On the Impact of Mobile Hosts in Peer-to-Peer Data Networks

On the Impact of Mobile Hosts in Peer-to-Peer Data Networks
Zhenyun Zhuang†
, Sandeep Kakumanu†
, Yeonsik Jeong†
, Raghupathy Sivakumar†
, Aravind Velayutham§
†
{zhenyun, ksandeep, ysjeong, siva}@ece.gatech.edu, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA 30332
§
vel@asankya.com, 75 5th Street NW, Suite 212, Asankya Inc., Atlanta, GA 30308
Abstract
Peer-to-peer (P2P) data networks dominate Internet
traffic, accounting for over 60% of the overall traffic in a
recent study. In this work, we study the problems that arise
when mobile hosts participate in P2P networks. We pri-
marily focus on the performance issues as experienced by
the mobile host, but also study the impact on other fixed
peers. Using BitTorrent as a key example, we identify sev-
eral unique problems that arise due to the design aspects
of P2P networks being incompatible with typical charac-
teristics of wireless and mobile environments. Using the
insights gained through our study, we present a wireless
P2P (wP2P) client application that is backward compati-
ble with existing fixed peer client applications, but when
used on mobile hosts can provide significant performance
improvements.
1 Introduction
Over the last few years, peer-to-peer (P2P) data sharing
applications have experienced an explosive growth. By the
end of 2005, a staggering 60% of the Internet data traffic
constituted of P2P file sharing [5]. While copyright con-
cerns had earlier brought down popular P2P applications
such as Napster, several content owners and providers have
of late started embracing what is being seen as a technology
that has come to stay [1].
With P2P data sharing applications securing a dominant
position in the Internet landscape, an interesting question is
to ask is: what is the performance of mobile users when par-
ticipating in P2P data sharing? The question is significant
because of two reasons: (a) as with any Internet applica-
tion with emerging or established popularity, wireless and
mobile users are increasingly adopting P2P data sharing ap-
plications on devices such as laptops and PDAs [9]; And (b)
there are several efforts underway to deliver P2P data shar-
ing as the next killer application for mobile devices [17, 16].
Initial instantiations of such efforts focus on sharing of ring-
tones and music files, but are expected to evolve into other
types of content including video.
Thus, in this work, we first investigate the following
question: what is the performance of a mobile user in a
wireless environment using a P2P data sharing applica-
tion? As a corollary, we also investigate the following ques-
tion: what is the performance of a fixed peer in a P2P net-
work when using a mobile host as a corresponding peer?
In answering the above questions, we find that several of
the fundamental design principles and peculiarities used in
P2P data sharing applications are inconsistent with the key
limiting characteristics of typical wireless and mobile en-
vironments. Briefly, some of these issues include: (i) P2P
applications, unlike in typical scenarios where a mobile host
functions as a client, creates a scenario requiring the mobile
host to function as a server. This raises several implica-
tions that we discuss later in the paper. (ii) P2P data sharing
uniquely involve simultaneous bi-directional data transfer.
This consequently results in the use of bi-directional TCP,
a form of TCP not studied extensively for wireless environ-
ments. (iii) P2P data networks, by virtue of being almost en-
tirely supported by end-hosts, typically use incentives based
performance delivery. In other words, a mobile host that has
uploaded more data is provided with higher performance.
Such a mechanism exposes issues when applied as-is to a
wireless and mobile environment. (iv) While incentives en-
courage P2P users to share data longer, P2P data fetching is
also adapted to increase the uniquely shareable data avail-
able at a user. One such approach is performing random or
rarest-first fetching. However, such techniques have severe
implications to the mobile user, especially during discon-
nections. Using experiments on a real-life P2P data sharing
network, we profile the performance of a mobile user with
respect to the above issues.
Using insights gained through the aforementioned study,
we present a deployable solution suite called wireless P2P
(wP2P) that addresses the issues using changes only to the
P2P application at the mobile host. wP2P uses techniques
transparent to the fixed peer, but uniquely relevant to the
specific issues pertaining to wireless and mobile hosts func-
tioning in a P2P data network. While we elaborate on
the specifics of the solutions later in the paper, wP2P uses
a combination of multiple proposed techniques in tandem
including age based manipulation, incentive aware opera-
tions, and mobility aware fetches. We evaluate wP2P with

an implemented prototype, and show that significant perfor-
mance improvements can be achieved for mobile hosts and
fixed peers when using wP2P at the mobile hosts. Thus, the
contributions of this work are twofold:
• We consider the specific scenario of mobile hosts par-
ticipating in P2P data sharing applications, and investigate
performance issues such hosts face due to the unique design
elements embedded in typical P2P applications. Using real-
life experiments on a P2P data sharing network, we identify
these design elements that when combined with the unique
characteristics of wireless environments render the perfor-
mance delivered to mobile users sub-par.
• We present a deployable solution called wP2P that is
required to be instantiated only at the mobile host. And,
when deployed thus, wP2P addresses the issues identified
above to deliver enhanced P2P data sharing performance to
mobile users. Using a prototype implementation, we char-
acterize the performance of wP2P and show that consider-
able improvements can indeed be achieved.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section
2 presents the scope of this work and describes key back-
ground material. Section 3 presents in detail the motivation
results that show the limiting performance existing P2P ap-
plication design impose on mobile users. Section 4 outlines
the key design basis and describes the wP2P solution in de-
tail, while Section 5 presents the performance evaluation of
wP2P. Finally, Sections 6 and 7 discuss related-work and
conclusions respectively.
2 Scope and Background
We now briefly present the scope of this work and outline
some of the key elements of the BitTorrent protocol relevant
to the focus of this work.
2.1 Scope of this work
• P2P Networks: While there are several forms of P2P
networks ranging from those that help in computing (grids)
to those that help in communication (e.g. skype) to those
that help in data-sharing, this work is entirely focused on
P2P data sharing networks. Data sharing P2P networks are
primarily used for sharing files containing audio (e.g. mp3
files), video (e.g. mpeg2 files), or data (e.g. linux distribu-
tions). Examples of such networks include BitTorrent [1],
eDonkey, Gnutella, and FastTrack. Recent study show that
P2P traffic is dominating Internet traffic and specifically, the
BitTorrent [1] P2P network accounts for 30% of the overall
Internet traffic [5]. Of this, video files account for more than
62% of the P2P traffic. Measurement studies conducted re-
cently observe far more wireless and mobile users on the
network than ever before [9].
