Occupational diseases

Occupational Health
Dr. Jayaramachandran S
Associate Professor
Department of Community Medicine
19.05.2020

Who is the Father of Occupational Medicine?
A. Dr. William Rush Dunton
B. Bernardino Ramazzini
C. Alice Hamilton
D. Paracelsus
E. Percivall Pott
19-May-20 Occupational Diseases 2

Recap of the last session
ü Define Occupational Health
ü What are occupational environment
ü Classify and describe the various occupational hazards causing
diseases in work place.

Occupational Health
• Aim at the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of
physical, mental and social well being of workers in all occupations
• Prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their
working conditions
• Protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health
5/19/20 "Occupational Health" 6

Occupational Health
• Placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment
adapted to his physiological and psychological equipment
• The adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job
• Ergonomics is now a well recognized discipline and constitutes an
integral part of any advanced occupational health service. The term
"ergonomics" is derived from the Greek ergon, meaning work and
nomos, meaning law. It simply means: "fitting the job to the worker"

Occupational Environment
Man
Machine
Agent

Occupational Hazards
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Mechanical
Psychosocial

PHYSICAL HAZARDS

• Effect of heat exposures are..
- Burns
- Heat exhaustion
- Heat stroke
- Heat cramps
Results in decreased efficiency increased fatigue and enhances accident rate
Physical hazards – Heat
11"Occupational Health"5/19/20

Physical hazards – Heat
• Mines – high temperature
– Kolar gold mine in Mysore is the second deepest mine in the world (11,000feet)
– 65 degree Celsius heat is present in that mine.
• Indian factories act has no standard temperature for working condition.
– Optimum temperature is 20 – 27 degree Celsius.
"Occupational Health" 125/19/20

Physical hazards – Cold
• Extreme cold in the working condition can cause
– Frost bite – result of cutaneous vasoconstriction.
– Erythrocyanosis
– Immersion foot
– Chilblains

"Occupational Health" 14
Frostbite
5/19/20

Erythrocyanosis
5/19/20

Trench Foot
5/19/20

Physical hazards – Light
Poor illumination results in :
- Eye strain
- Headache
- Eye pain
- Lacrymation
- Congestion around cornea
- Eye fatigue
Excessive brightness
- visual fatigue
- eye discomfort
- blurring of vision

Physical hazards – Noise
• Commonest health hazard in most of the industries
• Auditory effects
- Temporary or permanent hearing loss
• Non auditory effects
- Nervousness
- Fatigue
- Interference with communication and speech
- Decreased efficiency
- annoyance

• Normal frequency range is between 10 – 500Hz (drillers and hammers)
- Usually affects hand and arms
- May cause white fingers (increased sensitivity to spasm)
- May produce injuries to joints of hand, elbow, and shoulders
Physical hazards – Vibration

• Mainly in arc welding
• Can cause
- intense conjunctivitis
- keratitis.
• Symptoms are redness of eye and pain.
Physical hazards – UV Radiation

• Mostly in medicine and industries ( X-ray and radioactive ionizing)
• Important radioisotopes were
- Cobalt 60
- Phosphorus 32
• Can cause genetic changes, malformation, cancer, leukemia, depilation and sterility.
Physical hazard – Ionizing radiation

CHEMICAL HAZARDS

• Acts in three ways
- Local action
- Inhalation
- Ingestion
• Illness depends on the duration of exposure, quantity of exposure and individual
susceptibility.
Chemical hazards

Chemical hazards
• Local action :
- Cause dermatitis
- Eczema
- Ulcer
- Cancer
- TNT and Aniline absorbed through skin and cause systemic effects.

Chemical hazards
• Inhalation :
• Dusts ranging from 0.1 – 150 microns
• > 10 microns settle down in the air
• < 5 microns directly inhaled to lungs – respirable dust.
• Dusts : organic / inorganic
soluble / insoluble

Chemical hazards
• Inorganic dusts : silica, mica, coal, asbestos dust.
• Organic dusts : cotton and jute
• Soluble : dissolves and enters in to systemic circulation and then eliminated by body
metabolism.
• Insoluble : remains permanently in the lungs.
Commonest diseases caused by dusts are silicosis, asbestosis and anthracosis.

