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Chapter 08 - Team Dynamics
8-1
Chapter 08
Team Dynamics
True / False Questions
1. Teams are groups of two or more people who have equal influence over each other regarding
the team's goals and means of achieving those goals.
True False
2. All teams exist to fulfill some purpose, either for the organization or for its members.
True False
3. All teams are groups, but some types of groups are not teams.
True False
4. All groups are teams, but some types of teams are not groups.
True False
5. Team members are held together by their interdependence and need for collaboration to
achieve common goals.
True False
6. Teams are groups with some degree of task interdependence and a common objective.
True False
7. Employees in a department are considered a team only when they directly interact and
coordinate work activities with each other.
True False

8-2
8. Informal groups exist primarily to complete tasks for the organization that management
doesn't know about.
True False
9. Task forces are temporary groups that typically investigate a particular problem and disband
when the decision is made.
True False
10. Some informal groups exist primarily to satisfy the drive to bond.
True False
11. Social identity theory partly explains why people join informal groups.
True False
12. Our desire for informal groups is mostly influenced by our drive to defend.
True False
13. Under stressful or dangerous conditions, people are more likely to stay together than
disperse, even when the other people are strangers.
True False
14. Teams typically provide better customer service.
True False
15. Employees are more motivated in teams because they are accountable to fellow team
members who also monitor their performance.
True False

8-3
16. Process losses are the resources expended to develop and maintain an effective team.
True False
17. Organizational behavior scholars have concluded that employees always work better in
teams than alone.
True False
18. Social loafing is least common in situations where team members work alone towards a
common output.
True False
19. Social loafing is more common among people with collectivist values.
True False
20. Brooks' Law states that, "Whatever can go wrong in groups will, so one should be prepared
for it."
True False
21. A team's effectiveness is partly measured by how well its members' needs are fulfilled.
True False
22. Team effectiveness refers to how well a team accomplishes its objectives for the
organization, even if this undermines the team's ability to survive for future tasks.
True False
23. Companies with the best team dynamics are more likely to have team-based rewards and
encourage interaction among team members.
True False

8-4
24. Teams are generally more effective when the task is complex and lacks definition.
True False
25. Teams are well suited when complex work can be divided into more specialized roles.
True False
26. Teams are best suited for tasks with low interdependence among team members.
True False
27. Reciprocal interdependence is the highest level of task interdependence in organizations.
True False
28. Forming, storming, and norming are the three main levels of task interdependence.
True False
29. Students experience pooled interdependence when they are lined up at the laser printers
trying to get their assignments done just before a class deadline.
True False
30. The optimal team size exists when the team is as small as possible, yet has enough people to
accomplish the task.
True False
31. In effective teams, each member must possess the full set of competencies to perform the
team's entire task alone.
True False

8-5
32. Communicating, comforting and conflict resolution are task related characteristics of
effective team members.
True False
33. The five most frequently mentioned characteristics of effective team members are
communicating, comforting, conflict resolution, coordinating, and cooperating.
True False
34. Diverse teams take longer to work through the stages of team development than do
heterogeneous teams.
True False
35. Diverse teams have faultlines that may split the team into subgroups along gender, ethnic or
other dimensions.
True False
36. The norming stage of team development is marked by interpersonal conflict as team
members compete for leadership and other positions on the team.
True False
37. The longer team members work together, the better they develop common mental models to
help them complete the work together.
True False
38. Teams develop their first real sense of cohesion during the norming stage of team
development.
True False

8-6
39. During the adjourning stage of team development, team members shift their attention away
from relationships and instead focus mainly on completing the task.
True False
40. Team members typically hold one or more formal roles in the team as well as roles that they
informally fulfill at various times.
True False
41. Team roles are typically negotiated among team members.
True False
42. Some team-building interventions clarify the team's performance goals and increase the
team's motivation to accomplish these goals.
True False
43. Team building interventions often fail because many times they are offered as a three-day
jump-start rather than an ongoing process.
True False
44. One advantage of team building activities is that they can be used as general solutions to
general team problems.
True False
45. Norms are the informal rules and standards established by a team to regulate the behavior of
its members.
True False