• BitTorrent: In this work, while we identify character-
istics of P2P networks that are generically applicable to all
four of the above networks, we use BitTorrent as the pri-
mary example for all discussions, experiments, and trials.
However, as necessary we also step back and investigate rel-
evance of our discussions and interpretations for the other
networks as well. We believe that this choice of BitTorrent
as the key representative is justifiable from multiple stand-
points including its dominance in terms of traffic carried,
and its relative sophistication.
• Wireless Technologies and Mobile Devices: While mo-
bile users with any type of wireless access can participate in
P2P networks, the access technology typically used is wire-
less LANs (WLANs). This is both because of the higher
bandwidths available on WLANs, and the relatively lower
or no cost models associated with such networks. Hence,
we consider WLANs for the wireless environment in this
paper. Similarly, while other mobile devices such as PDAs
and IP enabled cellphones are fair game for assuming mem-
bership in P2P networks, we primarily consider laptops as
the mobile device in this work.
• Metrics: We consider throughput performance as the
main metric in our evaluation and optimization considera-
tions. The focus is more on the question: what is the per-
formance of a mobile host when it participates in a P2P
network? In addition, we also consider a corollary ques-
tion: what is the performance of a fixed peer when it uses a
mobile host as a peer to download data from?
2.2 BitTorrent
BitTorrent, like other P2P data sharing protocols, uses
peers that have downloaded a certain content as the sources
for the content subsequently for other peers that need the
same content. In the rest of this section, we outline some of
the key elements of the BitTorrent protocol relevant to the
focus of this work.
• Torrent: Any peer that wants to share a file through
the BitTorrent network creates a “.torrent” file that consists
of some meta data information (e.g. certificates for different
portions of the file that downloading clients can use to check
for the validity of downloads) and the address of the tracker
that will act as the directory server for the file.
• Tracker: The tracker is the entity that maintains, for
any given file that it tracks, all current peers that have the file
either in its entirety or in parts. When it receives a request
from a client for a specific file, it furnishes the client with
the addresses of the peers associated with the file. The list
of peer addresses is updated periodically to accommodate
peers leaving the network.
• Swarm: All peers currently connected to each other
(logically) in the process of downloading a particular file
form a swarm for that file. From the standpoint of a sin-
gle client, it uploads to some members in the swarm and
downloads from some members in the swarm. Because of

Internet
BitSpirit 3.2.215 Azureus 2.3.0.4
BitSpirit 3.2.215
BitSpirit 3.2.215
Azureus 2.3.0.4
Azureus 2.3.0.4
Peer
1
…...
Other BitTorrent Peers
Peer
2
Figure 1. Network Testbed for P2P Evaluation
the incentive policy discussed later in this section, a down-
loading client is likely to be uploading to a subset of the
members it is downloading from.
• Tit-for-Tat: BitTorrent uses a tit-for-tat incentive policy
that controls the upload rate of one peer to another specific
peer based on the download rate the peer enjoys from that
other peer.
• Rarest-first fetch: BitTorrent peers do not fetch parts
of the file in sequence. Instead, each peer picks the rarest
of the blocks (in terms of the number of peers in the swarm
that have the block) preferably to download. This ensures
that the rarest blocks of a file are propagated in the swarm
faster, reducing bottlenecks at the few peers that have the
block and increasing the availability of those blocks if the
peers that have them shutdown.
• Seeds and leeches: Seeds are peers that have a com-
plete copy of a file, and leeches are peers that have a partial
copy of the file (which typically means that the peers are
downloading other parts as they are uploading the parts they
already have).
Thus, when a peer wants to download a particular file,
it downloads the torrent file, contacts the tracker specified,
receives a list of addresses to contact, and joins the swarm
for downloads. As soon as it receives blocks of the file,
it also begins uploading to other peers that require those
blocks. When the entire file is downloaded, the peer may
decide to leave the swarm or stay back as a seed.
3 Motivation
3.1 Testbed & Methodology
In this section, we use experiments performed on a Bit-
Torrent network to study the performance of a mobile host.
We identify several design characteristics of P2P data net-
works that are incompatible with typical characteristics of
a wireless environment. We also use the insights gained
as the basis for the design of the wP2P solution presented
later in the paper. While we present all the discussions in
the context of BitTorrent, we revisit the implications of the
discussions on the other P2P networks at the end of the sec-
tion. The network testbed used in the experiments is shown
in Figure 1. The testbed consists of six locally controlled
BitTorrent peers which run popular BitTorrent clients: three
run the Azureus client 2.3.0.4 on Linux, and the other three
peers run the BitSpirit 3.2.215 client on Windows.
3.2 Bi-directional TCP
As described in Section 2, most peers in BitTorrent up-
load and download at the same time, and because of the
tit-for-tat policy used by BitTorrent, several of the uploads
are to peers from which downloads are being done. Hence,
it is common for data to be exchanged simultaneously be-
tween peers in both directions. Given that BitTorrent (or for
that matter the other P2P applications) uses TCP, and that
TCP is inherently designed to be a bi-directional protocol,
BitTorrent uses TCP in its true bi-directional mode. In other
words, a single TCP connection is used to transfer data in
both directions between the peers.
While TCP is designed to be a bi-directional transport
protocol, few extensive studies of its behavior have been
performed. More importantly, in the context of this work,
very little is understood about the behavior of bi-directional
TCP in a wireless environment. In this context, we identify
two issues with the use of bi-directional TCP by BitTorrent
centered around the behavior of TCP with respect to ACK
piggybacking and fast-retransmit under bi-directional con-
ditions.
• Piggybacking: When bi-directional TCP is used,
ACKs in the reverse path are almost always piggybacked
on the data packets being sent in the reverse direction. In
a wireless environment, where random errors rates can be
non-trivial, this potentially has an adverse impact on the
connection performance. More specifically, when ACKs are
piggybacked on data packets, the effective “length” of the
ACKs is longer than if they were sent as pure ACKs (non-
piggybacked). Hence, for the same bit error rate (BER) in a
wireless environment, the effective packet error rate (PER)
for the ACK traffic is larger. This in turn results in more
number of ACK packets being lost on the reverse path just
because they were piggybacked.