Chemical hazards
• Gases: commonest hazard in industries
• Simple : oxygen and hydrogen.
• Asphyxiating gases : carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, cyanide, and chloride.
• Anesthetic gases: chloroform, ether, trichloroethylene.

Chemical hazards
• Some metals and their compounds enter as dust or fumes
• Toxicity by lead, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, manganese, mercury,
cobalt, phosphorus, chromium, zinc and others are some of the metals inhaled
through dusts.

• Ingestion:
• Commonest chemical agents are lead, arsenic, zinc chromium and phosphorus.
• Swallowed as minute amounts through contaminated food and cigarettes.
• Small proportion may reach blood circulation.
Chemicals Hazards

Biological hazards

• If exposed to infection and parasitic agents
• Some diseases are :
- Brucellosis / leptospirosis / anthrax
- Hydatidosis /psittacosis / tetanus
- Encephalitis / fungal infection
• Men working with animals – Rabies
• Agricultural workers are more exposed to biological hazards.
Biological hazards

Mechanical hazards

• About 10% of accidents are due to mechanical cause ,
- Protruded machinery
- Moving parts
- Unsafe machines
- Poor installation
can harm the workers.
Mechanical hazards

Psychosocial hazards

• Frustration
• Lack of job satisfaction
• Insecurity
• Poor human relation
• Emotional tension
• Factors influencing are : education, cultural background, family life, social habits.

• Health effects
- Psychological and behavioral changes
- Psychosomatic illness
• Psychological and behavioural changes;
- Anxiety / depression
- Alcoholism / drug abuse / aggression
- Sickness / absenteeism

• Psychosomatic illness :
- Fatigue
- Headache
- Pain in the shoulders / neck / back
- Peptic ulcer
- Hypertension
- Heart disease
- Rapid aging.

Occupational Diseases
Dr. Jayaramachandran S
Associate Professor
Department of Community Medicine
19.05.2020

At the end of this session, you will be able to
ü Define Occupational Diseases
ü Classify occupational diseases
ü Describe the etiology, signs / symptoms, diagnosis, treatment
and prevention of various common occupational diseases

Define Occupational Diseases
• An “occupational disease” is any disease contracted primarily as a
result of an exposure to risk factors arising from work activity.
• “Work-related diseases” have multiple causes, where factors in the
work environment may play a role, together with other risk factors, in
the development of such diseases

Classification of Occupational
Diseases

Occupational Diseases
Physical Chemical Biological
Cancers Dermatosis Psychological

Occupational diseases
I. Disease due to physical agents
Heat Heat hyperpyrexia, heat exhaustion, heat syncope,
heat cramps, burns & prickly heat
Cold Trench foot, frost bite, chilblains
Light Occupational cataract, miner’s nystagmus
Pressure Caisson disease, air embolism, blast
Noise Occupational deafness
Radiation Cancer, leukemia, aplastic anemia, pancytopenia

I. Disease due to physical agents
Mechanical
factors
Injuries & accidents
Electricity Burns
II. Diseases due to chemical agents
1. Gases CO2, CO, HCN, CS2, NH3, N2, H2S, HCL, SO2

2. Dusts (Pneumoconiosis)
a) Inorganic dusts
I Coal dust Anthracosis
II Silica Silicosis
III Asbestosis Asbestosis, cancer lung
IV Iron Siderosis

2. Dusts (Pneumoconiosis)
b) Organic (vegetable dusts)
I Cane fiber Bagassosis
II Cotton dust Byssinosis
III Tobacco Tobacossis
IV Hay or grain
dust
Farmers’ lung

3. 3Metal &
components
Toxic hazards from Lead, mercury, Cd, Mg, Be
arsenic, chromium
4. 4Chemicals Acids, Alkalis, pesticides, etc
5. 5Solvents Carbon bisulphide, benzene, chloroform,
trichloroethylene, etc