8-7
46. Team members rarely conform to team norms unless other team members apply
reinforcement or punishment.
True False
47. The only way to alter team norms is to disband the group.
True False
48. One way to change team norms in existing teams is to explicitly discuss the
counterproductive norms with team members using persuasive communication strategies.
True False
49. To maximize cohesiveness, the team should be as small as possible without jeopardizing its
ability to accomplish the task.
True False
50. Cohesiveness tends to be higher in teams where the office design facilitates communication
among team members.
True False
51. Diversity among team members tends to undermine cohesion.
True False
52. Team cohesiveness decreases with increased interaction because there are more chances for
conflicts to emerge.
True False

8-8
53. Highly cohesive teams invariably perform organizational objectives better than teams with
moderate or low cohesiveness.
True False
54. When highly cohesive teams have norms that conflict with organizational goals, team
performance is reduced.
True False
55. Trust occurs when we have positive expectations about another party's intentions and
actions toward us in situations involving vulnerability.
True False
56. Calculus-based trust is based on the belief that the other party will deliver its promises
because punishments would be applied if they fail to deliver those promises.
True False
57. Knowledge-based trust is based on the belief that the other party will deliver its promises
because punishments would be applied if they fail to deliver those promises.
True False
58. Knowledge-based trust develops over time.
True False
59. Identification-based trust is the most robust or sturdy form of trust in work relationships.
True False

8-9
60. When people join teams, they usually begin with a very low level of trust in the other team
members.
True False
61. The trust that new team members feel towards their teammates is fragile and easily
weakened.
True False
62. Members of self-directed work teams have enriched and enlarged jobs.
True False
63. Self-directed work teams plan, organize, and control activities with little or no direct
involvement of supervisors.
True False
64. In most self-directed work teams, the supervisor assigns tasks that individual team members
perform.
True False
65. Virtual teams are usually permanent functional groups that communicate mainly through
weekly face-to-face meetings.
True False
66. Production blocking occurs when employees are unable to complete their tasks because
they spend too much time in meetings.
True False

8-10
67. Evaluation apprehension is most common in meetings attended by people with different
levels of status or expertise.
True False
68. Having groupthink and evaluation apprehension are two characteristics of effective
decision-making teams.
True False
69. One symptom of groupthink is that the team feels comfortable with risky decisions because
possible weaknesses are suppressed or glossed over.
True False
70. Constructive conflict occurs when team members hold different opinions or assumptions
and debate the issues through an open, healthy dialogue.
True False
71. An important rule in brainstorming is that no one is allowed to evaluate or criticize another
team member's ideas.
True False
72. One of the rules of brainstorming is that no one is allowed to piggyback or build on the ideas
of other team members.
True False
73. Electronic brainstorming significantly reduces the problem of production blocking.
True False

8-11
74. The nominal group technique is essentially a variation of brainstorming.
True False
75. The nominal group technique tends to produce more and better ideas than do traditional
interacting groups.
True False
76. The nominal group technique removes the problems of evaluation apprehension and
production blocking.
True False
77. The nominal group technique involves a three-stage process.
True False
Multiple Choice Questions
78. Teams have which of the following features?
A. Two or more people
B. Perceive themselves as a social entity
C. Exist to fulfill some purpose
D. All of the above
E. Only 'A' and 'C'
79. Which of the following statements about teams and groups is FALSE?
A. Some teams exist without any goal or purpose.
B. A team can have dozens of members.
C. Departments are teams when employees interact with each other.
D. All members of a work group have influence, although some may have more influence than
others.
E. A group always requires some form of communication among its members.