While it is true that TCP uses cumulative ACKs, and
hence is relatively robust to ACK losses, there still is a neg-
ative impact in terms of the overall throughput enjoyed by a
connection in the presence of higher number of ACK losses.
More importantly, in a P2P network peers typically have a
large number of TCP connections ongoing even for a single
swarm (BitTorrent trackers typically provide addresses of
50 peers in response to a request, but the overall swarm size
can grow to numbers greater than 500), resulting in the aver-
age congestion window size of a TCP connection to be rel-
atively small. And, it is for connections with small conges-
tion window sizes that a higher ACK loss rate can result in
a non-trivial degradation in throughput. In other words, the
download rate for a TCP connection from a particular peer

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x 10
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Bi−TCP
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(a) Throughput comparison
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(b) Uni-directional: Packets
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Buffer drop
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(c) Bi-directional: Packets
Figure 2. Impact of Bi-Directional TCP
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
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Uploading Speed Limit (vs. physical bandwidth (%))
DownloadingThroughput(KB/sec)
(a) Impact of upload: Wired
0 20 40 60 80
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(b) Impact of upload: Wireless
0 10 20 30 40
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DownloadedSize(MB)
Time (Minutes)
No Mobility, Uploading
No Mobility, No Uploading
Mobility, Uploading
Mobility, No Uploading
(c) Impact of incentive and mobility
Figure 3. Impact of upload traffic on downloads (a, b), Impact of incentive and mobility (c)
will be smaller just because of ACKs being piggybacked in
the reverse direction.
We set up two peers which hold different portion of
shared data, and obtain the throughput values when either
uni-TCP or bi-TCP is used. Specifically, when two peers
hold different data, they exchange data over bi-TCP. When
only one peer has the data the other needs, data are down-
loaded using uni-TCP. Figure 2 (a) presents the 5-run aver-
aged results of the download rate experienced by a peer un-
der varying conditions of bit error rate on the wireless leg.
Note that bi-directional connections will in general suffer in
throughput when compared to uni-directional connections
because of the self-contention between packets being sent
in the upstream and downstream directions. However, that
difference is captured by the data-point at BER=01
.
• Fast Retransmit: The second issue with BitTorrent us-
ing bi-directional TCP occurs during congestion. TCP’s fast
retransmit mechanism is based on the arrival of DUPACKs
(duplicate ACKs) at the sender. When bi-directional TCP
is used, TCP specifications stipulate that DUPACKs should
not be piggybacked. The reason for this stipulation is that
otherwise the sender has no way of knowing whether piggy-
backed DUPACKs are due of losses, or due to the receiver
sending multiple data packets between two data packet ar-
rivals (and hence piggybacking the same ACK sequence
number on those data packets)2
.
1While it might appear that peers are better off not uploading for this
reason, recall that BitTorrent’s tit-for-tat policy will render such a strategy
ineffective.
2Note that TCP specifications also stipulate that ALL packets except
the initial SYN packet has to have the ACK option bit set, and carry a valid
ACK sequence number.
Hence, a TCP receiver will send only pure ACKs when
DUPACKs have to be transmitted due to losses. While
this design has no issues in a wired environment, it results
in problems when performed as-is in a WLAN environ-
ment. This is because, when congestion has occurred in the
WLAN resulting in a packet drop, the DUPACKs sent back
will be explicitly de-coupled from the data stream in the re-
verse path, thus actually increasing the number of packets
in transit on the wireless leg. While it is true that the TCP
sender, when it receives the DUPACKs, will reduce its num-
ber of outstanding packets in the network by half, the new
transmissions of pure ACKs essentially offsets the decrease
in the number data-packets. Hence, as far as the wireless
leg is concerned, the number of packets in transit stays ap-
proximately the same even after a congestion event!
Figures 2 (b, c) show the number of packets sent on the
wireless leg with time for two BitTorrent connections of a
typical run, one uni-directional and one bi-directional re-
spectively. The congestion events are indicated in the same
figure (buffer drop) as well. It can be observed that while the
number of packets on the wireless leg in general decreases
after congestion events for the uni-directional connection,
this is not true for the bi-directional TCP connection. This
“mis-behavior” can potentially result in performance degra-
dation for the connections due to deviation from the in-
tended behavior of TCP’s congestion control.
We have thus far discussed the negative impact of us-
ing bi-directional TCP connections. While it is true that
the above problems will be issues for any application that
uses simultaneous data transfer using bi-directional TCP, it
is noteworthy that P2P data networks are perhaps one of

the few instances where such bi-directional data transfer
does happen simultaneously and in large volumes. Applica-
tions (or protocols) such as http or secure-shell, while using
bi-directional TCP, do not exercise the bi-directionality the
same way P2P networks do.
3.3 Uploads based Incentives
The tit-for-tat mechanism in BitTorrent encourages
higher rates for uploads to enjoy better download rates. In
a wired environment, it can be shown that peers enjoy their
best download rates when their upload rates are high. Fig-
ure 3(a) shows the aggregate download rate of five simulta-
neous tasks as a function of the upload rate limit in a wired
setting. The upload rate limit is represented as a fraction of
the physical link capacity3
. We observe that the download
rate is an increasing function of the upload rate limit.
However, for a wireless environment, the relationship
between the enjoyed download rate and the upload rate limit
changes. Figure 3(b) shows the aggregate download rate of
the same five tasks4
. As shown, while the download rates
initially increase with higher upload rates, beyond a much
smaller upload rate (than 80%) the download rates actually
drop. This is due to the shared channel nature of the wire-
less link, where the uploads and downloads are contending
for the same wireless channel bandwidth. This is in contrast
to a wired setting where the uploads and downloads do not
share the same bandwidth resources. The same figure also
demonstrates that shutting down the upload rates to zero is
not a solution either as the tit-for-tat strategy of BitTorrent
will kick-in punishing the peer with low download rates.
This problem of uploads contending with the downloads
also goes beyond the incentives mechanism in BitTorrent.