III. Disease due to biological agents
Brucellosis, leptospirosis, anthrax, actinomycosis, hydatidosis,
psittacosis, tetanus, encephalitis, fungal infections
IV. Occupational cancers
Cancer of skin, lungs & bladder

V. Occupational dermatosis
Dermatitis , eczema
VI. Disease of psychological origin
Industrial neurosis, hypertension, peptic ulcer

Pneumoconiosis
• The Pneumoconiosis are a group of conditions resulting from the
deposition of mineral dust in the lung and the subsequent lung tissue
reaction to dust.
• Dust within the size of 0.5 – 3 micron, is a health hazard, which after a
vulnerable period of exposure, may reduce working capacity of the man
due to lung fibrosis and other complications.

Pneumoconiosis
• The hazardous effects of dust on
the lungs depends upon a
number of factors such as
1. Chemical composition
2. Fineness
3. Concentration of dust in the air
4. Period of exposure
5. Health status of the person
exposed
In addition to the toxic effect of the
dust, the super-imposition of
infection like TB may also influence
the pattern of pneumoconiosis

Types of pneumoconiosis
1. Silicosis
2. Anthracosis
3. Byssinosis
4. Bagassosis
5. Asbestosis
6. Farmer’s lung

Silicosis
• Among the occupational diseases, silicosis is the major cause of
permanent disability and mortality.
• It is caused by inhalation of dust containing free silica/ silicon dioxide.
• The particles are ingested by the phagocytes which accumulate and
block the lymph channels.
• Pathologically, silicosis is characterized by a dense "nodular fibrosis, the
nodules ranging from 3 to 4 mm in diameter.

Silicosis: Workers at risk
Occupation Exposure hazard
Sandblaster Shipbuilding and iron-working
Miner/ tunneler Underground miners are at risk during roof bolting, shot firing and
drilling; surface coal mine drillers are at high risk
Miller Finely milled silica for fillers and abrasives; “silica flour workers”
Pottery worker Crushing flint and fetting are major exposures
Glassmaker Sand used for polishing and enameling
Foundry worker Silica is essential during mould making; exposure is during fitting
Quarry worker Slate, sandstone, granite
Abrasives worker Finely ground particles

Silicosis: signs / symptoms & investigation
• Insidious onset, Irritant cough, dyspnea on exertion and chest pain.
• Impairment of total lung capacity (TLC)
• Mild restrictive ventilatory defect and decreased lung compliance.
• X-ray shows “snow-storm” appearance in lung field.
• Typical & atypical mycobacterial infections
• Tuberculin- positive persons with silicosis have 30 folds greater risk for
developing TB (surveillance & treated)

Silicosis: management
• No effective treatment
• Continued exposure should be avoided – Dust control measures :
substitution, complete enclosure, isolation, hydro blasting, good house-
keeping, personal protective measures and regular physical examination
of workers
• Frequent monitoring of dust level for safe working environment.
• Reduction of exposure to quartz above the threshold limit value would
reduce the silicosis attack

Anthracosis
• Coal workers pneumoconiosis is the term used to describe parenchymal
lung disease caused by the inhalation of coal dust.
• Miners who work at the coal face in underground mining and drilling in
surface mines are at greater risk.

Anthracosis: symptoms, signs & investigation
• Cough with sputum production, often as a result of chronic bronchitis
• PMF invariably leads to respiratory insufficiency and death
• X-ray: shows small rounded opacities in the lung parenchyma(often
upper lobe), complicated anthracosis / PMF is diagnosed when large
opacities are present.
• Caplan’s syndrome – rounded dense opacity.
• PFT- complicated disease will show restrictive or mixed pattern.

