templates. Usually, the Si atoms dissolved in the Au/Si eutectic catalyst act as a reservoir for Si, and the interface to Ge is smeared out. This new approach of the growth inside the AAO templates, allowed to produce a sharp interface of Ge/Si without changing the diameter of the nanowire. [4] Figure 5. Images recorded during the growth of Ge on GaP nanowires by UHV-CVD. 1.1.3. Doping Decoupling the radial from the axial growth rate by in situ etching (LU) It was shown that in-situ etching can be used to decouple the axial from the radial nanowire growth mechanism, independent of other growth parameters. Thereby a wide range of growth parameters can be explored to improve the nanowire properties without concern of tapering or excess structural defects formed during radial growth. We used HCl as the etching agent during InP nanowire growth, and etched nanowires show improved crystal quality as compared to non etched and tapered NWs. These results will make way for devices relying on doping in axial structures, where any radial overgrowth would lead to short circuiting of a device. Figure 4. Cross-section TEM ima-ge of the Ge-Si interface. Morphology of axial heterostructures (LU) An extensive investigation of the epitaxial growth of Au- assisted axial heterostructure nanowires composed of group IV and III−V materials have been carried out and derived a model to explain the overall morphology of such wires. [5] By analogy with 2D epitaxial growth, this model relates Figure 6. a) Tapered reference InP nanowires grown at a tempe- the wire morphology (i.e., whether it is kinked or rature of 450º C, b) Non tapered nanowires grown with HCl in the straight) to the relationship of the interface energies gas phase under otherwise identical growth conditions to a). between the two materials and the particle. This model P-type doping and p-n junctions in InP NWs suggests that, for any pair of materials, it should be (PRE) easier to form a straight wire with one interface Sulphur was identified as a suitable candidate for n-type direction than the other, and this was demonstrated for doping of InP in MOVPE using H2S as a precursor. It was the material combinations presented here. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 119
- 121. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 1.1.4. Si integration Al as catalyst for Si nanowires (MPI) Replacement of Au by other catalysts was one of the main efforts of this work. The metal Al was successfully used as a catalyst at low growth temperature in the VSS mode for growth of freestanding Si nanowires. The template-assisted growth using AAO and Al catalyst allowed to grow (100) oriented Si nanowires. [8] Figure 7. Optical microscope image of electroluminescent light coming from an InP NW LED, as collected by a CCD camera (the dashed lines show the positions of the electrodes). further established that Zn-doping can be effectively used to achieve p-type doping in InP, using trimethylzinc as a precursor. The combination of S and Zn permits realization of p-n junctions in InP, showing good electrical diode characteristics in thin (20 nm-diameter) nanowires. The diodes exhibit LED behavior, testifying the high quality of the p-n junctions. [6] Figure 9. Si nanowires grown by use of a Al catalyst. Epitaxial growth of III-V NWs on Si and Ge (PRE) Remote p-type doping of InAs NWs (PRE) The growth of GaAs, GaP, InAs, and InP nanowires on Obtaining quantitative control of doping levels in Si and Ge substrates was investigated extensively , and nanowires grown by the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism is especially challenging for the case of p-type high-quality epitaxial growth was demonstrated for doping of InAs wires because of the Fermi level pinning these materials systems. It was shown that the around 0.1 eV above the conduction band. It was shown orientation of the epitaxial nanowires depends on the that growing a Zn-doped shell of InP epitaxially on a core substrate-wire lattice mismatch. [9] InAs NW yields remote p-type doping: shielding with a p- doped InP shell compensates for the built-in potential and donates free holes to the InAs core. The effect of shielding critically depends on the thickness of the InP capping layer and the dopant concentration in the shell. [7] Figure10. X-ray diffraction pole measurements on InP wires grown on Si(111), showing the presence of InP(111) reflec- tions originating from the wires. Au-free InAs nanowires on silicon (LU) Narrow bandgap materials, such as InAs, could have great impact on future nano-electronics if integrated with Si, but integration has so far been hard to realize. InAs nanowires can be grown directly on silicon substrates Figure 8. Dark-f ield TEM image of the InAs(core)/InP:Zn using a method employing self-assembled organic (shell) NW. coatings to create oxide-based growth templates. [10] 120 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 122. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications The method was subsequently modified to also allow for threshold swings. [11] This analysis reveals the strong position-control, which is required for vertical device influence of the electrostatics on the transport implementation. properties and shows that the extraction of device parameters using conventional models may not be valid. Chemical passivation of nanowires (WU) The large surface to volume ratio of nanowires makes them very sensitive to surface effects such as nonradiative recombination centers or trapped charges. Surface passivation of GaAs nanowires by difference chemical treatments has been investigated and an improvement of the luminescence efficiency by a factor of 40 compared to as-grown wires could be achieved. Figure 11. Epitaxial InAs nanowires grown on a Si(111) subs- trate from holes etched in a SiO2 f ilm. 1.2. Nanoprocessing 1.2.1. Surface passivation and gate dielectrics Lateral nanowire n-MOSFETs (IBM) Fully depleted lateral n-channel MOSFET devices were Figure 13. Photoluminescence spectrum of an as grown (bot- fabricated using implantation for source and drain tom) and a passivated wire (top) regions. Strong inversion and clear saturation currents are observed in FETs from intrinsic NWs with p- 1.2.2. Contacts and gates for nanowire FETs implanted source/drain regions, whereas NWFETs with Schottky contacts only operate in accumulation mode. 50 nm Lg Wrap Gate InAs MOSFET (QM) The effect of surface preparation on the electrical Wrap Gated, or gate all around devices show the best characteristics were studied and revealed that control of the channel potential. InAs high-κ (HfO2) encapsulating the devices in a protective oxide yields significantly increased on currents and steeper sub- Figure 12. Transfer characteristic of a lateral nanowire n- MOSFET as fabricated surrounded by air (black) and en- Figure 14. Cross section of the MOSFET, showing the 50 nm capsulated in SiO2. Cr gate around the InAs nanowire. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 121
- 123. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications oxide nanowire field effect transistor, were successfully Nanowire FET with gated Schottky contact fabricated with a 50 nm long wrap gate. The first (WU, NL) transistors were based on InAs wires grown on a n+ Gated Schottky contacts allow a control over the InAs substrate. The high mobility and injection velocity polarity of the injected carriers, allowing to switch the of the InAs channel leads to a good drive current and operation of a nanowire FET from n-type to p-type. excellent transconductance. [12] Such devices can be used to realize complementary logic without doping the nanowires. Schottky barrier FETs (IBM) The use of thin Si3N4 interface layers between the silicon and metal contacts were shown to give Ohmic contacts whereas without the Si3N4 a normal Schottky contact was achieved. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the Si3N4 interface layer gives Schottky barrier FETs with suppressed ambipolar behaviour due to a reduction in metal induced gap states. [13] Figure 17. Si-nanowire FET with two gated Schottky contacts. Figure 15. Schematic of a Schottky barrier pseudo-MOSFET Wrap-around gate vertical Si nanowire Tunnel- and the corresponding transfer characteristics with and wi- FETs (IMEC) thout an interface layer. The NODE project successfully developed a CMOS compatible process flow to fabricate vertical Si nanowire Multiple gates for nanowire devices (TUD) Tunnel-FETs using state-of-the-art processing tools onto Nanowires with multiple gates on horizontal nanowires 200mm wafers. An advanced gate stack using high-κ have been developed to create electrical quantum dots (HfO2) oxide and metal gate (TiN) was implemented. in InAs/ InP nanowires. These devices are used to investigate quantum effects in coupled quantum dots The top contact was obtained by isotropic dry etch of nanowires. [14] the gate stack at the top of the wire using a gate Figure 18. Cross section of the vertical TFET featuring 3nm HfO2, Figure 16. Horizontal InAs/InP nanowire with multiple gates. 7nm TiN and 25nm a-Si gate stack around the nanowires. 122 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 124. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications hardmask. The gate is isolated from the substrate by a thick oxide layer. It is also isolated from the top contact by a nitride spacer and oxide layer. A capping layer connects multiple wires together. Top contact doping is achieved through epitaxial layer or tilted implants. 1.2.3. Processing of vertical nanowire devices InAs Wrap Gated MOSFETs for RF and circuit applications (QM/LU) For RF and circuit applications, the transistors need to be integrated on an highly resistive, or insulating Figure 20. Stability of the transfer characteristics of a verti- substrate. Technology for growing, and locally contacting cal IMOS FET. InAs nanowires on a semi insulating InP substrate has Nanowires based spin memory (TUD) been developed. The NODE project created a spin memory in a single quantum dot embedded in an InP nanowire. The preparation of a given spin state by tuning excitation polarization or excitation energy demonstrated the potential of this system to form a quantum interface between photons and electrons. For this purpose, transparent contacts on vertical nanowires have been developed for FET devices and are currently under investigation. [17] Figure 19. Top view of a fully processed RF-compatible ver- tical nanowire transistor structure. The technology is based on a local ohmic substrate contact, which wraps around the base of the nanowires. This allows for RF characterization of the InAs MOSFETs, Figure 21. Vertical nanowire surrounded by a dielectric and a with first results of ft=7 GHz and fmax=22 GHz. [15] wrap gate. SiO2 template development for catalyst-free Vertical Impact Ionization MOS FETs (IBM- nanowire growth (IMEC) ZRL) A process was developed to fabricate hole patterns on A process for vertical silicon nanowire FETs was top of silicon for constrained growth of Si nanowires, developed. Using this process vertical impact ionization without the use of catalyst. The template was prepared FETs with sub-threshold swings down to 5 mV/dec. by patterning a plasma—enhanced chemical-vapor were demonstrated. [16] deposited (PE CVD) Si3N4/SiO2 25nm/300nm film nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 123
- 125. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications stack with openings or holes to expose the underlying The highly Se-doped wires revealed an attendant strong Si. The patterning was performed through 193nm increase in charge density up to ~ 1x1019cm-3; as lithography and etching of the SiO2 with Motif®, an expected the impurities introduced brought along a advanced dry etch technique capable of shrinking decrease in the mobility, which varied in the 4-6 printed feature sizes thanks to the deposition of a hundred cm2/Vs range for wire diameters of 40-50 nm. polymeric coating on top of the developed resist. In parallel, NW devices were fabricated for charge Particular care was dedicated to cleaning of the side pumping through surface acoustic waves (SAW) [19]. The walls and the silicon bottom substrate to avoid defects NW FETs were implemented on top a LiNbO3 substrate creation during subsequent growth. To achieve suitable with piezoelectric transducers. An acoustoelectric current Si purity for epitaxial growth, a special sequence of peak in the wire was identified when driving the process steps was needed to avoid Si contamination by transducer near its resonance frequency. This type of carbon residues from etch. devices is quite interesting both for analog signal processing and for the implementation of single-photon sources under quantized charge pumping. Furthermore, it yields a new direct method to measure the carrier mobility by observing the bias point at which the acoustoelectric peak in the current changes of sign, signaling that drift and acoustic wave velocity are the same. Diameter dependence of tapered InAs nanowires [20] (TUD, PRE) Electrical conductance through InAs nanowires is relevant for electronic applications as well as for Figure 22. Cross-section of a via hole after plasma etch and fundamental quantum experiments. Nominally hot phosphor opening of the Si3N4 bottom layer. undoped, slightly tapered InAs nanowires were used to 1.3. Physics and characterization study the diameter dependence of their conductance. 1.3.1. Electrical properties Room temperature transport (SNS) Room temperature transport properties of bare InAs and InAs/InP core shell nanowires [18] have been studied and a three dimensional electrostatic model was developed to compute the NW FET capacitance for a more accurate mobility determination. The measured values ranged in the 1-2 thousand cm2/Vs for the thinnest wires (< 40 nm), while reached about 3 thousand for thicker wires. Remarkably all the wires showed relatively low values of electronic charge in the few 1016cm-3 range. Figure 24. (a) the backgate sweeps for different sections within the same nanowire. The inset shows the data for the section with the Figure 23. Sketch of the device and set-up for the induction smallest diameter. (b) the mobility determined from backgate swe- of acoustoelectric current in NW FETs. eps. Different symbols correspond to the different devices studied. 124 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 126. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Contacting multiple sections of each wire, we can study We suggest that the increase in the observed field-effect the diameter dependence within individual wires mobility can be attributed to an increase of conduction without the need to compare different nanowire through the inner part of the nanowire and a reduction batches. At room temperature we find a diameter- of the contribution of electrons from the low mobility independent conductivity for diameters larger than accumulation layer. Furthermore it was found that by 40nm, indicative of three-dimensional diffusive growing an InP shell around an InAs core, surface transport. For smaller diameters, the resistance increases roughness scattering and ionized impurity scattering in considerably, in coincidence with a strong suppression of the accumulation layer is reduced. the mobility. From an analysis of the effective charge carrier density, we find indications for a surface accumulation layer. 1.3.2. Optical studies Surface passivation of InAs nanowires by an Raman and mid-IR spectroscopy (SNS) ultrathin InP shell [21] (TUD, PRE) A micro-Raman set-up was developed and applied to We report the growth and characterization of InAs InAs/InP core-shell structure, as a way to study the nanowires capped with a 0.5-1nm epitaxial InP shell. The strain introduced in the structure and verify the reduced low temperature field-effect mobility is increased by a impact of surface states in the capped wires. A clear line factor 2-5 compared to bare InAs nanowires. The width reduction was observed in wires with thick InP shells where less interaction with the surface was highest low temperature peak electron mobilities expected and a blue shift of the resonances with obtained for nanowires to this date, exceeding 20 000 increasing shell thickness was also detected, which gives cm2/Vs we also reported. The electron density in the indication of the amount of strain in the InAs material. nanowires, determined at zero gate voltage, is reduced by an order of magnitude compared to uncapped InAs nanowires. For smaller diameter nanowires, an increase in electron density was found which can be related to the presence of an accumulation layer at the InAs/InP interface. However, compared to the surface accumulation layer in uncapped InAs, this electron density is much reduced. Figure 26. Energy position of the main transverse mode for NWs with different InP shells. Colours are used to distinguish among different wires in the same sample. Micro photoluminescence studies of single InP nanowires (WU) The optical study of single nanowires provides important information about physical properties such as size quantization effects. Individual NWs show narrow emission lines with linewidths as low as 2.3 meV which reflects the high structural quality of the nanowires. Blueshifts of the NW emission energy between 25 and 56 meV with respect to bulk InP are related to radial carrier confinement in nanowires with diameters between 15 nm and 50 nm. Time resolved investigations Figure 25. (a) pinch-off curve and (b) extracted field-effect (black) reveal a low surface recombination velocity of 6×102 and effective mobilities (blue) of a high mobility core/shell nanowire. cm/s. [22] nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 125