8-12
80. Departments are considered teams only when:
A. they operate without any supervisor.
B. everyone in the department has the same set of skills.
C. employees directly interact with each other and coordinate work activities.
D. all employees are located in the same physical area.
E. all of the above conditions exist.
81. Some ______ are just people assembled together without any necessary ________.
A. groups, interdependence
B. skunkworks, norms
C. teams, cohesiveness
D. task forces, goals
E. teams, norms
82. Which of these statements is TRUE?
A. All groups are teams.
B. Groups are teams with a high level of task interdependence.
C. Unlike teams, groups are associated with an organizational objective.
D. Some groups are just people assembled together in the same physical area.
E. Groups are teams without a unifying relationship.
83. A task force refers to:
A. any informal group that has the same members as the permanent task-oriented group.
B. any formal group whose members work permanently and most of their time in that team.
C. any formal group whose members must be able to perform all tasks on the team.
D. any temporary team that investigates a particular problem and typically disbands when the
decision is made.
E. both 'B' and 'C'.

8-13
84. Royal Dutch/Shell Group formed a team to improve revenues for its service stations along
major highways in Malaysia. This team, which included a service station dealer, a union truck
driver and four or five marketing executives, disbanded after it had reviewed the Malaysian
service stations and submitted a business plan. This team is called:
A. a skunkwork.
B. a bootleg group.
C. an informal group.
D. a community of practice.
E. a task force.
85. Which type of team or group is best known for having a champion who bootlegs people and
resources to develop new products, services, or procedures?
A. Skunkworks
B. Communities of practice
C. Task force
D. Informal groups
E. Team-oriented departments
86. Which of the following can be either a formal or informal group?
A. A task force
B. A team-oriented department
C. A management team
D. A self-directed work team
E. A community of practice
87. Skunkworks teams typically have all of the following characteristics EXCEPT:
A. they borrow members from several areas in the organization.
B. they are formed when top management decides where employees should be reassigned in the
organization.
C. they are isolated from the rest of the organization.
D. they borrow resources from elsewhere in the organization.
E. they are able to ignore the more bureaucratic rules governing other organizational units.

8-14
88. Informal groups:
A. are not initiated by the organization.
B. exist primarily for the benefit of their members.
C. usually do not perform organizational goals.
D. All of the above.
E. Only 'A' and 'B'.
89. ______ is one explanation of why people belong to informal groups.
A. Rewards
B. Social identity theory
C. Stages of team development
D. Social loafing
E. None of these factors explains why people belong to informal groups.
90. According to social identity theory:
A. teams are never as productive as individuals working alone.
B. the most effective teams have as many members as the organization can afford.
C. the team development process occurs more rapidly for heterogeneous teams than for
homogeneous teams.
D. people define themselves by their group affiliations.
E. team members identify with their team only when they are publicly recognized as members
of that team.
91. The drive to bond and the dynamics of social identity theory both explain why people:
A. join informal groups.
B. tend to ignore team norms whenever possible.
C. have difficulty feeling cohesiveness in teams.
D. engage in social loafing.
E. work better alone than in teams.

8-15
92. In team dynamics, process losses are best described as:
A. productivity losses that occur when team members need to learn a new task.
B. information lost due to imperfect communication.
C. resources expended towards team development and maintenance.
D. knowledge lost when a team member leaves the organization.
E. None of these statements describe process losses.
93. Brooks's Law says that adding more people to a late software project only makes it later.
This law is mainly referring to:
A. team cohesiveness.
B. process losses.
C. team norms.
D. team environment.
E. informal teams.
94. Social loafing is more likely to occur:
A. in smaller rather than larger teams.
B. when the task is boring.
C. in tasks with high interdependence.
D. when employees believe the team's objective is important.
E. among employees with collectivist rather than individualistic values.
95. Keeping the team size sufficiently small and designing tasks such that each team member's
performance is measurable are two ways to:
A. minimize team cohesiveness.
B. add more roles to the team.
C. increase the risk of forming dysfunctional norms.
D. minimize social loafing.
E. do all of these things to the team.