In a wired environment, peers have a relatively low dis-
incentive to continue as a seed once the downloads are com-
pleted with the argument being that upload bandwidth is
anyway largely unused under most conditions except for
TCP ACK traffic. However, in a wireless setting, a mobile
peer functioning as a seed can potentially impact its down-
load rates for other non P2P applications without any direct
counter-benefit for the user. While this contention between
P2P uploads and other application downloads is true even
when the mobile peer is a leech, it can be argued that the
mobile user is at least receiving the benefit of the tit-for-tat
scheme. However, when the peer converts to a seed, this
advantage no longer remains. Hence, any viable solution to
motivate mobile peers to continue as a seed has to ensure
that the uploads do not negatively affect the downloads of
other applications.
3The network is Comcast Cable High-speed Internet with 4Mbps down-
loading rate and 384Kbps upload rate.
4The network is Georgia Tech Wireless LAN 802.11G.
3.4 Incentives and Mobility
The tit-for-tat mechanism in BitTorrent is associated
with a unique identifier for the peer called the peer-id. The
peer-id is typically constructed as either a function of the
IP address of the host and a random value, or simply as a
function of a mobile host specific random value. The peer-
id is regenerated every time fetch tasks are reinitiated. Thus
when a mobile host experiences a hand-off and receives a
new IP address, the ongoing tasks are terminated and the
tasks are re-initiated 5
thus generating a new peer-id. How-
ever, since the peers track the goodness of corresponding
peers based on the peer-id, this results in the mobile peer
losing all the credit it has built with its corresponding peers.
Figure 3(c) show the effect of incentives on the download
size for a 100MB file as a function of time of a typical run.
Under the no mobility scenario, we observe that the down-
load size is lower when there is no upload traffic. This is
the normal incentive behavior. However when we introduce
mobility (IP address changes periodically) we see that the
incentive mechanism is rendered ineffective. Not only is the
actual download size lower than the no-mobility case, there
is marginal difference between the download rates with or
without uploading. This is because every time the IP ad-
dress changes, tasks are re-initiated and thus the host acts
as a new peer without any previous incentives. Thus, the
mobility of a peer can have an adverse impact on the incen-
tive mechanism of a P2P network.
3.5 Server Mobility
Peer address updates in BitTorrent happen at the gran-
ularity of tens of minutes when a peer goes back to the
tracker for an updated set of peers to use in its swarm. Even
within that period, the decision on whether to use a peer or
not for downloads is adjusted at the granularity of tens of
seconds. Note that this is understandable in a wired envi-
ronment where disconnections of peers may not occur fre-
quently. However, when a mobile peer undergoes a hand-
off or simply gets disconnected, the fixed peers who were
clients with respect to the mobile peer will continue to try
to reach the mobile peer till either the peer selection algo-
rithm chooses an alternate peer or the tracker provides al-
ternate addresses or alternate peers (in the order of several
minutes).
Figure 4(a) shows the effect of server side mobility on
the throughput performance for a fixed peer of a typical
run. The fixed peer is served by three mobile peers. The
IP address of the server is changed every fixed time interval
and the resultant throughput as enjoyed by the fixed peers
is observed. We observe that as the time interval between
5We assume here that mobile IP is not used to handle mobility due to
its slow deployment.

No Mobility Every 2 Min. Every 1.5 Min. Every 1 Min. Every 0.5 Min.
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PlayablePercentage(%)
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Figure 4. Impact of server mobility (a), Impact of rarest first fetching (b, c)
successive IP change decreases (reflecting higher mobil-
ity) the throughput falls. Furthermore, the degradation due
to mobility is amplified when the number of mobile peers
amongst the corresponding peers is increased.
3.6 Rarest-first Fetches
As outlined in Section 2, BitTorrent employs a rarest
first fetching paradigm. This results in any snapshot of the
downloaded content for a file not having any significant “in-
sequence” data from the head of the file till a large percent-
age of the file download is completed. Many media formats,
on the other hand, allow for partial playback of content pro-
vided the partial information is in sequence. For example,
for an MPEG file of a 2 hour video, the download of the first
30 minutes worth of the video will still allow for a playback
of that part of the video. Figures 4(b,c) show the playable
fraction of two files being downloaded with increasing frac-
tion of the actual downloads using rarest-fetch. The piece
length is the default value of 256 KB, and the results are
averaged over 10 runs. It can be observed that until a large
percentage of the whole file download is complete, a sig-
nificant percentage of the file still remains unplayable. For
a 5 MB file, even with a 60% download fraction, less than
10% of the file remains playable. In fact, for the 100 MB
file size scenario, more than 90% of the file size needs to be
downloaded to playback the first 2% of the video.
While this property of BitTorrent is an irritant even for a
fixed peer, it is justifiable for two reasons: (a) this enables
the peer to contribute well to the P2P network as it is likely
to have blocks that are different from those at other peers;
and (b) fixed peers do not have to concern themselves with
wireless disconnections thus ensuring that the downloads
will eventually complete and will not be in vain.
However, for a mobile peer, this property can have more
serious implications. In the example of the 100 MB file, if
the mobile peer gets disconnected from its wireless network
(and remains so) after 90% of the file has been downloaded,
the user still cannot playback more than 5% of the content.
Furthermore, the 90% of the file size downloaded thus far
using the rarest-first algorithm in the interest of the well be-
ing of the rest of the P2P network cannot be served back to
the P2P network anyway because of the disconnection!
3.7 Relevance to Other P2P Networks
Thus far, we have investigated properties of the BitTor-
rent P2P data network that negatively impact performance
of a mobile peer. While not all the properties discussed thus
far are directly relevant in the context of the other three pop-
ular P2P data networks (Gnutella, FastTrack, and eDonkey),
a majority of the issues discussed apply. This is especially
true for the other third-generation P2P network - eDonkey,
where a majority of the above issues still hold true except
for the problem with rarest first fetching. For the second-
generation P2P networks represented by Gnutella and Fast-
Track, a subset of the issues apply including the impact
of mobility on incentives, the impact of server mobility,
and the impact of uploads on downloads (for other appli-
cations).