- 127. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 1.3.3. X-ray characterization Study of radial and longitudinal heterostruc- tures (CEA, LU, QuMat) Quantitative structural information about epitaxial arrays of VLS-NWs have been reported for a InAs/InP longitudinal [23] and core-shell [24] heterostructure grown InAs (111)B substrates. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction allows the separation of the nanowire contribution from the substrate overgrowth and gives averaged information about crystallographic phases, Figure 27. Micro photoluminescence spectrum showing emis- stacking defects, epitaxial relationships with orientation sion from two InP nanowires with narrow linewidths of 4.7 distributions, and strain. The strain profiles have been meV and 2.3 meV, respectively. compared to atomistic and finite element calculations performed at CEA, and Grazing Incidence Small Angles Study of surface capping of InP nanowires Scattering has been used to extract the shape, diameter (WU, LU, QM) and variability of the NWs. Time resolved photo-luminescence spectroscopy was applied to optimize the atomic layer deposition (ALD) of high-κ dielectrics (HfO2, Al2O3) onto InP NWs — a process which typically leads to detrimental surface states. Applying a core/shell growth technique the InP surface quality could be significantly improved in terms of the surface recombination velocity S0 which was reduced to S0 = 9.0x103 cm/s in comparison with S0 = 1.5x104 cm/s obtained for an untreated reference sample without surface treatment prior to ALD. Figure 29. Longitudinal and radial heterostructures measured by Grazing Incidence X-ray Techniques and example of a trun- In an alternative approach, in-situ post-growth annealing cation rod measurement showing the [1 1] stacking in a longi- 1 in H2S atmosphere prior to ALD resulted in a nearly tudinal InAs/InP heterostructure. fourfold decrease of S0. These results clearly show the importance of a proper surface treatment prior to Single object studies (CEA) oxide capping of III/V NWs for transistor applications. The measurement of single NWs with coherent imaging techniques has been developed. This new technique gains insights into the shape of the objects [25], but also into the strain distribution inside one object. Original structural results obtained on sSOI lines with micro- Figure 30. Coherent diffraction of single 95 nm Si nanowire Figure 28. Spectrally and temporally resolved intensity map (111) Bragg reflection. The “ab initio” analysis of this pat- of the PL emission from HfO2 capped InP NWs. tern allows reconstructing the shape of the NW. 126 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 128. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications focussed beams have been obtained (unpublished importance of the “electrostatic” engineering of results) as well as the application of this technique to nanowire devices. VLS grown samples. 1.3.4. Modelling Band structure calculations (CEA, LU). The band structure of group IV and various III-V NWs has actually been investigated in the whole 2-40 nm diameter range. The size dependence of the bandgap energy, subband splittings and effective masses has been Figure 31. Binding energy of various donors (black symbols, discussed in detail [26] and used in collaboration with left axis) as a function of the radius R of silicon NWs in va- Lund for the modelling of InAs NW field-effect cuum, and room temperature doping eff iciency of P donors transistors. [27] Finally, the CEA has investigated the (red symbols, right axis). The doping eff iciency rapidly de- effects of strains on the electronic properties of III-V creases below R = 10 nm. nanowire heterostructures (e.g., the reduction of the barrier height in tunnel devices). [28] 1.4. Nanowire devices Transport properties (CEA) 1.4.1. InAs FETs The transport properties of ultimate silicon nanowires with diameters <6 nm has been modeled using quantum Vertical InAs transistors (LU/QM) Kubo-Greenwood and Green function methods. The Fabrication of vertical InAs nanowire wrap-gate field- impact of surface roughness [29] and dopant impurities effect transistor arrays with a gate length of 50 nm has on the mobility has been studied. The CEA has shown, been developed. [31] The wrap gate is defined by in particular, that the impurity-limited contribution to evaporation of 50-nm Cr onto a 10-nm-thick HfO2 gate the mobility could be larger in wrap-gate nanowires than dielectric, where the gate is also separated from the in bulk due to the efficient screening of ionized source contact with a 100-nm SiOX spacer layer. For a impurities by the gate. Also, the resistance of single drain voltage of 0.5 V, a normalized transconductance impurities can be very dependent on their radial of 0.5 S/mm, a subthreshold slope around 90 position in the nanowire, leading to significant variability mV/dec., and a threshold voltage just above 0 V were in ultimate devices. observed. Effect of dielectric environment on the electrical properties (CEA, CNRS/IEMN, LU) It was shown that the dielectric confinement can be responsible for a significant decrease of the doping efficiency in nanowires. [30] Dopant impurities are progressively “unscreened” by image charge effects when reducing wire diameter, which leads to an increase of their binding energies and decrease of their activity. These predictions have been confirmed by recent experiments by the IBM group. The binding energies of shallow impurities are however very sensitive to the dielectric environment of the nanowires, and can be decreased by embedding the wires in high- κ oxides or wrap-gates. Modelling has confirmed that many electronic properties of semiconductor nanowires are driven more by dielectric than quantum Figure 32. Sub-threshold I-V characteristics of an array of 55 confinement, even in the sub 10 nm range, showing the vertical InAs nanowires. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 127
- 129. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications RF characterization of vertical InAs transistors separated by thin InP tunnel barriers. [33] Transport (LU/ QM) through the quantum dot structure is suppressed for a Lund and Qimonda have developed an RF compatible particular biasing window due to misalignment of the vertical InAs nanowire process, with InAs wires grown energy levels. This leads to hysteresis in the charging & on S.I. InP substrates. By combining 70 wires in parallel discharging of the storage island. in a 50Ω waveguide pad geometry, S-parameters The memory operates for temperatures up to around (50MHz-20 GHz) for vertical InAs nanowire MOSFETs 150 K and has write times down to at least 15 ns. A were measured. A maximum ft of 7GHz and comparison is made to a nanowire memory based on a fmax=22GHz [32] was obtained. Small signal modelling single, thick InP barrier. allowed for the first extraction of intrinsic device elements forming a hybrid-π equivalent circuit. Nanowire capacitors (LU) Vertical InAs nanowire capacitors have been developed based on arrays of nanowires, high-k deposition, and metal deposition. [34] The capacitors show a large modulation of the capacitance with the gate bias, and a limited hysteresis at 0.5 V voltage swing. Via modeling of the charge distribution in the nanowires as a function of the applied voltage, the regions of accumulation, depletion, and inversion have been identified. Finally, the carrier concentration has been determined. Figure 33. Measured and modelled RF gains for a 90 nm gate length InAs MOSFET. 1.4.2. Other InAs- and III/V-based devices Nanowire-based multiple quantum dot memory (LU) We demonstrate an alternative memory concept in which a storage island is connected to a nanowire Figure 35. Measured CV prof ile at 20 MHz. containing a stack of nine InAs quantum dots, each 1.4.3. Si FETs Doping limits in silicon nanowires (IBM) The control over doping levels was demonstrated for in- situ doped silicon nanowires using phosphine as the Figure 36. Experimental data of nanowire resistivity vs phos- Figure 34. Design and implementation of a multiple quantum phine concentration. Donor densities up to the solid solubi- dot memory based on nanowires. lity limit of phosphorous in silicon was achieved. 128 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 130. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications doping source. It was found that the maximum State-of-the-art all-silicon tunnel FETs (IBM) attainable doping is 1×1020cm-3 limited by the solid All-silicon nanowire tunnel FETs with high on-currents solubility limit of phosphorous in silicon at the growth were demonstrated. The use of a high-k gate dielectric temperature (4500C). [35] markedly improves the TFET performance in terms of average slope SS (SS measured between 10-7μA/μm and Doping deactivation (IBM) 10-3μA/μm is 120mV/ dec.) and on-current, Ion (0.3μA/ It was demonstrated experimentally that dopants inside μm). The performance of the devices is close to what scaled semiconductors experience a smaller screening can be expected from all-silicon tunnel FETs. [38] as a function of decreasing size leading to a deactivation of the dopants. This effect is caused by a dielectric mismatch between the semiconductor and the surrounding medium. [36] Figure 39. Transfer characteristics of silicon nanowire tunnel FETs with SiO2 (red) and HfO2 (blue) gate dielectrics. Dopant-free polarity control of Si nanowire Figure 37. How the resistivity of silicon nanowires increases with de- Schottky FETs (NL) creasing diameter due to doping deactivation caused by a dielec- The accurate and reproducible adjustment of the charge tric mismatch between the nanowire core and the surroundings. carrier concentration in nanometer-scale semiconductors is challenging. As an alternative to transistors containing Silicon nanowire tunnel FETs (IBM) doping profiles, dopant-free nanowire transistors have Tunnel FETs based on silicon nanowires were been devised. The source and drain regions are replaced demonstrated for the first time. The FET structure was by metal contacts that exhibit a sharp interface to the grown by the VLS method and doping was incorporated active region. The current flow is controlled by locally in-situ. The devices were fabricated in a lateral fashion adjusting the electric field at the metal/silicon interface. with both a top and bottom gate. The data obtained on Independent control of each contact results in transistors the FETs matched the expected sub-threshold slopes as modeled by a simple WKB approximation. [37] that can operate either as p- or n-type. [39] Figure 40. Silicon nanowire FET with two independent top Figure 38. Transfer characteristics of a Si NW tunnel FET with top gates, each coupling to a metal/semiconductor junction. The gate. The red line is calculated using the WKB approximation. FET can be programmed as p- and n- type. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 129
- 131. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Complementary logic circuits built from considered. Aluminum, which had been shown undoped Si nanowire Schottky FETs (NL) promising on coupon level tests (UHV-CVD at MPI), To reduce the static power consumption of digital proved not up-scalable in the absence of UHV circuits complementary logic is required. This is enabled conditions. Indium particles did produce high-yield Si by the interconnection between p- and n- type nanowires in PE-CVD but the growth was difficult to transistors. Complementary nanowire based inverter control. In view of the many limitations related to circuits that do not require doping were developed and Vapor-Solid Liquid growth of silicon nanowires, a characterized. The results show that all logic functions seedless (catalyst-free) constrained approach for can be performed at low power consumption without growing Si and SiGe nanowires onto Si (100) substrates dopants. The entire thermal budget for processing is was developed. The growth approach takes advantage kept below 400°C, enabling a possible future of the advances in Selective Epitaxial Growth (SEG) replacement of low mobility organic printed circuits on technology to fill the holes without the presence of flexible electronics. catalytic metal particles. Nanowires with an intrinsic Si segment (channel) and p+ -doped (B) segment of either Si, Si0.85Ge0.15 or Si0.75Ge0.25 (source) were successfully grown on top of n+-doped (100) substrates. [40] Large-scale nanowire device integration (IMEC) IMEC developed an integration flow together with the necessary process modules to fabricate vertical nanowire tunnel-FET devices with wrap-around gates. The nanowires were made by a top-down etch process, Figure 41. Silicon nanowire inverter characteristics; top: trans- however, the integration flow is compatible with a fer characteristics, bottom: time resolved response. bottom-up approach based on grown nanowires. 1.5. Benchmarking and integration Next to the wrap-around gate configuration which provides the best gate control over the channel, a 1.5.1. Process upscaling of nanowire growth vertical TFET architecture allows a more readily and devices implementation of heterostructures which are needed to boost the tunneling current (see modeling part). Wafer-scale nanowire growth (IMEC) At first, catalyst-based growth of silicon vertical nanowire using none-gold catalyst systems was Figure 43. TEM cross-section of the f inal vertical 35nm NW Figure 42. TEM micrograph of a 60nm wide Si/SiGe heterojunc- TFET device (no top oxide isolation) with an advanced a- tion nanowire. Si/TiN/HfO2 gate stack 130 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 132. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Functional vertical nanowire TFET devices were built performance. The advantage of the short-gate TFET are on a 200mm wafer platform. [41] Vertical integration the reduced ambipolar behavior, enhanced switching implied, among other, the implementation of bottom speed and relaxed processing requirements. [43] When and top isolation layers, and a amorphous Si capping the gate is shifted towards the source-channel a modest layer which simultaneously connects the TiN metal increase in on-current can be achieved. gate. Heterojunction-source TFET (IMEC) Vertical nanowire TFET device (IMEC) It was shown that the on-current of the TFET device can Functional Si nanowire n- and p-TFETs were be increased considerably by placing a foreign source demonstrated and measured electrically at IMEC using material on top of the Si nanowire channel. Germanium a Kleindiek nanoprober apparatus mounted in a and InGaAs were identified as the source materials of HRSEM. The experimental data are inline with literature choice for an n-type and p-type TFET device, data of all-Si Tunnel-FETs. To contributors knowledge, respectively. The advantage of remaining the Si channel these devices are the first large-scale integrated vertical is obvious as conventional Si processing can be used for nanowire devices with state-of-the art high-k metal gate the gate-stack fabrication. For this work new models stack. [42] needed developed commercial device simulators failed to correctly predict the performance of heterostructure TFETs. [44, 45] Together, the Ge-source for n-type and InGaAs source for p-type, enable a complementary silicon-based TFET suitable for competitive low-power applications. These heterostructure TFET configurations (Ge-Si, InA-Si and In0.6Ga0.4As-Si) and their corresponding I-V characteristics have been used as input for the circuit simulations by NXP. Figure 44. Input Ids-Vgs characteristics of the n- TFET device with an epi grown P+ source and a nanowire size of 50 nm on design. 1.5.2. Vertical device architectures and benchmarking Short-gate and shifted-gate TFET device concepts (IMEC) Figure 46. Comparison of Ids—Vgs characteristics of all-Si TFET It was shown with the help of simulation that the (short gate) and the proposed heterostructure Ge-source Si- position of the gate can impact the TFET device TFET, indicating the boost of the current with nearly 2 orders of magnitude to the same level as Si MOSFETs (dashed curves). 1.5.3. Nanowire MOSFETs in the quantum capacitance limit Quantum capacitance limit for conventional FETs (IBM) Scaling of NW transistors was investigated by modeling. The important implication of the analysis is that NW with very small diameter enable ultimately scaled Figure 45. Sschematic representation of the short-gate(left) transistor devices in a wrap-gate architecture since and shifted-gate (right) concepts. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 131