8-16
96. Which of the following does NOT minimize social loafing?
A. Forming larger work teams.
B. Specialized tasks.
C. Measuring individual performance.
D. Making the work more interesting to the social loafer and other team members.
E. Selecting team members with a collectivist value orientation.
97. The phenomenon where people exert less effort when working in groups than when
working alone is called:
B. social identity.
C. pooled interdependence.
D. team conformity.
E. social loafing.
98. A team that achieves its organizational goals, satisfies member needs, and survives in its
environment:
A. has a strong communication system but inappropriate reward system.
B. is called a skunkworks.
C. has not yet reached its highest level of team development.
D. is an effective team.
E. has too many members for the required task.
99. All of the following organizational environment features potentially affects team
effectiveness EXCEPT which one?
A. Reward systems
B. Communication systems
C. Organizational leadership
D. Team size
E. Physical space

8-17
100. Organizational leadership, organizational structure, and reward systems are:
A. three of the main sources of team cohesiveness.
B. three team design features.
C. three elements of the organizational and team environment.
D. three of the main causes of social loafing.
E. three ways to minimize teambuilding.
101. Of what importance is task interdependence to teams or team dynamics?
A. Task interdependence is not important for teams or team dynamics.
B. Low task interdependence motivates employees to work together as a team.
C. Jobs with high task interdependence are usually completed more effectively by teams than
by individuals working alone.
D. Low task interdependence is necessary to prevent the team from breaking apart.
E. High task interdependence weakens team cohesiveness.
102. In most situations, larger teams:
A. are more effective than smaller teams on any task.
B. consume more time coordinating their roles than do smaller teams.
C. have team members who feel more involved in the team's success than do members of
smaller teams.
E. None of the above.
103. In terms of team size, the general rule is that teams:
A. cannot have more than seven or possibly eight members.
B. should have the fewest number of people possible to perform the work.
C. can be large or small without any influence on the team's effectiveness.
D. cannot have fewer than five members.
E. should be as large as possible, but smaller than the entire organization.

8-18
104. Production employees working on an assembly line usually have which of the following
types of task interdependence?
A. Sequential interdependence
B. Total independence
C. Reciprocal interdependence
D. Pooled interdependence
E. None of these represents the interdependence of an assembly line.
105. Two company divisions produce completely different products but must seek funding
from head office for a capital expansion project. The relationship between these two divisions
would be best described as:
A. total independence.
B. pooled interdependence.
C. reciprocal interdependence.
D. anticipatory interdependence.
E. sequential interdependence.
106. Pooled interdependence is:
A. essential for team effectiveness.
B. the same as reciprocal interdependence.
C. the weakest form of interdependence other than complete independence.
D. the best way to avoid social loafing.
E. None of these statements represent pooled interdependence.
107. Employees should almost always be organized into teams when they have:
A. pooled interdependence.
B. a very high level of heterogeneity.
C. counterproductive norms.
D. high levels of social loafing.
E. reciprocal interdependence.

8-19
108. "Faultlines" are more likely to occur when teams:
A. have very few members.
B. have developed through to the performing stage.
C. are heterogeneous.
D. are highly interdependent.
E. have none of these features.
109. An effective team member __________ and manages the team's work so it is performed
efficiently and harmoniously.
A. cooperates
B. communicates
C. coordinates
D. delegates
E. comforts
110. Teams with strong faultlines:
A. experience more dysfunctional conflict within the team.
B. proceed more quickly through the team development process.
C. have team members with similar demographic and professional backgrounds.
D. tend to have very few members on the team.
E. have better interpersonal relations.
111. A diverse team is better than a homogeneous team:
A. on complex projects and tasks requiring innovative solutions.
B. on tasks requiring a high degree of cooperation.
C. in situations where the team must reach the performing stage of team development quickly.
D. in every organizational activity.
E. Never; heterogeneous teams are always less effective than homogeneous teams.