4 Design and Solution
In this section, we outline some key design aspects of
the proposed wP2P solution that are targeted to address the
limitations of existing P2P data networks identified in Sec-
tion 3. Before we outline the design, we briefly categorize
the different limitations into problem classes where prob-
lems within a class all have a common underlying cause.
We use the categorization to then position the design ba-
sis for wP2P. The limitations identified in Section 3 can be
categorized as follows:
• Use of bi-directional TCP: While bi-directional TCP
has been in use by other applications such as http or secure-
shell, P2P data networks uniquely use bi-directional TCP
to transfer large volumes data in both directions simulta-
neously. Hence, several quirks of bi-directional TCP that
do not arise in wireless environments otherwise have to be
addressed.
• Failure of incentives: While P2P data networks heavily
rely on incentives based mechanisms to encourage peers to
contribute to the network, such mechanisms are not tailored
for the unique characteristics of wireless and mobile envi-
ronments. Specifically, the problems of upload-download
self-contention and identity loss after mobility fall under
this category of problems.
• Disconnections and fetching: The newest generation of

Variables
CWND: Congestion window of TCP connection
γ: Connection status threshold
STATUS: Status of the TCP connection
DUPACK CNT: Number of DUPACKs sent by MH
1 Calculate CWND of TCP connections;
2 If CWND < γ
3 Set STATUS to Y OUNG;
4 Else
5 Set STATUS to MATURE;
6 End If
7 Capture TCP packet transmitted by MH;
8 If piggybacked ACK and STATUS = Y OUNG
9 Decouple ACK from DATA; Send pure ACK;
10 If DUPACK and STATUS = MATURE
11 DUPACK CNT ++;
12 If DUPACK CNT % 4 ==0
13 Drop DUPACK;
Figure 5. Pseudo-code : Age-based Manipu-
lation
P2P data networks use multiple simultaneous fetches from
different peers and fetch blocks in a non-sequential order.
While such strategies have obvious benefits in a wired en-
vironment, they compromise performance in a wireless set-
ting. Problems that fall under this category include lack of
playable content during disconnections.
• Mobile host as a server: Unlike in other applications,
in P2P data networks, the mobile host uniquely functions
as a server that can be accessed by other peers. Hence,
several problems attributed to wireless and mobile environ-
ments that can be (and have been) solved or do not exist
when the mobile host acts only as a client either have to be
solved differently or arise newly.
In the rest of the section, we present the design basis
for wP2P in the form of three principles that address the
above four categories of problems. One key property of all
the principles we present is that they are mobile host only
changes that do not require any support from the fixed peers,
and are fully backward compatible with already existing
versions of the P2P (BitTorrent) protocols. Also, we present
any specific implementation details with respect to the Bit-
Torrent protocol. However, all the solutions presented are
purely local to the mobile host and backward compatible
to all existing BitTorrent P2P client applications on fixed
peers.
4.1 Age-based performance optimization
The bi-directional TCP problem arises because of spe-
cific quirks of the TCP design and how they relate to the
wireless environment. However, at the same time, bi-
directional TCP’s performance otherwise is desirable since
it eliminates ACK overheads under normal conditions. In
other words, the solution to the problems with bi-directional
TCP is not to switch back to dual unidirectional TCP con-
nections as that would render the overall performance worse
than when using bi-directional TCP as pure ACKs in both
directions consume precious bandwidth resources.
In this context, the Age-based Manipulation (AM) de-
sign principle of wP2P involves the adaptive manipula-
tion of the bi-directional TCP connections for better perfor-
mance. Essentially, recalling the discussion on ACK loss
rates in Section 3, an argument can be made that TCP’s
throughput performance is vulnerable to ACK losses only
when the congestion window is small. At larger congestion
windows, the higher ACK loss rates do impact progress,
but not significantly. Hence, under age-based manipulation,
explicit conversion of piggybacked ACKs to pure ACKs is
performed when the connection congestion window (cwnd)
is small6
and piggybacked ACKs are let through as-is when
the congestion window is larger than a threshold7
.
Similarly, the use of pure ACKs during fast retransmit
and the associated wireless link overload is addressed by
throttling the number of packets down explicitly such that
the total number of packets, including the pure DUPACKs,
outstanding amounts to half the number of outstanding
packets before the congestion detection. This is performed
by explicitly dropping one-fourth of the DUPACKs in the
reverse path during the first round-trip time after the first
DUPACK is generated. For example, if the cwnd is 100
on congestion detection (assume one packet loss), 99 DU-
PACKs will be generated by the receiver. If one-fourth of
the DUPACKs are dropped, approximately 24 DUPACKs
will be dropped resulting in 75 DUPACKs reaching the
sender. The sender, when it performs fast retransmit and
fast recovery, will thus send out 25 ((100/2)+75-100) new
packets. Thus, even if the 25 new packets generate 25 pure
DUPACKs (assuming the receiver still is in loss recovery),
that amounts to a total of 50 total packets equalling half of
the number of packets outstanding before congestion detec-
tion.
The pseudo-code for the AM component of wP2P so-
lution is listed in Figure 5. First the AM component con-
stantly monitors the congestion window of the TCP con-
nection and if the current connection congestion window is
less than a specified threshold value γ (set to 6 in our eval-
uations as suggested in [10]), the connection status is set to
YOUNG (Line 3). If the congestion window is greater than
the threshold γ, the connection status is set to MATURE
(Line 5). The AM component also maintains state about the
TCP connection and captures TCP packets transmitted by
the mobile host. If the connection status is YOUNG, the AM
module conveys any new ACK information piggybacked on
DATA packets transmitted by the mobile host as separate
6Note that although this manipulation is done at the receiver, standard
techniques exist to track the sender congestion window at the receiver.
7A straightforward value for the threshold is 6 as it can be shown that
congestion windows less than 6 are highly vulnerable to losses in either
direction [10].

Variables
Umax: Maximum upload limit
Ucur, Uprev: Current, previous upload state
Dcur, Dprev: Current, previous download state
α, β: Upload increment and decrement factor
Udec cnt: Upload decrement count
Initialization
1 Ucur = Uprev = 0.5*Umax;
2 Dcur = Dprev = 0; Udec cnt = 0;
Update
3 Determine current P2P download rate and store;
4 If Dprev <> 0
5 If Dprev < Dcur
6 Ucur = Ucur + α; Udec cnt = 0;
7 Else
8 Increment Udec cnt; Ucur = Ucur − β ∗ Udec cnt;
Figure 6. Pseudo-code : Incentive-Aware Op-
erations
pure ACKs (Line 9). This achieves better robustness for
the ACKs given a finite error rate in the wireless channel.