- 133. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications electrostatic integrity is preserved down to smallest Modeling of nanowire MOSFETs and tunnel FETs using dimensions. However, besides this pure geometrical non-equilibrium Greens functions was used to calculate argument the present study shows that NWs offer an gate delays as a function of scaling oxide thickness. It additional scaling benefit. In the case of 1D transport, was demonstrated that when FETs are scaled to the devices can be scaled towards the Quantum quantum capacitance limit the tunnel FETs exhibit the Capacitance Limit (QCL) which shows a clear scaling same on-state performance as MOSFETs using the gate advantage in terms of the power delay product, i.e. the delay as the performance metric. The on-current is an energy needed for switching the transistors. As a result, order of magnitude lower for the TFETs though. NWs exhibiting 1D transport are a premier choice as channel material for high performance, ultimately scaled References FET devices. [46] [1] P. Caroff et al. Nature Nanotech. 4, 50 (2009) [2] R.E. Algra, et al., Nature 456, 369 (2008) [3] M.T. Borgström et al., Nature Nanotech. 2, 541 (2007) [4] T. Shimizu et al., Nano Lett. 9, 1523 (2009) [5] K.A. Dick et al. Nano Lett. 7, 1817 (2007) [6] E.D. Minot et al. Nano Lett. 7, 367 (2007) Figure 47. Power delay product and gate delay (inset) versus [7] H.-Y. Li et al,. Nano Lett. 7, 1 (2007) 144 gate length and oxide thickness for conventional FETs as the [8] Y.W. Wang et al., Nature Nanotech., 1, 186 (2006); transition from classical limit to the quantum capacitance Z. Zhang et al., Adv. Mater. limit is made. [9] E.P.A.M. Bakkers et al., MRS Bulletin 32, 1 (2007) 17 Tunnel FETs in the quantum capacitance limit [10] T. Mårtensson et al. Adv. Mat. 19, 1801, (2007) Nanowire tunnel FETs versus nanowire MOSFETs (IBM). [1 O. Hayden et al., Small, 3, p. 230, 2007 1] [12] C. Thelander et al. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 2008 [13] H. Ghoneim et al., Proceedings of ULIS conference 2009 [14] M. Scheffler et al., Physica E 40, 12020-01204 (2008) [15] M. Egard et al. submitted to Nano Lett. 2009 [16] M. T. Björk et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 1421 (2007) 10 [17] H.M. Maarten et al., Small 5, pp. 2134 — 2138 (2009) [18] S. Roddaro et al., Nanotechnology 20, 285303 (2009) [19] S. Roddaro et al., submitted to Semicond. Science Tech. [20] M. Scheffler et al., submitted to Journal of Applied Physics [21] J. van Tilburg et al., accepted for publication in Figure 48. Gate delay versus oxide thickness for nanowire Semiconductor Science and Technology MOSFETs and tunnel FETs. 132 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 134. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications [22] S. Reitzenstein et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 091103 2. Overview of nanowire growth (2007) Nanowires can be grown by a variety of methods, but [23] J. Eymery et al., Nano Letters 7 (9) 2596 (2007) the most common method by far is particle-assisted [24] J. Eymery et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 94, 13191 (2009) 1 growth [1, 2] in metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) or molecular beam epitaxy. This technique uses [25] V. Favre-Nicolin et al., Phys. Rev. B 79, 195401 (2009) metal seed particles, most often gold, which act as [26] Y. M. Niquet et al., Phys. Rev. B 73, 165319 (2006) nucleation centers [3] and direct the growth. The size, number and position of the resulting nanowires are [27] E. Lind et al., IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 56, 201 determined by the seed particles, potentially allowing for (2009) a high degree of control over the final structures. In this section, patterned growth, heterostructures, doping, [28] Y. M. Niquet and D. Camacho Mojica, Phys. Rev. B crystal structure control, and metal free growth will be 77, 115316 (2008) briefly reviewed. [29] M. P. Persson et al., Nano Letters 8, 4146 (2008) The gold seed particles can be deposited in a few [30] M. Diarra et al., Phys. Rev. B 75, 045301 (2007) different ways. Deposition of aerosol or colloid particles results in more or less randomly positioned nanowires. [31] C. Thelander et al. IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. 29, 206 However, most applications require precise control of (2008) the nanowires, both in terms of position and size. Defining the gold particles by electron beam lithography, [32] M. Egard et al., submitted to Nano Lett. followed by gold evaporation and lift off, allows for this [33] H. N. Nilsson et al.Appl. Phys. Lett 89, 163101 (2006) [4], see Fig. 1. [34] S. Roddaro et al. Appl. Phys.Lett. 92, 253509 (2008) Formation of heterostructures is at the core of nanowire [35] H. Schmid et al., Nano Lett. 9, 173 (2009). technology and novel device structures. Three major categories can be identified: axial, radial, and [36] M. T. Björk et al., Nature Nanotechn. 4, 103 (2009) substrate/nanowire heterostructures, e. g. III—V [37] M. T. Björk et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 193504 (2008) nanowires on Si substrates. [38] K. E. Moselund et al., ESSDERC, September 2009 First, axial structures can be formed if the growth [39] W. M. Weber et al. IEEE Proc. Nanotech. Conf. precursors are alternated during growth. This results in a p.580 (2008) variation of the composition along the wire. Furthermore, it is well understood that nanowires [40] F. Iacopi et.al., MRS Symposium Proceedings, Vol. represent an ideal system for the growth of axial 1178E heterostructures, since mismatched materials can be grown epitaxially on each other without misfit [41] A. Vandooren et al., Proc. Silicon Nanoelectronic dislocations. This is possible because strain can be relieved Workshop, pp. 21-22, Kyoto, June 2009 by coherent expansion of the lattice outwards (along the [42] D. Leonelli et al., submitted to Electron Device Letters wire diameter), avoiding dislocations. Axial heterostructure nanowires were first demonstrated in [43] A.S. Verhulst et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 53102 (2007) 1994 for the GaAs—InAs system [5]. [44] A.S. Verhulst et al., J. Appl. Phys. 104, 64514 (2008) Further development of this material system led to [45] A.S. Verhulst et al., Electron Dev. Lett. 29, 1398 reports of high-quality interfaces despite the large lattice (2008) mismatch [6]. For the InAs—InP system, atomically sharp interfaces were also reported [7]. Nanowire [46] J. Appenzeller et al., IEEE Trans. Electron. Dev. Vol. heterostructure superlattices have been demonstrated for 55, pp. 2827-2845, (2008) a variety of material systems, with lattice mismatch as high as 3% [8]. Much recent work has focused on attaining sharp heterointerfaces for various material and growth systems. As well, the development of heterostructure nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 133
- 135. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications nanowires involving ternary compounds such as GaAsP [9], InAsP [10] and InGaAs [11], further increases the potential for applications. Second, radial structures, also known as core-shell structures, can be formed. In the lateral case, heterostructures are achieved by first growing nanowires by conventional particle-assisted growth, then by changing the growth parameters so that bulk growth is favored. In this way growth on the side facets of the wire will dominate, and shells will form [12]. Figure 2. Transmission electron micrograph of a ZB-WZ polytypic superlattice in an InAs nanowire. The structure was achieved by periodically varying the growth temperature. nanowire growth is not carefully controlled, the resulting structure may consist of a mixture of these two Figure 1. Scanning electron micrographs of gold particle-as- phases, together with twin planes, stacking faults and sisted, MOVPE grown, InAs nanowires in regular arrays, other polytypes. Various theoretical and experimental where the positions of the gold particles have been def ined works have indicated that uncontrolled structural mixing by electron beam lithography. may be detrimental to electronic and optical properties, and structural variations due to random intermixing may The third category, substrate/nanowire heterostructures, lead to unacceptable variability in material properties. resembles the axial heterostructure with the difference On the other hand, the ability to select between ZB and that the substrate is less compliant. Compared to planar WZ and to mix these structures in a controlled way may heteroepitaxy, the critical thickness for dislocation-free give access to new and exciting physics and applications. growth becomes considerable larger when strain can be relaxed also radially. This effect enables epitaxy of III—V It has recently been shown that the crystal structure of nanowires on Si [13]. InAs nanowires can be tuned between pure WZ and pure ZB by careful control of experimental parameters, For electronics and optoelectronics applications it is where temperature and nanowire diameter are the necessary to control the conductivity and to be able to most significant [17]. This knowledge enabled the fabricate pn-junctions in nanowires. Thus it is of high fabrication of twin plane superlattices and ZB—WZ importance to be able to dope the nanowires; pn- polytypic superlattices in nanowires, see Fig. 2. Twin junctions in nanowires have been reported for nitride plane superlattices has also been controllably produced [14] and other III—V [15, 16] nanowires, even though the in InP nanowires by the introduction of dopants [18]. incorporation mechanism during particle-assisted growth is not well understood. Finally, a successful method to grow perfect ZB nanowires that has been reported for GaAs nanowires Semiconductor nanowires composed of III-V materials is to use a two temperature method, where the growth such as InAs typically suffer from frequent stacking is initiated at high temperature. After this, the defects. Although most of these materials exhibit zinc temperature is decreased and the main parts of the blende (ZB) structure in bulk, nanowires may also be nanowires are grown at a lower temperature in order to composed of the related wurtzite (WZ) structure. If not overcome the energy barrier for twin formation 134 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 136. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications [19]. Quite surprisingly, the same group has recently [11] I. Regolin, D. Sudfeld, S. Luttjohann, V. Khorenko, reported that nanowires free from planar defects can W. Prost, J. Kastner, G. Dumpich, C. Meier, A. Lorke, be achieved by growth at high rate [20]. and F. J. Tegude, J. Cryst. Growth 298 (2007) 607 If semiconductor nanowires will be integrated in CMOS [12] Y. Li, F. Qian, J. Xiang, and C. M. Lieber, Mater. compatible processes, as suggested as one possible path Today 9 (2006) 18 to continue the downscaling of electronics, it is [13] K. A. Dick, K. Deppert, L. Samuelson, L. R. necessary to avoid growth from gold particles. Either, Wallenberg, and F. M. Ross, Nano Lett. 8 (2008) 4087 other more CMOS compatible metals have to be utilized as seed particles, or particle free nanowire [14] H. M. Kim, Y. H. Cho, H. Lee, S. I. Kim, S. R. Ryu, growth has to be relized. Particle free growth from D. Y. Kim, T. W. Kang, and K. S. Chung, Nano Lett. 4 mask openings has been realized in InP [21], GaAs [22], (2004) 1059 and GaN [23]. Metal free growth has also been realized by growth from self-assembled nucleation templates on [15] E. D. Minot, F. Kelkensberg, M. van Kouwen, J. A. organically coated surfaces [24]. van Dam, L. P. Kouwenhoven, V. Zwiller, M. T. Borgstrom, O. Wunnicke, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P. A. References M. Bakkers, Nano Lett. 7 (2007) 367 [1] K. A. Dick, Prog. Cryst. Growth Charact. Mater. 54 [16] M. T. Borgstrom, E. Norberg, P. Wickert, H. A. (2008) 138 Nilsson, J. Tragardh, K. A. Dick, G. Statkute, P. Ramvall, K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Nanotechnology 19 [2] K. W. Kolasinski, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. (2008) 445602 10 (2006) 182 [17] P. Caroff, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M. E. Messing, [3] B. A. Wacaser, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M. T. K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Nature Nanotech. 4 Borgström, K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Adv. Mater. (2009) 50 21 (2009) 153 [18] R. E. Algra, M. A. Verheijen, M. T. Borgström, L. F. [4] H. J. Fan, P. Werner, and M. Zacharias, Small 2 Feiner, G. Immink, W. J. P. van Enckevort, E. Vlieg, and (2006) 700 E. P. A. M. Bakkers, Nature 456 (2008) 369 [5] K. Hiruma, H. Murakoshi, M. Yazawa, K. Ogawa, S. [19] H. J. Joyce, Q. Gao, H. H. Tan, C. Jagadish, Y. Kim, Fukuhara, M. Shirai, and T. Katsuyama, IEEE Trans. X. Zhang, Y. N. Guo, and J. Zou, Nano Lett. 7 (2007) Electron. E77 (1994) 1420 921 [6] B. J. Ohlsson, M. T. Bjork, A. I. Persson, C. [20] H. J. Joyce, Q. Gao, H. H. Tan, C. Jagadish, Y. Kim, Thelander, L. R. Wallenberg, M. H. Magnusson, K. M. A. Fickenscher, S. Perera, T. B. Hoang, L. M. Smith, Deppert, and L. Samuelson, Physica E 13 (2002) 1126 H. E. Jackson, J. M. Yarrison-Rice, X. Zhang, and J. Zou, Nano Lett. 9 (2009) 695 [7] M. T. Bjork, B. J. Ohlsson, T. Sass, A. I. Persson, C. Thelander, M. H. Magnusson, K. Deppert, L. R. [21] P. Mohan, J. Motohisa, and T. Fukui, Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson, Nano Lett. 2 (2002) 87 Nanotechnology 16 (2005) 2903 [8] M. S. Gudiksen, L. J. Lauhon, J. Wang, D. C. Smith, [22] K. Ikejiri, J. Noborisaka, S. Hara, J. Motohisa, and and C. M. Lieber, Nature 415 (2002) 617 T. Fukui, J.Cryst. Growth 298 (2007) 616 [9] C. P. T. Svensson, W. Seifert, M. W. Larsson, L. R. [23] S. D. Hersee, X. Y. Sun, and X. Wang, Nano Lett. Wallenberg, J. Stangl, G. Bauer, and L. Samuelson, 6 (2006) 1808 Nanotechnology 16 (2005) 936 [24] T. Mårtensson, J. B. Wagner, E. Hilner, A. [10] A. I. Persson, M. T. Bjork, S. Jeppesen, J. B. Mikkelsen, C. Thelander, J. Stangl, B. J. Ohlsson, A. Wagner, L. R. Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson, Nano Gustafsson, E. Lundgren, L. Samuelson, and W. Seifert, Lett. 6 (2006) 403 Adv. Mater. 19 (2007) 1801 nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 135