8-20
112. The first three stages of team development in sequential order are:
A. storming, norming, performing.
B. adjourning, conforming, performing.
C. forming, storming, norming.
D. forming, norming, performing.
E. forming, conforming, reforming.
113. Conforming, performing, and reforming are all:
A. stages of team development.
B. types of team norms.
C. reasons why teams disband.
D. factors that improve team cohesiveness.
114. What generally occurs during the 'storming' stage of team development?
A. Members learn about each other and evaluate the benefits and costs of continued
membership.
B. Members shift their attention away from task orientation to a socioemotional focus as they
realize their relationship is coming to an end.
C. Members have learned to coordinate their actions and now become more task-oriented.
D. Members develop their first real sense of cohesion and, through disclosure and feedback,
make an effort to understand and accept each other.
E. Members try to assume specific responsibilities and influence the team's goals and means of
goal attainment.
115. Which of these statements about team roles is FALSE?
A. Some team roles are formally prescribed with the job.
B. Team members often negotiate the preferred roles in the team during the team development
process.
C. Some team roles support task completion, whereas other roles support the team's
maintenance.
D. Some team roles are informally fulfilled by various team members.
E. A team role is almost always assigned to the same person for the life of the team.

8-21
116. The primary objective of team building is to:
A. accelerate the team development process.
B. encourage all team members to experience lower cohesiveness.
C. help the team discover and remove members guilty of social loafing.
D. help the team move from a homogeneous to a more heterogeneous composition.
E. determine whether the team should accept more tasks.
117. Which type of common team building activity aims to improve relations among team
members?
A. Group therapy.
B. Role definition.
C. Personal testimonials.
D. Problem solving.
E. Paintball wars.
118. Team building should be viewed as:
A. a medical inoculation.
B. a quick jump-start to the team's development.
C. a necessary practice for selecting team leaders.
119. How do norms affect the behavior of team members?
A. Norms encourage members to try new behaviors not previously sanctioned by the team.
B. Norms represent the glue or esprit de corps that holds the team together.
C. Norms help the team regulate and guide the behaviors of its members.
D. Norms help the team move from the forming to storming stages of team development.
E. Norms apply to the attitudes and beliefs, but not the behaviors of team members.

8-22
120. Which of these statements about team norms is FALSE?
A. Norms apply only to thoughts or feelings, not behaviors.
B. Team members often conform to prevailing norms without direct reinforcement or
punishment from other team members.
C. Some norms develop from a critical event in the team's history.
D. Team norms are most strongly influenced by events soon after the team is formed.
E. Some norms develop from the beliefs and values that members bring to the team.
121. If a dysfunctional norm is very deeply ingrained, the best strategy is probably to:
A. tell the group that corporate leaders are willing to tolerate the dysfunctional norm.
B. disband the group and replace it with people having more favorable norms.
C. supplement the existing group with one or two people having more favorable norms.
D. introduce rewards that further support the dysfunctional norm.
E. do nothing - let the team work it out on its own.
122. Team cohesiveness tends to be higher:
A. in smaller teams.
B. when entry into the team becomes extremely difficult and humiliating.
C. when the team has distinct faultlines.
D. when members have limited interaction.
E. when all of these conditions occur.
123. Team success, team size, and member similarity are three:
A. of the main factors influencing team cohesiveness.
B. ways to change team norms.
C. elements of the organizational and team environment.
D. of the main causes of social loafing.
E. ways to minimize teambuilding.

8-23
124. Which of the following does NOT occur as team cohesiveness increases?
A. Team members are more motivated to maintain their membership in the team.
B. Team members spend more time together.
C. Team members experience more dysfunctional conflict among themselves.
D. Team members experience less stress.
E. Team members provide more social support to each other.
125. Compared to people in low-cohesion teams, members of high-cohesion teams:
A. are less motivated to maintain their membership.
B. are more likely to resolve conflicts swiftly and effectively.
C. are less sensitive to each other's needs.
D. are less likely to share information with each other.
E. tend to experience all of these results.
126. Calculus, knowledge and identification are:
A. the three stages of team development.
B. three ways to improve team cohesiveness.
C. three foundations of trust in teams.
D. three types of psychological contract.
E. the three stages of conflict among team members.
127. Calculus-based trust:
A. no longer exists in American companies.
B. is the minimum level of trust to hold a relationship together.
C. is mainly based on the other party's predictability.
D. occurs when one party thinks, feels, and responds like the other party.
128. Which foundation of trust is determined mainly by the other party's predictability?
A. Calculus-based
B. Identification-based
C. Knowledge-based
D. Relational
E. Transactional