The AM component also detects losses experienced by the
TCP connection and performs the following operation dur-
ing loss recovery. If the status of the connection encounter-
ing loss is MATURE, the AM module drops one DUPACK
every four DUPACKs (Line 13).
4.2 Incentive-Aware operations
The problem of failure of incentives stems from the two
distinct conditions of the self contention in a wireless link
and mobility related identity loss. The Incentive-Aware op-
erations (IA) principle in wP2P is used to address both
problems. Essentially, one technique under incentive aware
operations in wP2P involves the adaptation of the upload
rate in order to find the smallest upload rate possible to
achieve the maximum download rate. While this value for
the upload rate is trivial to determine in a wired setting, a
more sophisticated algorithm is required in a wireless envi-
ronment.
Since a wireless host uses a shared channel, the upload
and download traffic contend with each other and hence in-
creased uploads might reduce the downloads possible. In
order to strike the optimal balance between the two compet-
ing issues (incentives and self-contention) wP2P performs a
Linear Increase History-based Decrease (LIHD) algorithm
that adapts the uploading rate to an optimal value. The intu-
ition behind the LIHD algorithm is that while increasing the
upload rate, it is better to be conservative so that the mobile
host does not upload more than necessary. At the same time
while reducing the uploads it is desirable to be aggressive.
LIHD hence increases upload rates linearly when there is
a positive correlation between the uploads and downloads,
while decreasing the upload rates with increasing aggres-
siveness when decreasing the uploads does not cause a de-
crease in the downloads.
The Incentive-Aware (IA) component monitors upload
and download rates achieved by the P2P application. The
IA component uses window-averaged throughputs to deter-
mine the upload rate control of the P2P application. It con-
trols the upload rate in a way as to optimize the downloads
achieved by the mobile host. While the incentive mecha-
nism requires a peer to upload as much data as possible, the
wireless connection restricts the amount of uploads in or-
der to maximize the downloads. Thus in order to achieve
optimal performance we need to operate at the peak of Fig-
ure 3(b). If the download rate in the current time window
is greater than the download rate achieved in the preced-
ing time window, then the IA component increments the
upload-rate counter (Line 6 in Figure 6). On the other hand,
if the download rate in the current time window is less than
the previously recorded download rate, then the upload rate
counter is decremented by a value proportional to the num-
ber of consecutive cutdowns of the upload rate (Line 8 in
Figure 6). This procedure achieves the optimal trade-off
between incentive driven P2P downloads and wireless con-
tention of the uplink and downlink transmissions.
LIHD can also be used for controlling the rate of up-
loads when the mobile peer becomes a seed, such that the
uploads do not impact negatively any of the downloads be-
ing performed by other non-P2P applications on the mobile
peer. We do not consider this aspect of the mechanism in
this paper, and leave it for future work.
Another technique wP2P uses that falls under this design
principle is identity retention across hand-offs and within
the same swarm. The rationale for generating uniquely dif-
ferent peer-ids in BitTorrent is to be able to identify and
distinguish between clients with the same IP address (say,
if the clients are behind a NAT), but at the same time con-
fine the benefits of incentives accumulated by a peer to only
that swarm in which the peer contributed. Since the typical
scenario for task initiation in wired environments is when a
peer wants to download another data file, generating a new
peer-id is reasonable. However, in mobile environments
task re-initiations can occur just because IP addresses have
changed. wP2P, in this context, performs identity retention
within a swarm, whereby even when task re-initiation is per-
formed, as long as it is for a swarm the mobile peer was a
member of before, the old peer-id is retained. This enables
the mobile peer to leverage its previously accumulated in-
centives. Thus, IA component stores the peer ID of the mo-
bile host when the application is started and when there is
IP layer handoff, the IA component restores the stored peer
ID to maintain incentives.
4.3 Mobility-Aware operations
In Section 3 we observed how in a mobile peer (as a
client) mobility can impact the performance of downloads
in BitTorrent. In this context, wP2P uses a Mobility-Aware

operations (MA) principle to deal with the problems associ-
ated with mobility. MA consists of two techniques, namely
Mobility-aware Fetching and Role Reversal.
• Mobility-aware fetching (MF): This technique explic-
itly controls how data is fetched. The mechanism is that of
exponentially increasing altruism or exponentially decreas-
ing selfishness. Essentially, a mobile peer fetches blocks in
sequence with a probability ps (=1 − pr), and fetches the
rarest-first block with a probability pr. This probability Pr
is a function of the network stability of the mobile host as
measured by the amount of time elapsed since the last net-
work disconnection of the mobile host (or the start of the
download). During the initial phases of the download, the
mobile peer uses a small value (say, 20%) for pr, and expo-
nentially increases pr as it downloads increasing fractions
of the total file.
The rationale for this design is as follows: during the
initial stages of downloads, if the mobile host gets discon-
nected, there is no benefit due to the rarest-fetch mecha-
nism either for the mobile host (in terms of playability) or
to the P2P network (in terms of availability). Hence, it is
more desirable to fetch sequentially. However, as the mo-
bile host stays connected for a longer period of time, its
utility to the P2P network has more stability and hence it
is more meaningful to have available rare blocks. Further-
more, if the mobile host now gets disconnected, the user still
has a considerable portion of the data in-sequence for play-
back. Thus, This mobility-aware adaptive content fetching
achieves a more desired tradeoff between sequential content
availability for disconnected usage of content and usability
of content for other peers to download.
• Role Reversal (RR): The mobile host as a server prob-
lem primarily impacts connections when the mobile host
moves and hence undergoes an IP address change. In this
context, the role reversal technique involves the mobile host
switching its role to that of a client to address the above
problems. Note that the fact that a mobile host switches to
acting as a client will not have any impact on the mobile
host still serving content to the peers it connects to as peers
can serve traffic irrespective of whether or not they initiated
the connection.