- 137. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 3. Overview transport/optical properties region and mobilities are high. The electron mobility is of nanowires2 strongly reduced for sub-micron sized InAs structures [12, 14], because of the higher surface-to-bulk ratio. At the Nanometer-sized quasi 1-dimensional systems, such as same time, the total electron density will increase for semiconducting nanowires (NWs), are attractive building smaller thicknesses. blocks for bottom-up nanotechnology including optoelectronics [1, 2] and manipulation of isolated electron Indications of a surface accumulation layer in InAs spins [3, 4, 5]. Defect-free nanowire heterojunctions, both nanowires have been observed in [16], where smaller longitudinal [6] and radial [7, 8, 9], can be grown due to the nanowire diameters show an increase in total electron small nanowire radius, which allows strain from lattice density, consistent with the observations on accumulation mismatch to be relaxed radially outwards. layers in bulk InAs [12]. For InN nanowires, magneto- resistance measurements showed Altshuler - Aronov - Not only junctions between various different group III-V Spivak (AAS) oscillations, suggestive of shell-like or IV elements, but even group III-V/IV junctions were conduction through nanowires [17]. reported [10, 11]. InAs is an attractive material because its small bandgap results in a low effective electron mass, Conduction through InAs nanowires with typical diameters under 200 nm can be expected to be strongly giving rise to high bulk electron mobilities (at room influenced by the presence of a surface accumulation temperature 22 700 cm2/Vs [12] and at low temperature layer. The strong ionized impurity and surface roughness in planar structures over 600 000 cm2/Vs [13]). scattering in the surface accumulation layer could explain why InAs nanowires typically have low temperature For bulk InAs, it is well known that the surface contains mobilities of 1000-4000 cm2/Vs [15, 18, 19, 20]. There a large number of states that lie above the conduction have been two reports of InAs nanowires yielding band minimum and can contribute electrons to form a mobilities exceeding 16000 cm2/Vs [21, 22]. surface accumulation layer with a typical downward band bending between 0 and 0.26 eV [14]. Because of the large The surface band bending that causes the accumulation surface charge density, the Fermi level for InAs is pinned layer for InAs is a crystal surface property and the in the conduction band, which makes it easy to fabricate strength of the accumulation is known to be dependent ohmic contacts without a Schottky barrier. on the surface orientation and termination [14]. Reducing the depth of the band bending will result in a higher This InAs contact property enabled the observation of relative contribution from the inner electrons to the total the superconductivity proximity effect in nanowires [15]. conduction and an increase in electron mobility. A surface accumulation layer combined with the large surface to volume ratio for InAs nanowires could promise An alternative approach to increase electron mobility good sensitivity for InAs nanowire sensor applications. would be to reduce the scattering in the surface channel by reducing the surface roughness and the scattering on As a fraction of the surface states contributes electrons to surface states by surface passivation. Natural III-V oxides the accumulation layer, the InAs surface contains a large are soft, hygroscopic, compositionally and structurally number of ionized impurities. Electrons in the inhomogeneous [23,24]. accumulation layer therefore experience much stronger ionized impurity scattering than electrons in the inner We have extracted the electron mobility from the gate InAs region. Furthermore, because of the proximity to dependence of the current using a simulated nanowire the surface, surface roughness scattering is also strong. capacitance to the gate. Low temperature mobility has This means that electrons in the surface layer have a increased by a factor of 2-5 compared to bare InAs strongly reduced mobility compared to electrons in the nanowires [9]. We also have found among the highest inner material, typically μsurface ~ 4000 cm2/Vs [12, 14]. low temperature peak electron mobilities reported to this date, exceeding 25000 cm2/Vs. For microns thick planar structures of InAs, conduction is dominated by the electrons flowing through the inner 2 Val Zwiller, and L P Kouwenhoven, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands 136 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 138. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications To create active photonic elements, the first key step is to incorporate a single quantum dot in a nanowire [25]. Semiconductor quantum dots are well known sources of single [26, 27] and entangled photons [28, 29, 30] and are naturally integrated with modern semiconductor electronics. Incorporation in semiconducting nanowires brings additional unique features such as natural alignment of vertically stacked quantum dots to design quantum dot molecules and an inherent one- dimensional channel for charge carriers. Furthermore, the unprecedented material and design freedom makes them very attractive for novel opto-electronic devices and quantum information processing. Figure 1. (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of InAs/InP core/shell nanowires grown on an InP substrate. Inset shows a high angle annular diffraction TEM image of a representative InAs/InP core/shell nanowire. The wire dia- meter is roughly 20 nm and the shell thickness 7-10 nm. The schematic shows the bandgap alignment for InAs sandwit- ched between InP. (b) SEM image of a typical nanowire de- vice with Ti/Al contacts as used in our measurements. (c) Schematic of the bandgap bending of an InAs nanowire (a) and an InAs/InP core/shell nanowire. Figure 3. (a) Power dependence of the photoluminescence from a single quantum dot in a nanowire under continuous ex- citation at 532 nm. (b) Integrated power dependence of two narrow emission lines attributed to the exciton and biexciton. Samples grown by the Bakkers group. Access to intrinsic spin and polarization properties of a quantum dot in a nanowire is challenging because of the limited quality of nanowire quantum dots, partly because the quantum dot is located very close to the sample Figure 2. (a) Schematic of a Ti/Al contacted nanowire on a surface. Moreover, the nanowire geometry strongly heavily doped Si substrate with SiO2 dielectric. (b) Current affects the polarization of photons emitted or absorbed through the nanowire as a function of backgate voltage for by a nanowire quantum dot, and is thus an important several NW diameters. Such measurements are used to de- obstacle for applications based on intrinsic spin or termine the electron mobility. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 137
- 139. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications polarization properties of quantum dots such as electron The nanowire geometry is not the only source of spin memory or generation of entangled photons. It has polarization anisotropy. Calculations by Niquet and been shown that photoluminescence of homogeneous Mojica [31] show that the polarization properties are nanowires is highly linearly polarized with a polarization strongly affected by the aspect ratio of the quantum dot direction parallel to the nanowire elongation. dimensions, due to strain originating from the lattice mismatch between the nanowire and the quantum dot. However, in our case the strain is negligible due to the low phosphorus content and the main contribution to polarization anisotropy stems from the nanowire geometry. Standing nanowires enable the extraction of any polarization with equal probability. This enables the observation of Zeeman splitting, provided that the emission linewidth is narrow enough. In fig. 4a we show a magnetic field dependence of the exciton emission measured on a standing InP nanowire containing an InAsP quantum dot. The nanowire was grown by MOVPE using colloidal gold particles as catalysts by the Bakkers group. Polarization studies at 9 T show circular polarization (fig. 4b) and no linear polarization (fig 4a). One challenge is to obtain good ohmic contacts to the p Figure 4. (a) and (b) Polarization sensitive photolumines- doped side of a nanowire LED. In figure 5 the device- cence of a standing nanowire quantum dot at 9 T. The solid layout, the nanowire LED emission and the electrostatic (dashed) curve in (a) represents vertical (horizontal) linearly potential distribution along the device are shown. The polarized exciton emission, denoted by H (V). The solid (das- junction is readily visible by transmission electron hed) curve in (b) represents left- (right-) hand circularly po- microscopy, the modification in doping brings about a larized exciton emission. (b) PL of a standing nanowire quantum dot under external magnetic f ield. Magnetic f ield modification of the nanowire diameter. Electrostatic force is varied between 0 and 9 T in steps of 0.5 T. Sample grown measurements are shown on the right of Fig. 5, under a by the Bakkers group (Philips). reverse bias of 1.5 V, a prominent drop in potential is observed at the expected position of the pn junciton. In fig. 3a we show a typical excitation power dependence revealing a usual exciton-biexciton behavior and a p- shell at 30 meV higher energy. The inset shows the narrowest emission we have observed to date with a FWHM of 31 μeV, limited by our spectral resolution. The integrated photoluminescence intensities of the exciton and biexciton as a function of excitation power, represented in fig. 3b, show that the exciton (biexciton) increases linearly (quadratically) with excitation power and saturates at high excitation powers. This behaviour is typical for the exciton Figure 5. Single nanowire light emitting diode. Left: microscope image of the nanowire LED and biexciton under continuous without and with forward bias. Bottom left: TEM image of a pn junction in an InP nano- excitation. wire. Right: electrostatic force measurements under forward (top) and reverse (bottom) bias. 138 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 140. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications structures for nanoscale photonics and electronics. Nature, 415:617, 2002 [2] E. D. Minot, F. Kelkensberg, M. van Kouwen, J. A. van Dam, L. P. Kouwenhoven, V. Zwiller, M. T. Borgstrom, O. Wunnicke, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P. A. M. Bakkers. Single quantum dot nanowire LEDs. Appl. Phys. Lett., 7:367, 2007 [3] M. T. Bjork, A. Fuhrer, A. E. Hansen, M. W. Larsson, L. E. Froberg, and L. Samuelson. Tunable effective g factor in InAs nanowire quantum dots. Phys. Rev. B, 72:201307, 2005 [4] A. Pfund, I. Shorubalko, K. Ensslin, and R. Leturcq. Suppression of spin relaxation in an InAs nanowire double quantum dot. Phys. Rev. Lett., 99:036801, 2007 [5] F. A. Zwanenburg, C. E. W. M. van Rijmenam, Y. Fang, C. M. Lieber, and C. M. Kouwenhoven. Spin states in the _rst four holes in a silicon nanowire quantum dot. Nanoletters, 9:1071, 2009 [6] M. T. Bjork, C. Thelander, A. E. Hansen, L. E. Jensen, M. W. Larsson, L. Reine Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson. Few- electron quantum dots in nanowires. Nanoletters, 4:1621, 2004 Figure 6. Photocurrent measurement on a single nanowire. [7] W. Lu, J. Xiang, B. P. Timko, Y. Wu, and C.M. Lieber. Left: photocurrent as a function of applied bias. Right: pho- One-dimensional hole gas in germanium/silicon nanowire tocurrent as a function of laser polarization. heterostructures. PNAS, 102:10046, 2005 Under zero and 1.5 V forward bias, no potential drop is observed on the pn junction, this demonstrates the [8] H.-Y. Li, O. Wunnicke, M. T. Borgstrom, W. G. G. presence of a pn junction in the contacted nanowire and Immink, M. H. M. van Weert, M. A. Verheijen, and E. P. A. shows that the contacts are ohmic. An electrically M. Bakkers. Remote p-doping of InAs nanowires. contacted nanowire can also be used for Nanoletters, 7:1 144, 2007 photodetection, as shown in figure 6. Fig. 6 left shows the photocurrent intensity as a function of applied bias [9] X. Jiang, Q. Xiong, S. Nam, F. Qian, Y. Li, and C. M. in the dark and under illumination. Fig. 6 right shows Lieber. InAs/InP radial nanowire heterostructures as high the polarization dependence of the photocurrent for a mobility devices. Nanoletters, 7:3214, 2007 lying nanowire as a function of the laser linear polarization angle. The observed photocurrent [10] E. P. A. M. Bakkers, J. A. van Dam, S. de Franceschi, L. polarization is in agreement with the polarization ratio P. Kouwenhoven, M. Kaiser, M. Verheijen, H. Wondergem, measured by photoluminescence. and P. van der Sluis. Epitaxial growth of InP nanowires on germanium. Nature Materials, 3:769, 2004 References [1 T. M_artensson, C. P. T. Svensson, B. A. Wacaser, M. W. 1] Larsson, W. Seifert, K. Deppert, A. Gustafsson, L. R. [1] M. S. Gudiksen, L. J. Lauhon, J. Wang, D. C. Smith, Wallenberg, and L. Samuelson. Epitaxial III-V nanowires on and C. M. Lieber. Growth of nanowire superlattice silicon. Nanoletters, 4:1987, 2004 nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 139
- 141. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications [12] H. H. Wieder. Transport coe_cients of InAs [23] H. H. Wieder. Perspective on III-V-compound MIS epilayers. Appl. Phys. Lett., 25:206, 1974 structures. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 15:1498, 1978 [13] S. A. Chalmers, H. Kroemer, and A. C. Gossard. [24] D. B. Suyatin, C. Thelander, M. T. Bjork, I. The growth of (Al,Ga)Sb tilted superlattices and their Maximov, and L. Samuelson. Sulphur passivation for heteroepitaxy with inas to form corrugated-barrier ohmic contact formation to InAs nanowires. quantum wells. J. Crystal Growth, 111:647, 1991 Nanotechnology, 18:105307, 2007 [14] C. A_entauschegg and H. H. Wieder. Properties [25] Optically Bright Quantum Dots in Single Nanowires of InAs/InAlAs heterostructures. Semiconductor Borgstrom, M. T.; Zwiller, V.; Muller, E.; Imamoglu, Science and Technology, 16:708, 2001 A.Nano Lett.; (Letter); 2005; 5(7); 1439-1443 [15] Y.-J. Doh, J. A. van Dam, A. L. Roest, E. P. A. M. [26]A Quantum Dot Single-Photon Turnstile Device, P. Bakkers, L. P. Kouwenhoven, and S. De Franceschi. Michler, A. Kiraz, C. Becher, W. V. Schoenfeld, P. M. Tunable supercurrent through semiconductor Petroff, Lidong Zhang, E. Hu, A. Imamoglu, Science 22 nanowires. Science, 309:272, 2005 December 2000, 290, 2282 [16] S. A. Dayeh, E. T. Yu, and D. Wang. Transport coe_cients of InAs nanowires as a function of diameter. [27] Single quantum dots emit single photons at a time: Small, 5:77, 2009 Antibunching experiments Valery Zwiller, Hans Blom, Per Jonsson, Nikolay Panev, Soren Jeppesen, Tedros [17] T. Richter, C. Blomers, H. Luth, R. Calarco, M. Tsegaye, Edgard Goobar, Mats-Erik Pistol, Lars Indlekofer, M. Marso, and T. Schapers. Flux Samuelson, Gunnar Bjork, Appl. Phys. Lett 78, 2476 quantization e_ects in InN nanowires. Nanoletters, (2001) 8:2834, 2008 [28] Akopian, N., N. H. Lindner, et al. (2006). [18] T. Bryllert, L. E. Wernersson, L. E. Froberg, and L. "Entangled Photon Pairs from Semiconductor Quantum Samuelson. Vertical high-mobility wrap-gated InAs Dots." Physical Review Letters 96(13) nanowire transistor. IEEE Electron Device Letters, 27:323, 2006 [29] Young, R., M. Stevenson, et al. (2006). "Improved fidelity of triggered entangled photons from single [19] A. Pfund, I. Shorubalko, R. Leturcq, F. Borgstrom, quantum dots." New Journal of Physics 8(2): 29 M. Gramm, E. Muller, and K. Ensslin. Fabrication of semiconductor nanowires for electronic transport [30] Hafenbrak, R., S. M. Ulrich, et al. (2007). measurements. Chimia, 60:729, 2006 "Triggered polarization-entangled photon pairs from a single quantum dot up to 30K." New J. Phys. 9(9): 315 [20] Q. Hang, F. Wang, P. D. Carpenter, D. Zemlyanov, D. Zakharov, E. A. Stach, W. E. Buhro, and D. B. Janes. Role of molecular surface passivation in electrical [31] Niquet, Y. and D. Mojica (2008). "Quantum dots transport properties of InAs nanowires. Nanoletters, and tunnel barriers in InAs/InP nanowire 8:49, 2008 heterostructures: Electronic and optical properties." Physical Review B (Condensed Matter and Materials [21] A. C. Ford, J. C. Ho, Y. L. Chueh, Y. C. Tseng, Z. Fan, Physics) 77(11) J. Guo, J. Bokor, and A. Javey. Diameter dependent electron mobility of InAs nanowires. Nanoletters, 9:360, 2009 [22] S. A. Dayeh, C. Soci, P. K. L. Yu, E. Yu, and D. Wang. Transport properties of InAs nanowire field effect transistors: The effects of surface states. Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B, 25:1432, 2007 140 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 142. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 4. Nanowires for energy applications Several possibilities exist for the use of nanowires in the energy sector. This includes three categories: a) energy saving, b) energy harvesting, and c) energy storage. Within category a) we see two main research areas: lower power-consuming electronics and low-power illumination by solid-state lighting. Nanowire FETs are regarded as one of the emerging nanoelectronic devices [1]. Low-power memory cells (so-called tunneling SRAMs) have already been demonstrated [2] as well as low-power tunnel FETs [3]. Additionally,vertically wrap-gated InAs nanowire devices with subthreshold slope around 90 mV/dec have been Figure 1. Schematic of a nanowire array for solar cell application. realized [4]. Besides electronic devices with lower power consumption, the thrive goes towards solid-state lighting Hiruma at Hitachi [5]. First ten years later, similar devices for replacement of incandescent light bulbs and devices had been demonstrated in nitride nanowire fluorescent lamps. A number of groups are working to structures [6]. The fabrication of InP-InAsP nanowire realize this goal using nanowire structures. As early as LED structures where the electron-hole recombination 1994, light-emitting diode structures of GaAs nanowires is restricted to a quantum-dot-sized InAsP section has with pn-junctions had been reported by the group of K. also been reported making these devices promising Figure 2. Schematic of piezoelectric energy conversion with nanowires. nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 141