Anthracosis: Management
• Prevention primarily depends on effective control of exposure to coal
mine dust( proper ventilation, use of water spray dust suppression and
enclosure of mining operation).
• Removal of miners with early detection of CWP
• Coal worker pneumoconiosis has been declared a notifiable disease in
the Indian Mine Act of 1952 and also compensable in the Workmen’s
compensation

Byssinosis
• Byssinosis is due to inhalation of cotton fiber dust over long period of
time.
• Chronic cough, progressive dyspnoea and end up in chronic bronchitis
and emphysema.
• India has a textile industry employing nearly 30% of factory workers.
• Incidence is 7-8%

Bagassosis
• It is caused by inhalation of bagasse/ sugar cane dust.
• The sugarcane fiber which until recently went to waste is now utilized in
the manufacture of paper, cardbroad and rayon.
• It is due to thermophilic actinomycete (thermoactinomyces sacchari).
• It causes breathlessness, cough, haemoptysis and slight fever.

Bagassosis
• Skiagram may show mottling in lungs.
• PFT- impairment.
• If treated early, there is resolution of the acute inflammatory condition
of the lung.
• If left untreated – diffuse fibrosis, emphysema and bronchiectasis.

Bagassosis: Preventive measures
• Dust control: wet process, enclosed apparatus and exhaust ventilation
• Personal protection: mask, respirators with mechanical filters or oxygen
or air supply
• Medical control: initial medical examination and periodical medical
check-ups
• Bagasse control: by keeping moisture content above 20% and spraying
the bagasse with 2% propionic acid.

Asbestosis
• Asbestos is the commercial name given to certain types of fibrous
materials, they are silicates of varying composition; combined with
magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium and aluminium.
• Serpentine/chrysolite(90%) and amphibole variety.
• Fibers are usually from 20- 500µ in length and 0.5- 50µ in diameter.
• It is used in the manufacture of asbestos cement, fire- proof textiles,
roof tiling, brake lining, gaskets, paint, etc
• It is mined in AP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Rajasthan- but most of
it is imported

Asbestosis
• Asbestosis refers to the diffuse interstitial pulmonary fibrosis caused by
inhalation of asbestos fiber(insoluble).
• It causes pulmonary fibrosis, leads to respiratory insufficiency and
death; Ca of bronchus(smoking); mesothelioma of pleura or peritonium;
and Ca of GIT.
• More than 5 to 10 years of exposure.
• Fibrosis is diffuse in character, and basal in location.

Asbestosis: signs, symptoms & investigation
• Progressive dyspnea and non productive cough
• Decreased breadth sounds
• Sputum shows "asbestos bodies" which are asbestos fibres
• In advanced stage – clubbing, cardiac distress and cyanosis seen
• X-ray – ground-glass appearance (small, regular/ linear opacity), B/L
pleural thickening.

Asbestosis: Preventive measures
1. Use of safer type of asbestos. (chrysolite and amosite)
2. Substitution of other insulants: glass fiber, mineral wool, calcium
silicate, plastic foams, etc.
3. Rigorous dust control.
4. Periodic examination of workers; biological monitoring(clinical, X-ray,
lung function, scanning of fibers with electron microscopic).
5. Continuing research

Farmer’s lung
• It is due to inhalation of mouldy hay / grain dust.
• In grain dust / hay with a moisture content of over 30%bacteria and
fungi grow rapidly, causing a rise of temperature to 40 to 50 degree C.
• Micropolyspora faeni is the main cause.
• Repeated attacks cause pulmonary fibrosis and inevitable pulmonary
damage and corpulmonale.

Lead use – reasons
• Low boiling point
• Mixes with other metals easily to form alloys
• Easily oxidised
• Anticorrosive.
• All lead compounds are toxic - lead arsenate, lead oxide and lead
carbonate are the most dangerous; lead sulphide is the least toxic.

Industrial uses
• Over 200 industries are counted where lead is used
• Manufacture of storage batteries
• Glass manufacture
• Ship building
• Printing and potteries
• Rubber industry

Non-occupational sources
• The greatest source of environmental (non-occupational) lead is
gasoline.
• Thousands of tons of lead every year is exhausted from automobiles.
• Lead is one of the few trace metals that is abundantly present in the
environment.
• Lead exposure may also occur through drinking water from lead
pipes; chewing lead paint on window sills or toys in case of children.