RR technique of MA component monitors the IP ad-
dress of the wireless interface. If it detects a change in
the IP address, RR will: (i) stores all the corresponding
peers with which P2P TCP connections have been estab-
lished, (ii) transmits application termination messages to all
the stored peers, and (iii) issues application setup messages
to the stored peers.
4.4 Integrated Operations
For a particular connection, all the three components of
the wP2P framework work in tandem to achieve optimal
performance. We can classify the operation of the compo-
nents with respect to the different periods of the P2P con-
nection, as illustrated in Figure 7. After the connection is
setup, Age-based Manipulation component kicks in during
early stages of the connection. It also works during con-
gestion recovery periods and after reconnection in case of
mobility. The operations of the Incentive-Aware component
are performed during steady-state of the TCP connections.
Finally, the Mobility-Aware operations component is active
during the steady-state period of the TCP connection and
also after IP address change due to reconnection.
Connection
Setup
Age-based
Manipulation
Congestion
Age-based
Manipulation
Mobility-aware Operations
Mobility
Handoff
Re-Connect
Age-based
Manipulation
Incentive-aware Operations
Mobility-aware Operations
Incentive-aware Operations
Time
Figure 7. Integrated operations
5 Evaluation
5.1 Implementation
We use a prototype implementation of wP2P that is built
as an enhancement to the CTorrent client version 1.2 [2].
CTorrent is a lightweight C++ implementation of BitTor-
rent protocol with about 10K lines of code. All the three
components of wP2P are implemented by modifying the
source code of CTorrent and adding a separate module
which works with a packet filtering utility widely avail-
able in Linux distributions. In particular, the Incentive-
Aware Operations and Mobility-Aware Operations compo-
nents are implemented by directly modifying the CTorrent
source code, and the Age-based Manipulation component is
realized with the assistance of Netfilter utility [3]. We now
describe the network setup of our implementation followed
by descriptions of the three individual wP2P components.
• Network Setup: We use two wireless clients on a
popular BitTorrent network to compare the performances
of wP2P with a default version of BitTorrent. One of the
clients has the modified CTorrent version and the other has
a plain vanilla version of the CTorrent (we call this as the
default client). Linux machines connected to the Internet
through ns-2 based wireless emulators are used for the two
clients. An illustration of the network setup is shown in
Figure 10. We use ns-2 emulation to study the impact of
various issues of wireless environments like random wire-
less losses, mobility and bandwidth. We emulate random
wireless losses using random bit errors. We emulate mo-
bility by changing the IP addresses of the clients using the
“ifup/ifdown” commands in Linux. We also monitor the
bandwidth consumed at each client to enforce bandwidth
limitations.

• Age-based Manipulation: The operations of this com-
ponent require the determination of age of the connection.
The determination is based on the measurement of current
congestion window. Since the information of congestion
window typically is not available to the application itself,
the realization of this component has to obtain such infor-
mation from certain networking entities. Specifically, we
choose Netfilter utility to assist the implementation of the
component partly due to its wide deployment in Linux dis-
tributions. A module in the user space keeps track of the
amount of data sent by the remote peer in every round trip
time (rtt), and uses the current value as an estimate of that
peer’s TCP congestion window for the next rtt. We chose
a congestion widow of size 9k bytes (approximately 6 full
packets) as an indicator of the age of the flow. If the window
size is less than the threshold, the connection is considered
to be young, and TCP ACKs are decoupled from the data
packets. Otherwise, the connection is set as mature, and the
packets are sent as such without modifications.
• Incentive-Aware Operations: This component em-
ploys two techniques: identity retention and Linear Increase
History based Decrease (LIHD) rate control. For the first
technique a static peer ID is used in lieu of a randomly gen-
erated peer ID every time the IP address changes. For the
second technique we modify CTorrent’s in-built capability
to control upload and download limits. The default CTor-
rent client allows uses to specify the upload and downloads
limits. We modify it to allow the adaptive LIHD rate control
algorithm described in the previous Section. We use band-
width monitors to check the current upload and download
rates for the algorithm.
•Mobility-Aware Operations: The basic CTorrent client
does not implement the rarest first fetching algorithm com-
monly used by BitTorrent clients. Hence we first implement
the rarest first fetching algorithm for the default client. We
then modify this algorithm to include sequence information
and awareness of download progress. Specifically as de-
scribed in Section 4, at the start of the download higher
probability is given for low sequence numbered pieces as
opposed to high sequence numbered ones. As the download
progresses, the default rarest first search algorithm gains
prominence. The Role reversal technique aids in fast recov-
ery from disconnections caused by mobility. Change of IP
addresses induced by mobility will render all existing con-
nections unusable thus making the BitTorrent client lose all
live peers. The wP2P client monitors the number of live
peers, and infers mobility by the lack of any live peer. Once
mobility is detected, the client will immediately attempt to
build new connections to remote peers to resume serving
data.
Internet
C2
P1
Pn
…...
Default
Ctorrent Client
BitTorrent
Peers
C1
wP2P
Ctorrent Client
P2
Wireless
Emulator
Wireless
Emulator
Figure 10. Testbed used in evaluation
5.2 Evaluation of wP2P
We now look at the effectiveness of the specific mecha-
nisms employed by wP2P to address the limitations of de-
fault BitTorrent clients in wireless environments.
5.2.1 Use of Bi-directional TCP
wP2P addresses the problems of Bi-directional TCP in
wireless environments using the AM component. We study
the impact of this component under varying random loss
conditions emulated by varying the BERs ranging from
1e − 6 to 1.5e − 5. Initially we setup a single seed for
a 100MB file and use the two CTorrent clients as leeches.
We allow each of the leech to initially download about 50%
from the seed (and the other leech). We then remove the
seed so that any further data transfer is just between the two
leech peers.
We compare the download rates observed by the two
leech peers for five runs and show the averaged results in
Figure 8(a). We observe that wP2P outperforms the default
CTorrent under all bit error rates because decoupling ACKs
result in smaller ACK losses for the connection, and in turn,
larger throughput. Specifically, with all the four BER val-
ues, wP2P achieves about 20% more throughput.