- 143. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications candidates for electrically driven quantum optics solar cell structures are conducted within the EU-project experiments [7]. AMON-RA [www.amonra.eu], where so far pn- junctions in InP nanowires have been demonstrated Arrays of nanowire light-emitting structures in the GaAs- [18]. Some effort is going on to realize thermoelectric InGaP were realized in cooperation between academic devices with nanowire structures, so far, mainly on a and industrial research in 2008 [8]. High brightness GaN theroretical level [19]. However, first experimental nanowire LEDs emitting in the UV-blue region have studies have been conducted [20]. An interesting been demonstrated [9] andnitride-based LED arrays approach is the conversion of mechanical energy in have recently been reported [10]. electricity using the piezoelectric properties of ZnO nanowires [21]. Three research areas can be identified within category b) energy harvesting: conversion of light, heat or For the last category where nanowires could be used in movement into electricity. For harvesting of light several the energy sector, energy storage, we are not aware of nanowire materials have been and are investigated. P. any ongoing research. Yangs group at Berkeley realized a dye-sensitized solar cell architecture in which the traditional nanoparticle References film is replaced by a dense array of oriented and crystalline ZnO nanowires [11]. [1] R. Chau et al., IEEE Trans. Nanoelectr. 4 (2005) 153 Using silicon, by a simple chemical etching [2] P. van der Wage et al., Electr. Dev. Meet. (1996) 425 techniquenanowire solar cell structures have been realized with poor performance [12] and p-i-n coaxial [3] J. Appenzeller et al., IEEE Trans Electron Dev. 55 (2008) 2827 silicon nanowire solar cells have been reported with a [4] C. Thelander et al., IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. 29 (2008) 206 conversion efficiency of 3.4% under illumination of one sun by the Lieber group from Harvard [13]. [5] K. Haraguchi et al., J. Appl. Phys. 75 (1994) 4220 Silicon wires embedded in a polymeric film with [6] F. Qian et al., Nano Lett. 5 (2005) 2287 potential to achieve high efficiency have recently been demonstrated [14]and even global players like General [7] E.D. Minot et al., Nano Lett. 7 (2007) 367 Electric Inc. show interest in silicon nanowire solar cells [8] C.P.T. Svensson et al., Nanotechn. 19 (2008) 305201 [15]. Solar cells have been realized with arrays of CdS nanowires grown on Al substrates and embedded in [9] S.K. Lee et al., Phil. Mag. 87 (2007) 2105 CdTe matrix showing a conversion efficiency of 6% [16]. [10] S.D. Hersee et al., Electron. Lett. 45 (2009) 75 Periodically aligned InP nanowires with pn-junctions [1 M. Law et al., Nature Mater. 4 (2005) 455s 1] have been reported with solar power conversion [12] K.Q. Peng et al., Small 1 (2005) 1062 efficiency of 3.4% [17]. Other efforts on III-V nanowire [13] B.Z. Tian et al., Nature 449 (2007) 885 [14] K.E. Plass et al., Adv. Mater. 21 (2009) 325 [1 L. Tsakalakos et al., Apll. Phys. Lett. 91 (2007) 2331 5] 17 [16] Z.Y. Fan et al., Nature Mater. 8 (2009) 648 [17] H. Goto et al., Appl. Phys. Express 2 (2009) 035004 [18] M.T. Borgström et al., Nanotechnol. 19 (2008) 445602 [19] J. Carrete et al., Phys. Rev. B 80 (2009) 155408 [20] A.I. Persson et al., Nanotechnol. 20 (2009) 225304 [21] Z.L. Wang and J. Song, Science 312 (2006) 242 Figure 3. Nanowire array with light-emitting structures. 142 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 144. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 5. Overview of nanowires for biology/ sensors and electrodes to investigate neuronal function medicine at high temporal and spatial resolution. Nanowires have a size scale that overlaps with Cellular force measurements using nanowire fundamental building blocks of cells. That makes them arrays particularly suitable for biological and medical applications. Here we list a few examples of promising Cellular mechanotransduction is a rapidly growing field applications in our field of interest. with recent studies showing that external and internal forces can alter cellular signaling and function [5, 6]. There Neural network on a chip are many ways to measure cellular forces in vitro. Optical tweezers and micropipettes are capable of probing Neural networks on a chip have many applications in picoNewton forces. While being very sensitive, these neuroscience. The ability to control the cell position and techniques can only measure forces at a few points the connections between cells can yield new knowledge simultaneously in a cell. With an elastic substrate cellular on interactions between neurons and is a crucial forces can be measured in an ensemble of cells [7]. This component in the development of next-generation method, as well as its derived method based on elastomer prostheses. Axonal guidance can be achieved using micro-pillar arrays can measure forces from nanoNewton chemical or topographical modifications on the surface [1, 2]. Parallel rows of nanowires have proven to provide an excellent way of controlling cell growth and guidance of regenerating axons [3]. The rows of wires act as fences, confining the axons. The small radii of the wires prevent the axons from climbing the nanowires as the growth cone always encounters the wires at a 90° angle in contrast to micro structured walls, where fibers can reach the top of the wall by climbing at an intermediate angle. Figure 1. Fluorescence microcopy image of a superior cervi- cal ganglion growing on a 1 x 1 mm2 area with rows of GaP nanowires. The axons are guided with high f idelity by the rows of nanowires. Figure 2. Cellular force measurements using nanowire arrays. (LEFT) Confocal fluorescence image of a growth cone on 40 To be able to independently address two populations of nm diameter 5 μm long nanowires. Scale bar 1 μm. (RIGHT) axons on a chip surface, the different populations must be Forces exerted on the nanowires highlighted in the left ima- fully separated. This can be achieved by a ratchet pattern ges. The forces range from 20 to 130 pN. consisting of short rows of nanowires that rectify the axonal outgrowth [4]. up to hundreds of nanoNewton [8, 9]. However, the Nanowires may thus provide a basis for advanced control spatial resolution of these methods is limited by the size of of neuronal growth on a chip, where a large range of the pillars and/or markers to 2 μm at the very best. functionalities can be implemented, including chemical Nanowires, on the other hand, with their high aspect ratio nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 143
- 145. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications and small diameter have a great potential for detecting the cytosol. Hollow nanowires connected to an external small forces with high spatial resolution, limited by the fluidics system avoid these limitations. By combining achievable density of the nanowires to about 1 μm. Using such nanowires with a microfluidic system for cell an array of 40 nm diameter and 5 μm long nanowires, capture, an array of individually addressed cells can be force measurement down to 20 pN has been created with potential applications in systems biology, demonstrated on growth cone lamelipodia [10], neurobiology, tissue engineering and stem cell consistent with data obtained using optical tweezers on differentiation. the same system [11]. The results show that nanowire arrays can be used as a sensitive force probe that has Nanowire-based biosensors the advantage of allowing simultaneous measurements with high probe density and high spatial resolution. Semi-conductor nanowire field effect transistors are a very sensitive tool for detection of biomolecules. The Hollow nanowires binding of analyte molecules to immobilized DNA or antibody probes may result in a change in the surface The controlled transfer of specific molecules into (and charge, thereby changing the nanowire conductance. out of) cells is a fundamental tool in cell biology. This method has been used successfully to detect single Electroporation is widely used in bulk and on single cells. viruses, cancer markers, and proteins [17-19]. However, it merely opens up a conduit for diffusional transport into or out of the cell. Microinjection have been Nanowire-based electrodes for neural interfaces developed to provide a more controlled and selective transport into single cells [12]. Large needles require very The development of neural interface is a rapidly growing slow movement of the needles to allow the adaptation of field. Standard neural electrodes have sizes in the the cytoskeleton [13, 14]. Decreasing the size of the micrometer range and their implantation triggers a strong inflammatory response that often makes it necessary to needle to the nanoscale minimizes any deleterious effect remove the electrode. It has been shown that carbon on the cell. Furthermore, arrays of needles can be nanotubes at the surface of neural electrodes improve defined on a flat substrate for massively parallel single- the electrical properties of the electrodes and elicit a cell experiments. One example involves the binding of lower tissue inflammatory response [20]. Carbon plasmid DNA to the nanoneedles and the subsequent nanotubes form a very strong seal with the neurons, impalfection of cells with a gfp-coding plasmid [15]. which is also expected to be the case using nanowires. Another example involves hollow nanowires that are Nanowire field effect transistor arrays have been used to filled with the molecule of interest and used similarly form nanoscale junctions with axons and dendrites of [16]. In both cases the wires are preloaded and used neurons cultured on the array. The nanowire transistors only once and furthermore rely on passive release in Figure 3. Hollow nanowires for molecular transport. (LEFT) Initially GaAs/Al2O3 core/shell nanowires are grown. Subse- quently the GaAs core is etched resulting in a hollow Al2O3 nanowire. (CENTER) Schematic of a cell impaled by a na- nowire with molecules diffusing from the bottom reservoir. (RIGHT) Macrophages expressing GFP on a surface. Where the hollow nanowires establish a connection across the de- vice, membrane impermeable propidium is injected by dif- Figure 4. Scanning electron micrograph of nanowire-based fusion into the cells. electrodes. 144 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 146. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications could stimulate and inhibit neuronal signals, as well as [10] Hallstrom, W., et al., Twenty-picoNewton force measuring their amplitude and firing rate [21]. detection from neural growth cones using nanowire arrays. It has been shown that neurons can grow and thrive on under review in Nano Letters vertical nanowire substrates [15, 22]. The cell survival was higher on nanowire substrates compared to controls [1 Cojoc, D., et al., Properties of the force exerted by 1] (growth on flat surfaces) despite the fact that the cells filopodia and lamellipodia and the involvement of cytoskeletal were penetrated by the nanowires. This suggests that components. PLoS One, 2007. 2(10): p. e1072 nanowire-based electrodes will form tighter junctions with the neurons and therefore will record or stimulate more [12] Zhang, Y. and L.C. Yu, Single-cell microinjection efficiently. In this context, new electrodes consisting of technology in cell biology. Bioessays, 2008. 30(6): p. 606-610 vertical nanowires on the surface of a microelectrode are [13] Thielecke, H., Impidjati, and G.R. Fuhr, Biopsy on living being developed for brain implantation purposes. Such cells by ultra slow instrument movement. Journal of Physics- nano-electrodes could communicate with multiple Condensed Matter, 2006. 18(18): p. S627-S637 individual neurons in the brain on a long-term basis. The possible applications are diverse, ranging from [14] Thielecke, H., I.H. Zimmermann, and G.R. Fuhr, Gentle fundamental studies of mechanisms of learning to cell handling with an ultra-slow instrument: creep- therapeutic treatment of Parkinson's disease. manipulation of cells. Microsystem Technologies-Micro-and Nanosystems-Information Storage and Processing Systems, References 2005. 1 1): p. 1230-1241 1(1 [1] Flemming, R.G., et al., Effects of synthetic micro- and nano- [1 Kim, W., et al., Interfacing silicon nanowires with 5] structured surfaces on cell behavior. Biomaterials, 1999. 20(6): mammalian cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society, p. 573-588 2007. 129(23): p. 7228-+ [2] Wyart, C., et al., Constrained synaptic connectivity in [16] Park, S., et al., Carbon Nanosyringe Array as a Platform functional mammalian neuronal networks grown on patterned for Intracellular Delivery. Nano Letters, 2009. 9(4): p. 1325- surfaces. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2002. 117(2): p. 1329 123-131 [17] Patolsky, F., et al., Electrical detection of single viruses. [3] Prinz, C., et al., Axonal guidance on patterned free-standing Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the nanowire surfaces. Nanotechnology, 2008. 19(34): p. - United States of America, 2004. 101(39): p. 14017-14022 [4] Hallstrom, W., et al., Rectifying and sorting of regenerating [18] Patolsky, F., G.F. Zheng, and C.M. Lieber, Nanowire- axons by free-standing nanowire patterns: a highway for nerve based biosensors. Analytical Chemistry, 2006. 78(13): p. fibers. Langmuir, 2009. 25(8): p. 4343-6 4260-4269 [5] Chen, C.S., Mechanotransduction - a field pulling together? [19] Wang, W.U., et al., Label-free detection of small- J Cell Sci, 2008. 121(Pt 20): p. 3285-92 molecule-protein interactions by using nanowire nanosensors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the [6] Discher, D.E., P. Janmey, and Y.L. Wang, Tissue cells feel and United States of America, 2005. 102(9): p. 3208-3212 respond to the stiffness of their substrate. Science, 2005. 310(5751): p. 1139-43 [20] Keefer, E.W., et al., Carbon nanotube coating improves neuronal recordings. Nat Nanotechnol, 2008. 3(7): p. 434- [7] Harris, A.K., P. Wild, and D. Stopak, Silicone-Rubber 439 Substrata - New Wrinkle in the Study of Cell Locomotion. Science, 1980. 208(4440): p. 177-179 [21] Patolsky, F., et al., Detection, stimulation, and inhibition of neuronal signals with high-density nanowire transistor [8] Du Roure, O., et al., Force mapping in epithelial cell arrays. Science, 2006. 313(5790): p. 1 100-1 104 migration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2005. 102(7): p. 2390-5 [22] Hallstrom, W., et al., Gallium phosphide nanowires as a [9] Tan, J.L., et al., Cells lying on a bed of microneedles: an substrate for cultured neurons. Nano Letters, 2007. 7(10): approach to isolate mechanical force. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, p. 2960-2965 2003. 100(4): p. 1484-9 nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 145