8-24
129. Liam works with four other accounting professionals as a team within one company. Liam
doesn't particularly agree with many of his teammates' ideas, such as leaving work early and
failing to double-check some account entries. However, he works comfortably with the group
because their behavior and decisions are predictable. What foundation of trust does Liam have
in this team?
A. Calculus-based
B. Identification-based
C. Knowledge-based
D. Evaluation-based
E. Liam has no trust at all in this team
130. Employees tend to join a virtual or conventional team with:
A. a moderate or high level of trust in their new team members.
B. serious doubts about the willingness of other team members to welcome them to the team.
C. complete identification with the values of other team members.
D. no trust in their new team members.
E. mainly calculus-based trust.
131. Self-directed teams:
A. are informal groups.
B. usually exist as communities of practice.
C. have substantial autonomy over the execution of a complete task.
D. consist of a group of employees led by their immediate supervisor.
E. are common in Europe but rarely found in North America.
132. Which of the following allows employees to collectively plan, organize, and control work
activities with little or no direct involvement of a higher-status supervisor?
A. Gainsharing teams
B. Production teams
C. Joint health and safety committees
D. Self-directed teams
E. Quality circles

8-25
133. Members of self-directed teams have jobs that are:
A. typically in services rather than production.
B. enlarged but not enriched.
C. enriched but not enlarged.
D. specialized with a high division of labor.
E. both enlarged and enriched.
134. Self-directed teams are best suited to situations where:
A. employees perform highly interdependent tasks.
B. management wants to closely monitor employee performance.
C. employees perform identical tasks.
D. employees do not get along with each other.
E. All of the above.
135. Virtual teams are best described as:
A. groups of employees who are almost (virtually) identical to each other in skills and values.
B. cross-functional groups of employees that operate across space, time and organizational
boundaries.
C. formal work teams in which most members do not feel that they are really part of the team.
D. informal groups that meet only in cyberspace.
E. groups of employees from different departments who are located near each other.
136. Two features that distinguish virtual teams from conventional teams are:
A. size and heterogeneity.
B. lack of co-location and dependence on information technology.
C. joint optimization and primary work unit.
D. norms and trust.
E. None of the above distinguishes virtual teams from conventional teams.

8-26
137. Globalization and knowledge management have made __________ necessary for
organizations to remain competitive.
A. groupthink
B. virtual teams
C. command-and-control management
D. Delphi method
E. None of these are necessary as a result of globalization and knowledge management.
138. Production blocking and evaluation apprehension:
A. improve the creative process.
B. help teams to avoid groupthink.
C. are two ways to overcome group polarization.
D. do all of these.
E. do none of these.
139. Which of the following statements about evaluation apprehension in team settings is
TRUE?
A. Evaluation apprehension increases with the individual's motivation to share his or her ideas.
B. Evaluation apprehension is more likely to occur when team members formally evaluate each
other's performance throughout the year.
C. Evaluation apprehension motivates team members to generate creative solutions, no matter
how silly they may sound.
D. Evaluation apprehension does not apply to team settings.
E. None of these statements is true.
140. Groupthink is caused by:
B. an opinionated team leader.
C. isolation of the team from outsiders.
D. stress due to an external threat.
E. All of these factors cause groupthink.