5.2.2 Failure of Incentives
As discussed in the previous Section identity retention and
LIHD rate control address the issue of failure or loss of
incentives. To evaluate identity retention we use the two
CTorrent clients to simultaneously download a Fedora-
7-KDE-Live-i686.iso (http://torrent.fedoraproject.org/) im-
age, a 688MB file shared among more than two hundreds
peers when our experiments were conducted. The IP ad-
dresses of the two clients are changed every one minute to
emulate mobility. Figure 8(b) shows the total downloaded
size of a typical run for these two peers. The downloaded
size is plotted as a function of time. For the default client
whenever incentives are lost the download rate is reset to
the initial nominal value unlike in wP2P where the incen-
tives are maintained. Hence we find a higher downloads
for wP2P compared to the default for the same time. After
50 minutes of download we observe that wP2P downloaded
about 100MB more than the default.

1.0e−6 5.0e−6 1.0e−5 1.5e−5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Bit Error Rate
Throughput(KBps)
Default P2P
wP2P
(a) Age-based manipulation
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
100
200
300
400
500
Downloading Time (Minutes))
DownloadedSize(MB)
Default P2P
wP2P
(b) Maintaining peer ID
50 100 150 200
0
20
40
60
80
100
Physical Wireless Bandwidth (KBps)
DownloadingThroughput(KBps)
Default P2P
wP2P
(c) LIHD
Figure 8. Age-based manipulation (a), Incentive-aware operations (b, c)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Default P2P
wP2P
(a) Mobility-aware Fetching (5 MB)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Default P2P
wP2P
(b) Mobility-aware Fetching (100 MB)
Every 6 Min. Every 4 Min. Every 2 Min.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Mobility Rate
UploadingThroughput(KBps)
Default P2P
wP2P
(c) Role-reversal
Figure 9. Mobility-aware Fetching (a, b), Role reversal (c)
To evaluate the benefits of LIHD we vary the bandwidth
of the wireless emulator from 50KBps to 200KBps. Figure
8(c) shows the averaged results over 10 runs for the case
when α = β = 10KBps (refer to Section 4 for defini-
tions of α and β). We observe that, initially as the available
bandwidth increases both wP2P and the default client show
increased download throughputs, but beyond a certain point
the default client starts losing achieved throughput. With
a bottleneck bandwidth of 200KBps we observe that wP2P
outperforms the default by as much as 70%.
5.2.3 Disconnections and Fetching
Figures 9 (a) and (b) show the results of the Mobility-Aware
Fetching technique for different file sizes of the content be-
ing downloaded and compare them against the default rarest
first fetch algorithm. The results are averaged over 20 runs.
In these experiments we set the value of pr (the rarest first
fetching probability) to be equal to the downloaded percent-
age of file. Figure 9(a) shows the result of a 5 MB file.
We observe that MF can achieve significantly better perfor-
mance compared to the default. For instance when 50%
of the data has been downloaded, MF can result in about
30% of playable content while the default rarest first tech-
nique can achieve only about 5%. The improvements are
even more prominent when the file size increases (20% as
opposed to only 0.5% for the same 50% download).
5.2.4 Mobile host as a server
To evaluate the role reversal technique we setup two mo-
bile seeds in the above mentioned swarm(for the Fedora-
7-KDE-Live-i686.iso image). Again we emulate mobility
by changing IP address. Figure 9(c) shows the 10-run av-
eraged uploading throughput of the two clients with differ-
ent disconnection rates (i.e., rate of change of the IP ad-
dress). As the rate of connection disruptions increases the
upload throughput naturally drops. The role reversal tech-
nique of wP2P allows the client to achieve far more up-
load rates when compared to the default client. We observe
that with increasing rate of disruptions the performance im-
provement of wP2P is higher. This is because when there
are frequent disruptions, the re-establishment time for de-
fault P2P becomes a significant factor, whereas in wP2P
the re-establishment time is reduced. We observe improve-
ments of up to 50% in wP2P when connections are dis-
rupted every 2 minutes.
6 Related Work
P2P Enhancements: There are several works in related
literature that propose to improve performance in P2P sys-
tems. Among them, there is a significant amount of work
that focuses on incorporating better incentive schemes to
encourage cooperative behavior and penalize free riders.
Reputation based trust systems ([18] [7] [13]) and key shar-
ing protocol ([21]) are works in this category and these work
try to prevent non-contributing nodes from gaining unde-
served benefits from the system. Other work ([19], [14])
design mechanisms to generate unique peer IDs that fea-
ture desired properties. Some work ([15, 4, 12]) analyze the
performance characteristics of the BitTorrent protocol. In
comparison with these works, our work is focused on the
unique challenges arise as mobile hosts join the p2p net-
works. These challenges are not seen in fixed hosts and
in wired networks. For instance, we deal with the incen-

tive loss problem experienced by mobile hosts instead of
proposing a new incentive mechanism.
Recently more and more p2p users go mobile and are
connected with wireless links. The authors in [9] analyze
the traffic pattern of a well established 802.11 WLAN net-
work and show that P2P traffic including P2P data sharing
and streaming has increased dramatically. The authors in
[6] propose a cross-layer optimization of Gnutella for de-
ployment in purely mobile ad hoc networks. Our work on
the other hand looks at the effect of mobile peers on an ex-
isting P2P network.
Other Related Work: [20] addresses the issue of mobility
in an ongoing transport connection by providing transparent
network connection mobility using reliable sockets (rocks)
and reliable packets (racks). [8] designs a mobility-aware
file system for partially connected operation. Specifically,
it allows applications to maintain consistency on only the
critical portions of its data files. In [11] the authors design
an algorithm to select a new resource provider for mobile
peers when mobility disconnects remote peers. In compar-
ison, our work looks at issues faced by generic P2P data
sharing applications on mobile hosts, identifying a variety
of challenges that arise when mobile hosts join the P2P net-
works and act as P2P server.
7 Conclusions
In this paper we investigated the issues with using mobile
hosts as peers in a P2P network. We identified several in-
sights into the issues such hosts face using a real-life BitTor-
rent P2P data network. We proposed a solution called wP2P
that significantly improves performance and also evaluated
the solution using a real life implementation as an extension
of the CTorrent client.
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