- 147. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Annex 1 overview of the field and pointed out the challenges that a new technology has to face to compete with CMOS. 1. Report from the NODE workshop on He also stressed the value of not limiting the assessment nanowire electronics of what nanowires can bring to only ICs, but also to focus on the ”More than Moore” opportunities offered. During the days September 23-24, 2009, was organized In this session, the state-of-the-art as has been reached in Lund the ”NODE Workshop on Nanowire in NODE was reported by Philippe Vereecken from Electronics” which was both a dissemination event of the IMEC Leuven. four years of the Integrated Project NODE (”Nanowire- based One-Dimensional Electronics”), and an The concluding session was based on a panel discussion opportunity for this research field to obtain sharp feed- with contributions from Lars Tilly (Ericsson Research), back from a set of highly knowledgeable invited key-note Wilfried Hänsch (IBM), Hugo De Man (IMEC) and speakers. Matthias Passlack (TSMC), and was introduced and moderated by Lars-Erik Wernersson from Lund. Many The focus was on four key issues for the field: one different topics were covered, including the pull from session on ”Wrap-gate Transistors”, for which we were systems industry, like mobile phone applications, the pleased to have as external key-note speakers Wilfried issues of integration of a new technology with main- Hänsch from IBM Yorktown Heights, talking primarily stream silicon technology, and comparisons between the about planar wrap-gate transistors and circuits, and situation for this field of R&D in Europe in a comparison Matthias Passlack from TSMC-Europe in Leuven, talking with the USA, where quite different traditions and primarily about comparisons between traditional CMOS conditions lead to a more optimal development of the and the opportunities from integration of III-V wrap-gate field. transistors with silicon technology. Added to these presentations where two reports from the NODE • Hugo De Man: ”As a conclusion I propose that, if research, by Claes Thelander from Lund and Mikael we want to investigate nanowire TFETs as a possible Björk from IBM Zurich. low power device after ultimately scaled CMOS, a multidisciplinary project on Systemability of future In the second focused sesson, on ”Ultra-low Power technologies should be launched where process, Devices” the key-note presentation was given by Joachim physics team up with circuit and system people. Knoch from TU Dortmund, talking primarily on the Otherwise we get stuck in the famous ‘European potential of Tunnel FETs for ultra-low power applications, Research Paradox’ where we complain about the fact with a special focus on what can be achieved in terms of that excellent research does not lead to true ultra-steep sub-threshold slopes. Two internal NODE innovation i.e. its translation of it in industrially presentation were also made here, by Anne Verhulst at relevant results.” - - - ” Finally perhaps a bit too much IMEC Leuven and Heike Riel from IBM Zurich. focus is on nanowires as a successor for CMOS logic or RF circuits. As was noted by TSMC there is also In the third focused session, we looked at opportunities the trend towards More than Moore technologies that for ”Other Nanowire Applications”, which primarily in will play a dominant role in the world of Ambient the program meant applications for Memories and RF- Intelligence by complementing the intelligent CMOS applications. The external key-note speaker, Thomas part with nomadic communication and nanotech Mickolajick from Freiberg University focused on Memory interfaces to the living and non-living world. Thereby applications and how nanowire technology can come to novel functionality such as sensors, actuators, optical contribute to this development. From the NODE interfaces, resonators etc. is needed. Nanowires can research was reported by Walter Weber from the provide novel solutions in this field.” Namlab in Dresden and by Erik Lind from QuMat Technology. • Matthias Passlack: ”Feature size scaling which has been driving CMOS throughout the last decades will In the fourth of the focused sessions, on ”Integration increasingly be complemented by other advance- Issues”, Hugo De Man from IMEC, Leuven gave an ments on the device and system level. 146 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 148. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Transistor trends include use of high-k dielectrics, Anna Fontcuberta y Morral multi- and wrap around gate architectures, strained Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, layers, heterostructures, and new channel materials. Switzerland III-V semiconductors with their high carrier (electron) Lutz Geelhaar mobility, direct bandgap functionality, and flexibility Paul-Drude-Institut für Festkörperelektronik, Berlin, for heterostructure design have recently garnered Germany increasing attention. The III-V nanowire appears to Jean-Christophe Harmand be a universal vehicle addressing many of the above Lab. de Photonique et de Nanostructures, CNRS, aspects including high electron mobility channel, Marcoussis, France wrap around gate, direct bandgap, and Stephen D. Hersee heterostructure design. Moreover, nanowires provide University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, USA new avenues for high crystal quality in highly lattice- Michael Heuken mismatched systems such as III-V semiconductors on Aixtron, Aachen, Germany silicon substrate. For example, III-V nanowires could Kenji Hiruma be the efficiency RF components and light emission Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan devices monolithically integrated on a silicon Faustino Martelli substrate.” IMM-CNR, Roma, Italy Werner Prost Universität Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany 2. Report on the Nanowire Growth Workshop Helge Weman 2009 (NWG2009) Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology, Tronheim, Norway Introduction Margit Zacharias Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany NWG2009 (Paris, 26-27 october 2009: http://sites.google.com/site/nwg42009/) was the 4th NWG2009 organizing committee edition of an international meeting highly focused on semiconductor nanowire growth. The workshop was Jean-Christophe Harmand CNRS-LPN, first held in Lund (2006 and 2007) and then in Duisburg Marcoussis, France (2008). This year, the workshop was organized in Paris Frank Glas CNRS-LPN, and lasted two days. It brought together 116 researchers Marcoussis, France from 19 countries. Véronique Thierry-Mieg CNRS-LPN, The workshop program comprised six invited talks, 19 Marcoussis, France orals and 48 poster presentations. This sizable and active participation indicates that many issues are still to Keywords be addressed to improve the control of nanowire growth, which is much more complex than two- Nanowires; Crystal growth; Elementary dimensional layer growth. In return, the researchers semiconductors; Compound semiconductors; III-V on Si expect much more flexibility to fabricate original nano- Cristalline structure; Catalyst; Structural properties; objects which will allow investigating the physics of Crystal defects; Morphology; Surface energies; Doping, one-dimensional systems or designing new devices with p-n junctions; Growth modeling; Self-assembling improved performances. Program of NWG2009 Steering committee of Nanowire Growth Workshop Invited speakers Eric Bakkers S. Kodambaka, Department of Materials Science and Philips Research Laboratory, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Knut Deppert Angeles, USA Solid State Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 147
- 149. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Growth of silicon nanowires using AuAl alloy Defect free InP NWs on SrTiO3 substrates catalysts grown by VLS-assisted molecular beam epitaxy T. Gotschke, Institute of Bio- and Nanosystems, V. Schmidt, Max-Planck-Institut für Mikrostrukturphysik, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany Halle, Germany Doping effects of MBE-grown InN NWs by Aspects of silicon nanowires growth means of Si and Mg K. Kishino, Department of Engineering and Applied M. Knelangen, Paul-Drude-Institut für Sciences, Sophia Nanotechnology Research Center, Festkörperelektronik, Berlin, Germany Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan Strain relaxation and nucleation mechanisms Blue to red emission InGaN-based of self-induced GaN nanowires nanocolumns and related technology E. Bellet-Amalric, Nanophysics and Semiconductors R. R. LaPierre, Centre for Emerging Device Group, INAC and Institut Néel, Grenoble, France Technologies, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada Insertion of CdSe quantum dots in ZnSe Fundamental issues in MBE-grown nanowires Nanowires: MBE growth and microstructure for device applications analysis M. Galicka, Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of A. Hayashida, Research Center for Integrated Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Quantum Electronics, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, III-V nanowires of wurtzite structure Japan Fabrication of a GaAs quantum well embedded in AlGaAs/GaAs hetero-structure P. Caroff, Institut d’Electronique, de Microélectronique, nanowires by selective-are MOVPE et de Nanotechnologie, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France Tuning crystal structure in III-V nanowires M. T. Borgström, Solid State Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Oral contributions Decoupled axial and radial nanowire growth by in-situ etching F. Li, Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom V. G. Dubrovskii, St.-Petersburg Physics and Doping-dependent nanofaceting on silicon Technology Centre for Research and Education, Russian nanowire surfaces Academy of Sciences, St.-Petersburg, Russia Self-consistent theory of nanowire growth and T. Xu, Institut d’Electronique, de Microélectronique et crystal structure de Nanotechnologie, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France Atomic scale structure of <111>-oriented Si J. Johansson, Solid State Physics, Lund University, nanowire Lund, Sweden Wurtzite—zinc blende transition in InAs N. J. Quitoriano, Mining and Materials Engineering nanowires Department, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Engineering Si and Ge nanowire growth direction B. Mandl, Institute for Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, University Linz, Austria I. Zardo, Walter Schottky Institut, Technische Time dependence of Au-free InAs nanowire Universität München, Garching, Germany growth Silicon nanowires growth using gallium and indium as catalysts R. E. Algra, Materials Innovation Institute, Delft, The Netherlands K. Naji, Institut des Nanosciences de Lyon, Ecole Correlated twins in nanowires Centrale de Lyon, Ecully, France 148 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 150. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications H. Shtrikman, Braun Center for Submicron Research, An interesting influence of the proximity of oxides on Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel nanowire growth has been demonstrated. N. J. High quality InAs nanowires grown by VLS Quitoriano (Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, Palo Alto, assisted MBE USA) showed that nanowire growth can be guided by the SiOx surface of pre-patterned silicon-on-insulator H. J. Joyce, Department of Electronic Materials (SOI) substrates. The Si or Ge NWs grow along <111> Engineering, Australian National University, Canberra, directions until they get in contact with the SiO surface Australia where they pursue their growth along <110> directions, Optimising GaAs and other III—V nanowires parallel and in contact with this surface. This guided growth suddenly kinks if the contact with SiOx ceases. E. Gil, Laboratoire des Sciences et Matériaux pour Growth of InP nanowires along <001> has also been l’Electronique et d’Automatique, Université Blaise shown to be possible if initiated on a SrTiO3 epitaxial Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France layer deposited on Si (001) (K. Naji, Université de Rodlike GaAs nanowires with exceptional Lyon/ECL, Ecully, France). length T. Xu (IEMN, Lille, France) reported scanning tunneling Summary and highlights of the workshop microscopy investigations performed on Si nanowire sidewalls. The sawtooth side facets systematically show NWG2009 was the 4th edition of an international Au-induced reconstructions, Au being the catalyst meeting highly focused on semiconductor nanowire material. growth. The workshop was first held in Lund (2006 and 2007) and then in Duisburg (2008). This year, the Impressive realization of organized arrays of InGaN- workshop was organized in Paris and lasted two days. It based nanocolumns obtained by selective area growth brought together 116 researchers from 19 countries. on masked surfaces has been achieved by K. Kishino’s group (Sophia Nanotechnology Research center, Tokyo, The workshop program comprised six invited talks, 19 Japan). Development of light emitting diodes fabricated orals and 48 poster presentations. This sizable and from these nanocolumns is going on rapidly. active participation indicates that many issues are still to be addressed to improve the control of nanowire M. T. Borgstrom (Lund University, Sweden) has shown growth, which is much more complex than two- that using HCl gas during the vapor phase epitaxy of dimensional layer growth. In return, the researchers InP nanowires helps to decouple axial and radial growth. expect much more flexibility to fabricate original nano- A very selective axial growth has been demonstrated. objects which will allow investigating the physics of It was clearly established that attempts to dope one-dimensional systems or designing new devices with nanowires often result in unexpected effects on the improved performances. morphology: faceting of the sidewalls for B-doped Si nanowires (F. Li, University of Oxford, UK); increase of Gold remains the most popular catalyst used to assist volume and density for Mg—doped InN nanowires (T. semiconductor nanowire formation. Alternative metals Gotschke, Research Center Jülich, Germany). have been presented which can modify the growth kinetics, the nanowire morphologies and their structure. Many presentations focused on the possibility to control In particular, catalyzing Si/Ge nanowire growth with the nanowire crystal phase (wurtzite or zinc blende) in (Au,Al) alloy particles tends to favour the vapour-solid- compounds semiconductors, , or at least to obtain solid (VSS) mode, which produces sharper interfaces in stacking fault-free nanowires. These studies have Si/Ge heterostructures (S. Kodambaka, University of identified, both experimentally and theoretically, specific California, Los Angeles, USA). An overview of the conditions meeting such objectives, but it appears that expected growth mode - vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) or a perfect control remains very challenging. In InAs VSS - for a large panel of metallic catalysts has been nanowires, crystal phase transition from wurtzite to zinc presented by V. Schmidt (Max-Planck-Institute für blende was observed above a critical diameter ( 100 Mikrostrukturphysik, Halle, Germany). nm) which depends on growth temperature (J. Johansson, Lund University, Sweden). Slower growth nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 149