8-27
141. Groupthink characteristics cause team members to be ___________ their decisions.
A. uncomfortable with
B. confused about
C. hesitant and doubtful about
D. more aware of the characteristics of
E. highly confident in
142. Teams tend to make better decisions when:
A. team members have similar backgrounds and characteristics.
B. the team leader is able to sway the group towards one preference over others.
C. team norms encourage consensus rather than disagreement.
D. all of these conditions exist.
E. none of these conditions exist.
143. The main advantage of constructive conflict is that it:
A. minimizes dysfunctional conflict among team members.
B. increases the level of group polarization.
C. removes production blocking.
D. encourages team members to re-examine the assumptions and logic of their preferences in
the decision.
E. helps the team to make decisions more quickly.
144. Brainstorming requires team members to:
A. openly criticize each other's ideas.
B. avoid mentioning ideas that seem silly.
C. present ideas only when they are certain that the ideas are feasible.
D. do all of these.
E. do none of these.

8-28
145. Which of the following explicitly encourages team members to 'piggyback' or 'hitchhike'
on the ideas presented by other team members?
A. Brainstorming.
B. Group polarization.
C. Constructive conflict.
D. Groupthink.
E. Nominal group technique.
146. Which of these team decision-making structures explicitly discourages criticism and
debate?
A. Nominal group technique.
B. Delphi method.
C. Brainstorming.
D. All three - brainstorming, Delphi method, and nominal group technique explicitly
discourage criticism and debate.
E. Both brainstorming and nominal group technique explicitly discourages criticism and
debate.
147. Which of the following is NOT a feature of nominal group technique?
A. Participants openly debate and criticize ideas constructively.
B. After the problem is described, team members silently and independently write down as
many solutions as they can.
C. Nominal group technique discourages criticism or debate.
D. After ideas have been presented, participants silently and independently rank order or vote
on each proposed solution.
E. Nominal group technique follows an individual, then team, then individual process.
148. In which decision-making structure do participants typically meet, but only interact with
each other for part of the meeting?
A. Delphi method.
B. Nominal group technique.
C. Brainstorming.
D. Constructive conflict.
E. None of these team decision making structures prevents participants from interacting with
each other for part of the meeting.

8-29
Essay Questions
149. Describe three (3) reasons why employees join informal groups in organizational settings.
150. You have been given the unique opportunity to develop a 'greenfield' site for a new
production facility. A greenfield site means that the entire operation is new, including
employees, structure and practices. You want to ensure that the new plant supports self-directed
work teams, unlike other company facilities which mainly focus on individual performance.
Describe four different elements of the organizational and team environment that influence
team effectiveness that you need to consider.
151. Identify the three levels of task interdependence and give an organizational example for
each.

8-30
152. Due to a corporate restructuring, three of the six employees who work on your corporate
investment team have been transferred to other teams and replaced with three new recruits to
the organization. Although the three new hires are experienced from other organizations, they
are new to your organization and your team. Consequently, your team will pass through most
stages of team development again. Briefly describe any three (3) stages of team development
that your team will probably experience after the new recruits join the team. Your answer
should recognize that only half of your corporate investment team members are new while the
others have been with the team and organization for more than one year.
153. A large bank wanted to develop a more team-focused culture, so it put all departments and
branches through a series of three-day team building sessions. These expensive sessions
represented a combination of wilderness-based trust building (such as trust falls and leaderless
problem solving) and sessions in which employees revealed their personal experiences and
problems. Six months after the workforce had completed this training; the bank discovered that
most departments and branches operated very much as they had before the team building
program. There was little team culture and employees worked together with varying degrees of
proficiency. Moreover, several employees had left the firm because they were upset about
revealing their personal lives to colleagues. Identify two reasons that would explain the general
failure of this team building intervention.