Mode of absorption of Lead
• Inhalation: Most cases of industrial lead poisoning is due to
inhalation of fumes and dust of lead or its compounds.
• Ingestion: Poisoning by ingestion is of less common occurrence. Small
quantities of lead trapped in the upper respiratory tract may be
ingested. Lead may also be ingested in food or drink through
contaminated hands.
• Skin: absorption through skin occurs only in respect of the organic
compounds of lead, especially tetraethyl lead. Inorganic compounds
are not absorbed through the skin.

Body stores of Lead
• The body store of lead in the average adult population is about 150 to
400 mg and blood level averages about 25μg/100 ml.
• An increase to 70μg/100 ml blood is generally associated with clinical
symptoms. Normal adults ingest about 0.2 to 0.3 mg of lead per day
largely from food and beverages

Distribution in the body
• 90% of the ingested lead is excreted in the faeces.
• Lead absorbed from the gut enters the circulation, and 95 per cent
enters the erythrocytes.
• It is then transported to the liver and kidneys and finally transported
to the bones where it is laid down with other minerals.
• Although bone lead is thought to be 'metabolically inactive', it may
be released to the soft tissues again under conditions of bone
resorption.

Distribution in the body
• Lead probably exerts its toxic action by combining with essential SH-
groups of certain enzymes, for example some of those involved in
prophyrin synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism.
• Lead has an effect on membrane permeability and potassium leakage
has been demonstrated from erythrocytes exposed to lead.

Clinical picture of lead poisoning
• The clinical picture of lead poisoning or plumbism is different in the
inorganic and organic lead exposures.
• The toxic effects of inorganic lead exposure are abdominal colic,
obstinate constipation, loss of appetite, blue-line on the gums,
stippling of red cells, anaemia, wrist drop and foot drop.
• The toxic effects of organic lead compounds are mostly on the central
nervous system - insomnia, headache, mental confusion, delirium,
etc.

Diagnosis of lead poisoning
• History: History of lead exposure
• Clinical features: Loss of appetite, intestinal colic, persistent
headache, weakness, abdominal cramps and constipation, joint and
muscular pains, blue line on gums, anaemia, etc
• Laboratory tests: Coproporphyrin in urine (CPU) : measurement of
CPU is a useful screening test. In non-exposed persons, it is less than
150 microgram/litre.
• Amino levulinic acid in urine (ALAU) : If it exceeds 5 mg/ litre, it
indicates clearly lead absorption

Diagnosis of lead poisoning
• Laboratory tests:
• Lead in blood and urine : Measurement of lead in blood or urine
requires refined laboratory techniques. They provide quantitative
indicators of exposure. Lead in urine of over 0.8 mg/litre (normal is
0.2 to 0.8 mg) indicates lead exposure and lead absorption. A blood
level of 70μg/100 ml is associated with clinical symptoms.
• Basophilic stipling of RBC : Is a sensitive parameter of the
haematological response.

Preventive measures for lead poisoning
1. Substitution: That is, where possible lead compounds should be
substituted by less toxic materials.
2. Isolation: All processes which give rise to harmful concentration of
lead dust or fumes should be enclosed and segregated.
3. Local exhaust ventilation: There should be adequate local exhaust
ventilation system to remove fumes and dust promptly
4. Personal protection: Workers should be protected by approved
respirators.

5. Good house-keeping: Good house-keeping is essential where lead
dust is present. Floors, benches, machines should be kept clean by
wet sweeping.
6. Working atmosphere: Lead concentration in the working
atmosphere should be kept below 2.0 mg per 10 cu. metres of air,
which is usually the permissible limit or threshold value.