- 151. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications rates were shown to be favorable to stabilize the pure • Chinese Acad Sci, Inst Phys, Beijing wurtzite structure (H. Shtrikman, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel). It was predicted (and also observed) • Tsing Hua Univ, Dept Phys, Beijing that zinc blende can be obtained not only at very low • Univ Sci & Technol China, Struct Res Lab, Anhua supersaturation, but also at very high supersaturation (V. Dubrovskii, St Petersburg Physics and Technology • City Univ Hong Kong, COSDAF, Hong Kong Centre RAS, Russia). Alternatively, the control of South Corea periodic arrays of twin boundaries in single-phase has been achieved (R. Algra, Materials Innovation Institute, • Pohang Univ Sci & Technol, Dept Mat Sci & Technol, Delft, The Netherlands). The workshop ended with an Pohang, South Korea original presentation by E. Gil (LASMEA, Clermont- • Korea Adv Inst Sci & Technol, Dept Chem, Taejon, Ferrand, France) reporting exceptional GaAs nanowire South Korea growth rates elaborated by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (40 μm length in 15 min) with long segments (tens of • Chonbuk Natl Univ, Semicond Phys Res Ctr, Chonju, μm) of pure and twin-free cubic structure. South Korea Japan Conclusion • Natl Inst Mat Sci, Adv Mat Lab, Tsukuba, Ibaraki In conclusion, the NWG2009 workshop has provided a • Tohoku Univ, Grad Sch Sci, Dept Phys, Sendai, Miyagi forum for presenting the most recent advances on nanowire growth mechanisms, contributing actively to • Hokkaido Univ, RCIQE, Sapporo, Hokkaido the progress of this challenging topic. Since many • Osaka Univ, Grad Sch Sci, Dept Phys, Osaka nanowire growth issues are still very topical, the NWG workshop has to be maintained. The steering • Kyoto Univ, Inst Adv Energy, Uji, Kyoto committee has decided that it should continue with a • Sophia Univ, Dept Elect & Elect Engn, Tokyo similar format (number of participants limited to about 150 people, about 2 days duration) in 2010. The topics • Hitachi Ltd, Cent Res Lab, Kokubunji, Tokyo of NWG2010 should keep highly focused on nanowire USA growth in order to avoid overlapping with other conferences (ICON, MRS meetings, MBE or MOCVD • Univ Calif Berkeley, Berkeley, USA conferences …), where the applications of nanowires • Harvard Univ, Cambridge, USA can be presented and discussed in more details. • Univ Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA Acknowledgements • Univ Texas, USA The NWG2009 organization has been sponsored by the • IBM Corp, Div Res, TJ Watson Res Ctr, Yorktown Hts French GdR “Nanofils et Nanotubes Semiconducteurs”, • Georgia Inst Technol, Sch Mat Sci & Engn, Atlanta the Centre de compétence NanoSciences Ile-de-France, EU Riber SA, and the European Nano-ICT coordination action. Their substantial support is acknowledged. • Lund Univ, Solid State Phys Nanometer Consortium, S-22100 Lund, Sweden List of relevant research teams in the field of • Max Planck Inst Microstruct Phys, D-06120 Halle, semiconductor nanowires Germany China • Univ Politecn Madrid, ETSI Telecomunicac, Dept Ingn Elect, E-28040 Madrid, Spain • Peking Univ, Dept Phys, Beijing • CNRS, France • Hong Kong Univ Sci & Technol, Inst Nano Sci & Technol, Hong Kong • Russian Acad Sci, AF Ioffe Phys Tech Inst, St Petersburg 194021, Russia 150 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 152. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications • Philips Res Labs, Eindhoven, Netherlands Annex 1I • Paul-Drude-Institut für Festkörperelektronik, Berlin 1. NODE project objectives and main • Univ Cambridge, Dept Mat Sci & Met, Cambridge, achievements England Overview of the general project objectives • CNR, INFM, Lab Tasc, Trieste, Italy • CEA Grenoble, France Materials growth and processing technologies of semiconductor nanowire devices were developed and • Ecole Polytech Fed Lausanne, Inst Mat, Lausanne, evaluated for their possible impact as key add-on Switzerland technologies to standard semiconductor fabrication. The • Institute for Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, goal was also to reach a deepened understanding of the University Linz physics of one-dimensional semiconductor materials and nanowire-based devices, and to develop new functionalities not found in traditional higher- Potential applications of nanowires dimensional device structures. Semiconductor families, applications, and industrial actors NODE studied in detail a set of key device families based Popularity of semiconductor families in nanowire on semiconductor nanowires, such as tunneling devices, research and field-effect transistors, as well as explored unique opportunities that may be offered by nanowires in areas 33 % ZnO for storage applications. NODE also made a dedicated 28 % Si, SiGe, SiC effort to evaluate the potential for integration of 17 % III-Vs (excluding nitrides) nanowire-specific processing methods and to assess the 12 % II-VI (excluding ZnO) compatibility with requirements from conventional 10 % GaN and other nitrides semiconductor processing, as well as evaluate novel architectural device concepts and their implementation Fields of nanowire applications scenarios. More specifically the main objectives of NODE were: The potential applications which are the most investigated today are: • To build and evaluate electronic devices based on semiconductor nanowires: •Nano-electronics (transistors, spintronics) > NW-based transistors with increased frequency •Light emitting devices (LEDs lasers), photodetector response and decreased power consumption •Photovoltaics •Field emission > Nanowire logic elements •Biological and chemical sensors > Explore potential for novel device designs using •NEMS and MEMS nanowires Main industrial companies involved in the development • To assess nanowire growth and related of nanowire-based products: nanostructuring in terms of up-scalability and Si- integration potential •Samsung •Hewlett Packard •Nanosys Inc Achievements •Philips •IBM The research in NODE in many cases represented the •Sharp state-of-the art in its field. The NODE partners are •Qunano AB currently in the research forefront in areas such as (i) understanding of nanowire growth mechanisms, (ii) nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 151
- 153. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications control of nanowire growth and nanowire doping (iii) 2. “On the formation of Si nanowires by molecular characterization of the structural properties of beam epitaxy” P. Werner et al., Int. J. Mat. Res. 97, nanowires (iv) processing of vertical nanowires 1008 (2006) structures (v) device research and development along the two tracks: InAs nanowire wrap-gate FETs and Si 3. “Supercurrent reversal in quantum dots” J. A. van nanowire tunnel FETs, using both etched (fully-CMOS Dam et al., Nature 442, 667 (2006) compatible) and bottom-up grown nanowires. 4. “Electronic and optical properties of InAs/GaAs Since the project included partners with strong nanowire superlattices” Y.M. Niquet, Phys. Rev. B 74, background in research related to CMOS-integration, 155304 (2006) NODE had a strong focus on finding CMOS-compatible growth methods and processing conditions. Important 5. “Nanowire-based one dimensional electronics” C. sub-projects have therefore been to develop growth Thelander et al., MATERIALS TODAY 9, 28 (2006) methods where gold is not required, and catalyst-free techniques have been developed for both InAs- and Si- 6. “Position-controlled interconnected InAs nanowire nanowires, and Al, Pd, Ag seeding of Si nanowires has networks” Dick KA, Deppert K, Karlsson LS, et al. been demonstrated. A particular effort was also made NANO LETTERS 6, 2842 (2006) on investigating the effect of gold on Si nanowires during growth and processing. 7. “Optimization of Au-assisted InAs nanowires grown by MOVPE” Dick KA, Deppert K, Samuelson L, et al. Design, fabrication and characterization of the first JOURNAL OF CRYSTAL GROWTH 297, 326 (2006) reported vertical RF-compatible nanowire transistors were carried out, demonstrated with InAs wrap-gate 8. “Phase segregation in AllnP shells on GaAs nanowires” Skold N, Wagner JB, Karlsson G, et al. nanowires. Steep slope devices based on Si-nanowires NANO LETTERS 6, 2743 (2006) were implemented, where also the first functional Si nanowire tunnel-FETs processed on 200mm wafers on 9. “Nanowire-based multiple quantum dot memory” a CMOS platform were demonstrated. Finally, multi- Nilsson HA, Thelander C, Froberg LE, et al. APPLIED gated Si nanowire Schottky barrier FETs were realized, PHYSICS LETTERS 89, 163101 (2006) where an inverter function was demonstrated. 10. “Improved subthreshold slope in an InAs nanowire The NODE project has had a very high output in heterostructure field-effect transistor” Lind E, Persson publications, and in total over 100 articles has been AI, Samuelson L, et al. NANO LETTERS 6, 1842 (2006) published at the end of the project. This clearly shows that considerable progress was made in the project and 11. “Surface diffusion effects on growth of nanowires by that the research was competitive on an international chemical beam epitaxy”Persson AI, Fröberg LE, level. The NODE partners have applied for at least 48 Jeppesen S, et al. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS patents related to nanowire research and development, 101, 1 (2007) not including patent applications submitted within the last 18 months that are not yet publicly posted. 12. “The morphology of axial and branched nanowire heterostructures” Dick KA, Kodambaka S, Reuter MC, 2. NODE papers published in refereed journals et al. NANO LETTERS 7, 1817 (2007) Publications 1—94 are already published, 95—96 are 13. “Sulfur passivation for ohmic contact formation to accepted for publication, and 97—103 are submitted to InAs nanowires” Suyatin DB, Thelander C, Bjork MT, refereed journals. et al. NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 105307 (2007) 1. “Structural properties of <111> B-oriented III—V 14. “The structure of <111> B oriented GaP nanowires” nanowires” J. Johansson et al., Nature Materials 5, 574 Johansson J, Karlsson LS, Svensson CPT, et al. (2006) JOURNAL OF CRYSTAL GROWTH 298, 635 (2007) 152 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 154. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 15. “Strain mapping in free-standing heterostructured Schmid H, et al. APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 90, wurtzite InAs/InP nanowires” Larsson MW, Wagner 142110 (2007) JB, Wallin M, et al. NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 015504 (2007) 27. “Alternative Catalysts For Si-Technology Compatible Growth Of Si Nanowires” Iacopi F, Vereecken PM, 16. “Height-controlled nanowire branches on nanotrees Schaekers M, et al. MATER. RES. SOC. SYMP. PROC. using a polymer mask” Dick KA, Deppert K, Larsson 1017, (2007) MW, et al. NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 035601 (2007) 28. “Axial and radial growth of Ni-induced GaN 17. “Directed growth of branched nanowire structures” nanowires” L. Geelhaar, C. Chèze, W.M. Weber, et al. Dick KA, Deppert K, Karlsson LS et al. MRS BULLETIN Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 093113 (2007) 32, 127 (2007) 29. “Effects of a shell on the electronic properties of 18. “Electrospraying of colloidal nanoparticles for nanowire superlattices”Niquet YM. Nano Letters 7, seeding of nanostructure growth” Böttger PHM, Bi ZX, 1105 (2007) D. Adolph D, et al. NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 105304 (2007) 30. “Ionization energy of donor and acceptor impurities in semiconductor nanowires: Importance of dielectric 19. “Epitaxial Growth of III—V Nanowires on Group IV confinement” Diarra M, Niquet YM, Delerue C, et al. Substrates” Bakkers EPAM, Borgström MT, and PHYS. REV. B 75, 045301 (2007) Verheijen MA. MRS BULLETIN 32, 117 (2007) 31. “Electronic and optical properties of InAs/GaAs 20. “Remote p-Doping of InAs Nanowires” Li HY, nanowire superlattices” Niquet YM. PHYS. REV. B 74, Wunnicke O, Borgstrom MT, et al. NANO LETTERS 7, 155304 (2006) 1144 (2007) 32. “Electronic properties of InAs/GaAs nanowire 21. “Single Quantum Dot Nanowire LEDs” Minot ED, superlattices” Niquet YM. PHYSICA E 37, 204 (2007) Kelkensberg F, van Kouwen M, et al. NANO LETTERS 7, 367 (2007) 33. “Breakdown Enhancement in Silicon Nanowire p-n Junctions” Agarwal P, Vijayaraghavan MN, Neuilly F, et 22. “Growth of Si whiskers by MBE: Mechanism and al. Nano Letters 7, 896 (2007) peculiarities” Zakharov N, Werner P, Sokolov L, et al. PHYSICA E 37, 148 (2007) 34. "Time resolved microphotoluminescence studies of single InP nanowires grown by low pressure metal 23. “Elastic strain relaxation in axial Si/Ge whisker organic chemical vapor deposition" S. Reitzenstein, S. heterostructures” Hanke M, Eisenschmidt C, Werner P, Münch, C. Hofmann, et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 091103 et al. PHYSICAL REVIEW B 75, 161303 (2007) (2007) 24. “Diameter dependence of the growth velocity of 35. “Epitaxial growth of indium arsenide nanowires on silicon nanowires synthesized via the vapor-liquid-solid silicon using nucleation templates formed by self- mechanism” Schmidt V, Senz S, and Gösele U. assembled organic coatings” Martensson T, Wagner JB, PHYSICAL REVIEW B 75, 045335 (2007) Hilner E, et al. ADVANCED MATERIALS 19, 1801 (2007) 25. “Fully depleted nanowire field-effect transistor in inversion mode” Hayden O, Bjork MT, Schmid H, et al. 36. “Plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition SMALL 3, 230 (2007) growth of Si nanowires with low melting point metal catalysts: an effective alternative to Au-mediated 26. “Vertical surround-gated silicon nanowire impact growth”, Iacopi F, Vereecken PM, Schaekers M, et al. ionization field-effect transistors” Bjork MT, Hayden O, NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 505307 (2007) nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 153
- 155. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 37. “Gold-enhanced oxidation of silicon nanowires”, 48. “High-quality InAs/InSb nanowire heterostructures Werner P, Buttner C, Schubert L, et al. grown by metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy”, Caroff P, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATERIALS Wagner JB, Dick KA, et al. SMALL 4, 878 (2008) RESEARCH 98, 1066 (2007) 49. “GaAs/GaSb nanowire heterostructures grown by 38. “Height-controlled nanowire branches on nanotrees MOVPE”, Jeppsson M, Dick KA, Wagner JB, et al. using polymer masks”, Dick KA, Deppert K, Seifert W, JOURNAL OF CRYSTAL GROWTH 310, 4115 (2008) et al. NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 035601 (2007) 50. “Drive current and threshold voltage control in 39. “Locating nanowire heterostructures by electron vertical InAs wrap-gate transistors”, Rehnstedt C, beam induced current” Gustafsson A, Björk MT, Thelander C, Fröberg LE, et al. ELECTRONIC LETTERS Samuelson L, NANOTECHNOLOGY 18, 205306 44, 236 (2008) (2007) 51. “Vertical Enhancement-Mode InAs Nanowire Field- 40. “Synergetic nanowire growth”, Borgstrom MT, Effect Transistor With 50-nm Wrap Gate”, Thelander Immink G, Ketelaars B, et al. NATURE C, Fröberg LE, Rehnstedt C, et al. IEEE ELECTRON NANOTECHNOLOGY 2, 541 (2007) DEVICE LETTERS 29, 206 (2008) 41. “Scanned probe imaging of quantum dots inside 52. “Heterostructure Barriers in Wrap Gated Nanowire InAs nanowires”, Bleszynski AC, Zwanenburg FA, FETs”, Fröberg LE, Rehnstedt C, Thelander C, et al. IEEE Westervelt RM, et al. NANO LETTERS 7, 2559 (2007) ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS 29, 981 (2008) 42. “Silicon to nickel-silicide axial nanowire 53. “InAs nanowire metal-oxide-semiconductor heterostructures for high performance electronics”, capacitors”, Roddaro S, Nilsson K, Astromskas G, et al. Weber, WM, Geelhaar, L, Unger, E, et al. PHYSICA APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 92, 253509 (2008) STATUS SOLIDI B-BASIC SOLID STATE PHYSICS 244, 4170 (2007) 54. “Controlled in situ boron doping of short silicon nanowires grown by molecular beam epitaxy”, Das 43. “Strain and shape of epitaxial InAs/InP nanowire Kanungo P, Zakharov N, Bauer J, et al. APPLIED superlattice measured by grazing incidence x-ray PHYSICS LETETRS 92, 263107 (2008) techniques”, Eymery J, Rieutord F, Favre-Nicolin V, et al. NANO LETTERS 7, 2596 (2007) 55. “Gold-enhanced oxidation of MBE-grown silicon nanowires”, Buttner CC, Zakharov ND, Pippel E, et al. 44. “Quantum-confinement effects in InAs-InP core- SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY shell nanowires”, Zanolli Z, Pistol M-E, Fröberg LE, et 23, 075040 (2008) al. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS : CONDENSED MATTER 56. “Point Defect Configurations of Supersaturated Au 19, 295219 (2007) Atoms Inside Si Nanowires”, Oh SH, van Benthem K, Molina SI, et al. NANO LETTERS 8, 1016 (2008) 45. “Optical properties of rotationally twinned InP nanowire heterostructures”, Bao JM, Bell DC, Capasso 57. “Quantum dots and tunnel barriers in InAs/InP F, et al. NANO LETTERS 8, 836 (2008) nanowire heterostructures: Electronic and optical properties”, Niquet Y-N, Mojica DM, PHYSICAL 46. “A radio frequency single-electron transistor based REVIEW B, 77, 115316 (2008) on an InAs/InP heterostructure nanowire”, Nilsson HA, Duty T, Abay S, et al. NANO LETTERS 8, 872 (2008) 58. “Screening and polaronic effects induced by a metallic gate and a surrounding oxide on donor and 47. “Electrical properties of self-assembled branched acceptor impurities in silicon nanowires”, Diarra M, InAs nanowire junctions”, Suatin DB, Sun J, Fuhrer A, Delerue C, Niquet YM, et al. JOURNAL OF APPLIED et al. NANO LETTERS 8, 1100 (2008) PHYSICS 103, 073703 (2008) 154 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 156. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications 59. “Quantum transport length scales in silicon-based Lind, Thomas Mårtensson, Philippe Caroff, Truls semiconducting nanowires: Surface roughness effects” Löwgren, B. Jonas Ohlsson, Lars Samuelson, and Lars- Lherbier A, Persson MP, Niquet YM, et al. PHYSICAL Erik Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON REVIEW B 77, 085301 (2008) ELECTRON DEVICES 55, 3030 (2008) 60. “Control of GaP and GaAs Nanowire Morphology 68. “Band Structure Effects on the Scaling Properties of through Particle and Substrate Chemical Modification” [111] InAs Nanowire MOSFETs” Erik Lind, Martin P. Kimberly A. Dick, Knut Deppert, Lars Samuelson, L. Persson, Yann-Michel Niquet, and Lars-Erik Reine Wallenberg, and Frances M. Ross, NANO Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON LETTERS 8, 4087 (2008) DEVICES 56, 201 (2009) 61. “Heterostructure Barriers in Wrap Gated Nanowire FETs” Linus E. Fröberg, Carl Rehnstedt, Claes 69. “Controlled polytypic and twin-plane superlattices in Thelander, Erik Lind, Lars-Erik Wernersson, and Lars III—V nanowires” P. Caroff, K. A. Dick, J. Johansson, M. Samuelson, IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS 29, 981 E. Messing, K. Deppert and L. Samuelson, NATURE (2008) NANOTECHNOLOGY 4, 50 (2009) 62. “Analysing the capacitance—voltage measurements 70. “Preferential Interface Nucleation: An Expansion of of vertical wrapped-gated nanowires” O. Karlström, A. the VLS Growth Mechanism for Nanowires” By Brent Wacker, K. Nilsson, G. Astromskas, S. Roddaro, L. A. Wacaser, Kimberly A. Dick, Jonas Johansson, Samuelson, and L.-E. Wernersson, Magnus T. Borgström, Knut Deppert, and Lars NANOTECHNOLOGY 19, 435201 (2008) Samuelson, ADVANCED MATERIALS 21, 153 (2009) 63. “Vertical InAs Nanowire Wrap Gate Transistors on 71. “X-ray measurements of the strain and shape of Si Substrates” Carl Rehnstedt, Thomas Mårtensson, dielectric/metallic wrap-gated InAs nanowires” J. Claes Thelander, Lars Samuelson, and Lars-Erik Eymery, V. Favre-Nicolin, L. Fröberg, and L. Samuelson, Wernersson, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 94, 131911 (2009) DEVICES 55, 3037 (2008) 72. “Effects of Supersaturation on the Crystal Structure 64. “Precursor evaluation for in situ InP nanowire of Gold Seeded III-V Nanowires” Jonas Johansson, Lisa doping” M. T. Borgström, E. Norberg, P. Wickert, H. A. S. Karlsson, Kimberly A. Dick, Jessica Bolinsson, Brent Nilsson, J. Trägårdh, K. A. Dick, G. Statkute, P. Ramvall, A. Wacaser, Knut Deppert, and Lars Samuelson, K. Deppert, and L. Samuelson, NANOTECHNOLOGY CRYSTAL GROWTH & DESIGN 9, 766 (2009) 19, 445602 (2008) 73. “Structural Investigations of Core-shell Nanowires 65. “Transients in the Formation of Nanowire Using Grazing Incidence X-ray Diffraction” Mario Heterostructures” Linus E. Fröberg, Brent A. Wacaser, Keplinger, Thomas Mårtensson, Julian Stangl, Eugen Jakob B. Wagner, Sören Jeppesen, B. Jonas Ohlsson, Wintersberger, Bernhard Mandl, Dominik Kriegner, Knut Deppert, and Lars Samuelson, NANO LETTERS Va´clav Holy´, Gunther Bauer, Knut Deppert, and Lars 8, 3815 (2008) Samuelson NANO LETTERS 9, 1877 (2009) 66. “A review of nanowire growth promoted by alloys 74. “Microphotoluminescence studies of tunable and non-alloying elements with emphasis on Au-assisted wurtzite InAs0.85P0.15 quantum dots embedded in III-V nanowires” Kimberly A. Dick, PROGRESS IN wurtzite InP nanowires” Niklas Sköld, Mats-Erik Pistol, CRYSTAL GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION OF Kimberly A. Dick, Craig Pryor, Jakob B. Wagner, Lisa S. MATERIALS 54, 138 (2008) Karlsson, and Lars Samuelson, PHYSICAL REVIEW B 80, 041312(R) (2009) 67. “Development of a Vertical Wrap-Gated InAs FET” Claes Thelander, Carl Rehnstedt, Linus E. Fröberg, Erik 75. “Giant, Level-Dependent g Factors in InSb Nanowire nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 155
- 157. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Quantum Dots” Henrik A. Nilsson, Philippe Caroff, 83. “Vertical epitaxial wire-on-wire growth of Ge/Si on Claes Thelander, Marcus Larsson, Jakob B. Wagner, Si(100) substrate”, T. Shimizu, Z. Zhang, S. Shingubara, Lars-Erik Wernersson, Lars Samuelson, and H. Q. Xu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, NANO LETTERS 9, 1523 NANO LETTERS 9, 3151 (2009) (2009) 76. “Three-dimensional morphology of GaP-GaAs 84. “Ordered high-density Si(100) nanowire arrays nanowires revealed by transmission electron microscopy epitaxially grown by bottom imprint method” Z. Zhang, tomography”, M.A. Verheijen, R. E. Algra, M. T. T. Shimizu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, ADVANCED Borgström, W. G. G. Immink, E. Sourty, W. J. P. van MATERIALS 21, 2824 (2009) Enckevort, E. Vlieg, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, NANO LETTERS 7, 3051 (2007) 85. “Bottom-Imprint Method for VSS Growth of Epitaxial Silicon Nanowire Arrays with an Aluminium 77. “Twinning superlattices in indium phosphide Catalyst”, Zhang Zhang, Tomohiro Shimizu, Lijun Chen, nanowires”, R. E. Algra, M. A. Verheijen, M. T. Stephan Senz, Ulrich Gösele, ADVANCED MATERIALS Borgström, L. F. Feiner, W. G. G. Immink, W. J. P. van 21, published on web (2009) Enckevort, E. Vlieg, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, NATURE 456, 369 (2008) 86. “Orientational dependence of charge transport in disordered silicon nanowires”, M. P. Persson, A. 78. “Zinc Incorporation via the Vapor-Liquid-Solid Lherbier, Y. M. Niquet, F. Triozon and S. Roche, NANO Mechanism into InP Nanowires”, M. H. M. van Weert, LETTERS 8, 4146 (2008) A. Helman, W. van den Einden, R. E. Algra, M. A. Verheijen, M. T. Borgström, W. G. G. Immink, J. J. Kelly, 87. ”Elastic relaxation in patterned and implanted L. P. Kouwenhoven, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, JOURNAL OF strained Silicon On Insulator, S. Baudot, F. Andrieu, F. THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 131, 4578 Rieutord, and J. Eymery, JOURNAL OF APPLIED (2009) PHYSICS 105, 114302 (2009) 79. “Extended arrays of vertically aligned sub-10 nm 88. “Coherent diffraction imaging of single 95 nm diameter [100] Si nanowires by metal-assisted chemical nanowires”, V. Favre-Nicolin, J. Eymery, R. Koester, and etching”, Z. P. Huang, X. X. Zhang, M. Reiche, L. F. Liu, P. Gentile, PHYSICAL REVIEW B 79, 195401 (2009) W. Lee, T. Shimizu, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, NANO LETTERS 8, 3046 (2008) 89. “Selective excitation and detection of spin states in a single nanowire quantum dot”, M. H .M. van Weert, 80. “Ex situ n and p doping of vertical epitaxial short N. Akopian, U. Perinetti, M. P. van Kouwen, R. E. Algra, silicon nanowires by ion implantation”, P. Das Kanungo, M. A. Verheijen, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, L. P. Kouwenhoven R. Kögler, T.- K. Nguyen-Duc, N. D. Zakharov, P. and V. Zwiller, NANO LETTERS 9, 1989 (2009) Werner, and U. Gösele, NANOTECHNOLOGY 20, 165706 (2009) 90. “Orientation-Dependent Optical-Polarization Properties of Single Quantum Dots in Nanowires”, 81. “Ordered Arrays of Vertically Aligned [110] Silicon Maarten H. M. van Weert, Nika Akopian , Freek Nanowires by Suppressing the Crystallographically Kelkensberg, Umberto Perinetti , Maarten P. van Preferred <100> Etching Directions” Zhipeng Huang, Kouwen , Jaime Gómez Rivas , Magnus T. Borgström, Tomohiro Shimizu, Stephan Senz, Zhang Zhang, Xuanxiong Zhang, Woo Lee, Nadine Geyer and Ulrich Rienk E. Algra, Marcel A. Verheijen, Erik P. A. M. Gösele, NANO LETTERS 9, 2519 (2009) Bakkers , Leo P. Kouwenhoven, and Val Zwiller, SMALL 5, 2134 (2009) 82. “Silicon nanowires: A review on aspects of their growth and their electrical properties”, V. Schmidt, J. 91. “Boosting the on-current of a n-channel nanowire V. Wittemann, S. Senz, and U. Gösele, ADVANCED tunnel field-effect transistor by source material MATERIALS 21, 2681 (2009) optimization”, Anne S. Verhulst, William G. 156 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 158. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications Vandenberghe, Karen Maex, and Guido Groeseneken, 100. “Diameter-dependent conductance of InAs JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 104, 64514 (2008) nanowires”, Marc Scheffler, Stevan Nadj-Perge, Magnus T. Borgström, Erik P.A.M. Bakkers, and Leo P. 92. “Complementary silicon-based heterostructure Kouwenhoven, JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS, tunnel-FETs with high tunnel rates”, A. S. Verhulst, W. submitted (2009) G. Vandenberghe, K. Maex, S. De Gendt, M. M. Heyns, G. Groeseneken, IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS 101. “InSb nanowire growth by chemical beam epitaxy”, 29, 1398 (2008) D. Ercolani, F. Rossi, A. Li, S. Roddaro, V. Grillo, G. Salviati, F. Beltram, L. Sorba, NANOTECHNOLOGY, 93. “Donor deactivation in silicon nanostructures”, submitted (2009) Mikael T. Björk, Heinz Schmid, Joachim Knoch, Heike Riel, Walter Riess, NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 4, 102. “Charge pumping in InAs nanowires by surface 103 (2009) acoustic waves”, S. Roddaro, E. Strambini, L. Romeo, V. Piazza, K. Nilsson, L. Samuelson, F. Beltram, 94. “Doping Limits of Grown in situ Doped Silicon SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, Nanowires Using Phosphine”, Heinz Schmid, Mikael T. submitted (2009) Björk, Joachim Knoch, Siegfried Karg, Heike Riel, and Walter Riess, NANO LETTERS 9, 173 (2009) 103. “Electronic Properties of Quantum Dot Systems Realized in Semiconductor Nanowires”, J. Salfi, L. 95. “Mapping active dopants in single silicon nanowires Saveliev, M. Blumin, H. E. Ruda, D. Ercolani, S. Roddaro, using off-axis electron holography”, Martien I. den L. Sorba, F. Beltram, SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE Hertog, Heinz Schmid, David Cooper, Jean-Luc AND TECHNOLOGY, submitted (2009) Rouviere, Mikael T. Björk, Heike Riel, Pierrette Rivallin, Siegfried Karg, and Walter Riess NANO LETTERS, accepted (2009) 96. “Surface passivated InAs/InP core/shell nanowires”, J. W. W. van Tilburg, R. E. Algra, W. G. G. Immink, M. Verheijen, E. P. A. M. Bakkers, and L. P. Kouwenhoven, SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, accepted (2009) 97. “Suppression of ambipolar behavior in metallic source/drain metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors”, H. Ghoneim, J. Knoch, H. Riel, D. Webb, M.T. Björk, S. Karg, E. Loertscher, H. Schmid, and W. Riess, APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS, submitted (2009) 98. “Au-Si interface reactions and removal of Au from bottom-up grown silicon nanowires”, S. Karg, H. Schmid, M. Björk, K. Moselund, H. Ghoneim, and H. Riel, submitted (2009) 99. “Vertical Silicon Nanowire Tunnel-FETs Using High- k Gate Dielectric and Metal Gate", D. Leonelli, R. Rooyackers, F. Iacopi, A.S. Verhulst, W. G. Vandenberghe, G. Groeseneken, S. De Gendt, M. Heyns, A. Vandooren, IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS, submitted (2009) nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 157
- 159. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications List of European Nanowire-engaged groups Affiliation Name Email Home Lars Samuelson [email protected] Lund University, Knut Deppert [email protected] www.nano.lth.se Lund, Sweden Lars-Erik Wernersson [email protected] Philippe Vereecken [email protected] IMEC, Leuven, Belgium www.imec.be Anne Verhulst [email protected] Namlab, Dresden, Walter Weber [email protected] www.namlab.com Germany University of Franz-Josef Tegude [email protected] Duisburg-Essen, www.hlt.uni-duisburg-essen.de Duisburg, Germany Werner Prost [email protected] MPI for Microstructure Ulrich Goesele [email protected] www.mpi-halle.mpg.de Physics, Halle, Germany Stephan Senz [email protected] Universität Leipzig, Marius Grundmann [email protected] www.zv.uni-leipzig.de Leipzig, Germany Forschungszentrum Hilde Hardtdegen [email protected] www.fz-juelich.de Jülich, Jülich, Germany Detlev Grützmacher [email protected] EPFL, Lausanne, Anna Fontcuberta i Morral [email protected] www.epfl.ch Switzerland Klaus Ensslin [email protected] ETH Zürich, Zürich, www.ethz.ch Switzerland Atac Imamoglu [email protected] IBM, Zürich Research Walter Riess [email protected] Laboratory, Zürich, www.zurich.ibm.com Switzerland Heike Riel [email protected] Alessandro Tredicucci [email protected] Scuola Normale www.sns.it Superior, Pisa, Italy Stefano Roddaro [email protected] University of Salento, Nico Lovergine [email protected] www.unisalento.it Lecce, Italy 158 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 160. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications List of European Nanowire-engaged groups Affiliation Name Email Home Laboratorio Nazionale TASC Faustino Martelli [email protected] INFM-CNR, Trieste, Italy www.tasc.infm.it Univ. Politécnica de Ma- Enrique Calleja Pardo [email protected] drid, Madrid, Spain www.upm.es PDI, Berlin, Henning Riechert [email protected] www.pdi-berlin.de Germany Lutz Geelhaar [email protected] Osram, Regensburg, Klaus Streubel [email protected] www.osram-os.com Germany Braunschweig, Germany Andreas Waag [email protected] www.iht.tu-bs.de Johannes Kepler Günther Bauer [email protected] www.jku.at Univ. Linz, Linz, Austria Technische Univ. Wien, Erich Gornik [email protected] www.tuwien.at Wien, Austria CEA/LETI, Grenoble, Joel Eymery [email protected] www-leti.cea.fr France CNRS, Jean-Christophe Harmand [email protected] www.cnrs.fr Paris, France Frank Glas [email protected] CNRS, Lille, France Philippe Caroff [email protected] www.cnrs.fr Philips Research Erik Bakkers [email protected] Laboratories, Eindhoven, www.research.philips.com The Netherlands Lou-Fé Feiner [email protected] Delft University Leo Kouwenhoven [email protected] of Technology, www.tudelft.nl Delft, The Netherlands Valery Zwiller [email protected] University of Copenha- Jesper Nygård [email protected] www.nbi.ku.dk gen, Copenhagen, Ioffe Physical Technical Vladimir Dubrovskii [email protected] www.ioffe.ru Institute, St Petersburg, George Cirlin [email protected] Russia nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 159
- 161. Annex 1 - NanoICT Working Groups position papers Semiconductor nanowires: Status of the field - research and applications List of European Nanowire-engaged groups Affiliation Name Email Home Helsinki Institute of Technology, Harri Lipsanen [email protected] www.micronova.fi Helsinki, Finland Cambridge University, Paul Warburton [email protected] www.london-nano.com United Kingdom University College, London, Andrew Horsfield [email protected] www.imperial.ac.uk United Kingdom University College, www-be.e-technik.uni-dort- London, Joachim Knoch [email protected] mund.de United Kingdom Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Helge Weman [email protected] www.ntnu.no Trondheim, Norway 160 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 162. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups Annex 2 4 List of nanoICT registered groups & Statistics nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 161
- 164. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 163
- 165. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups 164 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 166. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 165
- 167. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups 166 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 168. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 167
- 169. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups 168 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 170. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.1 List of nanoICT registered groups nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 169
- 171. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.2 Statistics 170 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 172. Annex 2 - List of nanoICT registered groups & statistics Annex 2.2 Statistics nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 171
- 173. Notes 172 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 174. Notes nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 173
- 175. Notes 174 · nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0
- 176. Notes nanoICT Strategic Research Agenda · Version 1.0 · 175
- 177. Edited by Alfonso Gómez, 17 Planta 2 - Loft 16 28037 Madrid - Spain Dr. Antonio Correia [email protected] www.phantomsnet.net www.nanoict.org Depósito Legal / Spanish Legal Deposit: M-1630-2011