7. Periodic examination of workers: All workers must be given
periodical medical examination. Laboratory determination of
urinary lead, blood lead, red cell count, haemoglobin estimation
and coproporphyrin test of urine should be done periodically.
Estimation of basophilic stippling may also be done.
An Expert Committee of the WHO states that in the case of exposure to
lead, it is not only the average level of lead in the blood that is
important, but also the number of subjects whose blood level exceeds
a certain value (e .g. , 70μg/ml or whose ALA in the urine exceeds 10
mg/litre)

8. Personal hygiene: Hand- washing before eating is an important
measure of personal hygiene. There should be adequate washing
facilities in industry. Prohibition on taking food in work places is
essential.
9. Health education: Workers should be educated on the risks
involved and personal protection measures.

Management of lead poisoning
• Prevention of further absorption, the removal of lead from soft
tissues and prevention of recurrence.
• Early recognition of cases will help in removing them from further
exposure.
• A saline purge will remove unabsorbed lead from the gut. The use of
d-penicillamine has been reported to be effective. Like Ca- EDTA, it is
a chelating agent and works by promoting lead excretion in urine.
• Lead poisoning is a notifiable and compensable disease in India since
1924.

Occupational Cancers

• The sites of the body most commonly involved/affected are:
– Skin
– Lungs
– Bladder
– Blood forming organs
Occupational Diseases19-May-20 95

• Exposures at the workplace or in occupation
• Physical agent (such as ionizing radiation or a fibre asbestos)
• Biological agent (such as hepatitis B virus)
• Common occupational carcinogens include Benzidine, 2 - naphylamine,
Arsenic, Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel, Asbestos, Silica, Talc
containing asbestiform fibres, etc.

• Skin Cancer
– In Chimney sweeper
– Caused by coal tar, dyes, x-
Rays.
• Lung Cancer
– Common in gas industry
– Asbestos industry & mining
– Tobacco smoking
– Air pollution

• Cancer bladder
– Common in aniline dye industry, rubber industry electric cable
industry.
• Leukemia
– Caused by exposure to benzol, X-Rays & radio –active substances.

Characteristics of occupational cancer
• They appear after prolonged exposure
• The period between exposure and development of the disease may be
as long as 10 to 25 years,
• The disease may develop even after the cessation of exposure

Characteristics of occupational cancer
• The average age incidence is earlier than that for cancer in general
• The localization of the tumours is remarkably constant in any one
occupation
Personal hygiene is very important in the prevention of occupational
cancer

Control of Industrial Cancer
1. Elimination or control of
industrial carcinogens.
2. Technical measures like
exclusion of the carcinogen
from the industry, well-
designed building or
machinery, closed system of
production, etc.,
3. Medical examinations
4. Notification
5. Licensing of establishments
6. Personal hygiene measures
7. Education of workers and
management
8. Research

Occupational Diseases: Dermatitis

Occupational dermatitis
• Big health problem in many industries.
• The causes may be;
• Physical - heat, cold, moisture, friction, pressure, X-rays and other rays;
• Chemical - acids, alkalies, dyes, solvents, grease, tar, pitch, chlorinated
phenols etc.
• Biological - living agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and other
parasites; Plant products - leaves, vegetables, fruits, flowers, vegetable
dust, etc.

Dermatitis-producing agents
• Primary irritants (e.g. acids, alkalies, dyes, solvents, etc.) cause
dermatitis in workers exposed in sufficient concentration and for a long
enough period of time.
• Sensitizing substances: On the other hand, allergic dermatitis occurs
only in small percentage of cases, due to sensitization of the skin.

Prevention of Occupational dermatitis
• Largely preventable if proper control measures are adopted
1. Pre-selection: The workers should be medically examined before
employment, and those with an established or suspected dermatitis or
who have a known pre- disposition to skin disease should be kept away
from jobs involving a skin hazard.

2. Protection: The worker should be given adequate protection against
direct contact by protective clothing, long leather gloves, aprons and
boots. The protective clothing should be frequently washed and kept in
good order. There are also, what are known as barrier creams which
must be used regularly and correctly. There is no barrier cream so far
invented which will prevent dermatitis in all occupations.

3. Personal hygiene: There should be available a plentiful supply of warm
water, soap and towels. The worker should be encouraged and
educated to make frequent use of these facilities. Adequate washing
facilities in industry are a statutory obligation under the Factories Act.
4. Periodic inspection: There should be a periodic medical check-up of all
workers for early detection and treatment of occupational dermatitis.
If necessary, the affected worker may have to be transferred to a job
not exposing him to risk. The worker should be educated to report any
skin irritation, no matter how mild or insignificant.

Radiation hazards
• A number of industries use radium and other radio-active substances, e.g.,
painting of luminous dials for watches and other instruments, manufacture of
radio-active paints.
• Exposure to radium also occurs in mining of radio-active ores, monozite sand
workers and handling of their products.
• X-rays are used both in medicine and industry.
• Exposure to ultraviolet rays occurs in arc and other electric welding processes.
Infrared rays are produced in welding, glass blowing, foundry work and other
processes where metal and glass are heated to the molten state, and in
heating and drying of painted and lacquered objects.

Effects of radiation
• Occupational hazards due to ionizing radiation may be acute burns,
dermatitis and blood dyscrasias;
• Chronic exposure may cause malignancies and genetic effects.
• Lung cancer may develop in miners working in uranium mines due to
inhalation of radio-active dust.

Preventive measures of radiation hazards
1. Inhalation, swallowing or direct contact with the skin should be
avoided.
2. In case of X-rays, shielding should be used of such thickness and of
such material as to reduce the exposure below allowable exposures.
3. The employees should be monitored at intervals not exceeding 6
months by use of the film badge or pocket electrometer devices.
4. Suitable protective clothing to prevent contact with harmful material
should be used.

Preventive measures of radiation hazards
5. Adequate ventilation of work-place is necessary to prevent inhalation
of harmful gases and dusts.
6. Replacement and periodic examination of workers should be done
every 2 months. If harmful effects are found, the employees should be
transferred to work not involving exposure to radiation
7. Pregnant women should not be allowed to work in places where there
is continuous exposure.

Occupational hazards of
agricultural workers

Occupational hazards of agricultural workers
• Occupational health in agriculture sector is a new concept.
• From the standpoint of capital investment and number of persons
employed, agriculture may be termed as "big industry".
• Agricultural workers have a multitude of health problems - a fact which
is often forgotten because of the widespread misconception that
occupational health is mainly concerned with industry and industrialized
countries.

Zoonotic diseases in agricultural workers
• The close contact of the agricultural worker with animals or their
products increases the likelihood of contracting certain zoonotic
diseases such as brucellosis, anthrax, leptospirosis, tetanus, tuberculosis
(bovine) and Q fever.
• The extent of the occupational occurrence of these diseases in most
parts of the world is not known .

Accidents in agricultural workers
• Agricultural accidents are becoming more frequent, even in developing
countries, as a result of the increasing use of agricultural machinery.
• Insect and snake bites are an additional health problem in India.

Toxic hazards in agricultural workers
• Chemicals are being used increasingly in agriculture either as fertilizers,
insecticides or pesticides.
• Agricultural workers are exposed to toxic hazards from these chemicals.
• Associated factors such as malnutrition and parasitic infestation may
increase susceptibility to poisoning at relatively low levels of exposure.

Physical hazards in agricultural workers
• The agricultural worker may be exposed to extremes of climatic
conditions such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, which may
impose additional stresses upon him.
• He may also have to tolerate excessive noise and vibrations, inadequate
ventilation and the necessity of working in uncomfortable positions for
long periods of time.

Respiratory diseases in agricultural workers
• Exposure to dusts of grains, rice husks, coconut fibres, tea, tobacco,
cotton, hay and wood are common where these products are grown.
• The resulting diseases - e.g., byssinosis, bagassosis, farmer's lung and
occupational asthma, appear to be widespread.

Thank you ….

Occupational diseases

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Occupational diseases