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His ambition to excel as an orator is said to have been kindled by
hearing a masterly and much admired speech of Callistratus. For
instruction, he resorted to Isæus, and, as some say, to Isocrates,
both eminent teachers of the art of rhetoric. He had a stimulus to
exertion in the resolution to prosecute his guardians for abuse of
their trust; and having gained the cause, B. C. 364, in the conduct of
which he himself took an active part, recovered, it would seem, a
large part of his property. The orations against Aphobus and Onetor,
which appear among his works, profess to have been delivered in
the course of the suit; but it has been doubted, on internal evidence,
whether they were really composed by him so early in life.
Be this as it may, his success emboldened him to come forward as a
speaker in the assemblies of the people; on what occasion, and at
what time, does not appear. His reception was discouraging. He
probably had underrated, till taught by experience, the degree of
training and mechanical preparation requisite at all times to
excellence, and most essential in addressing an audience so acute,
sensitive and fastidious as the Athenians. He labored also under
physical defects, which almost amounted to disqualifications. His
voice was weak, his breath short, his articulation defective; in
addition to all this, his style was throughout strained, harsh and
involved.
Though somewhat disheartened by his ill success, he felt as
Sheridan is reported to have expressed himself on a similar occasion,
that it was in him, and it should come out; beside, he was
encouraged by a few discerning spirits. One aged man, who had
heard Pericles, cheered him with the assurance that he reminded
him of that unequalled orator; and the actor Satyrus pointed out the
faults of his delivery, and instructed him to amend them. He now set
himself in earnest to realize his notions of excellence; and the
singular and irksome methods which he adopted, denoting certainly
no common energy and strength of will, are too celebrated and too
remarkable to be omitted, though the authority on which they rest is
not free from doubt. He built a room under ground, where he might
practise gesture and delivery without molestation, and there he

spent two or three months together, shaving his head, that the
oddity of his appearance might render it impossible for him to go
abroad, even if his resolution should fail. The defect in his
articulation he cured by reciting with small pebbles in his mouth. His
lungs he strengthened by practising running up hill, while reciting
verses. Nor was he less diligent in cultivating mental than bodily
requisites, applying himself earnestly to study the theory of the art
as explained in books, and the examples of the greatest masters of
eloquence. Thucydides is said to have been his favorite model,
insomuch that he copied out his history eight times, and had it
almost by heart.
Meanwhile, his pen was continually employed in rhetorical exercises;
every question suggested to him by passing events served him for a
topic of discussion, which called forth the application of his
attainments to the real business of life. It was perhaps as much for
the sake of such practice, as with a view to reputation, or the
increase of his fortune, that he accepted employment as an
advocate, which, until he began to take an active part in public
affairs, was offered to him in abundance.
Such was the process by which he became confessedly the greatest
orator among the people by whom eloquence was cultivated, as it
has never been since by any nation upon earth. He brought it to its
highest state of perfection, as did Sophocles the tragic drama, by the
harmonious union of excellences which had before only existed
apart. The quality in his writings, which excited the highest
admiration of the most intelligent judges among his countrymen in
the later critical age, was the Protean versatility with which he
adapted his style to every theme, so as to furnish the most perfect
examples of every order and kind of eloquence.
Demosthenes, like Pericles, never willingly appeared before his
audience with any but the ripest fruits of his private studies, though
he was quite capable of speaking on the impulse of the moment in a
manner worthy of his reputation. That he continued to the end of his
career to cultivate the art with unabated diligence, and that, even in

the midst of public business, his habits were those of a severe
student, is well known.
The first manifestation of that just jealousy of Philip, the ambitious
king of Macedon, which became the leading principle of his life, was
made 252 B. C., when the orator delivered the first of those
celebrated speeches called Philippics. This word has been naturalized
in Latin and most European languages, as a concise term to signify
indignant invective.
From this time forward, it was the main object of Demosthenes to
inspire and keep alive in the minds of the Athenians a constant
jealousy of Philip’s power and intentions, and to unite the other
states of Greece in confederacy against him. The policy and the
disinterestedness of his conduct have both been questioned; the
former, by those who have judged, from the event, that resistance to
the power of Macedonia was rashly to accelerate a certain and
inevitable evil; the latter, by those, both of his contemporaries and
among posterity, who believe that he received bribes from Persia, as
the price of finding employment in Greece for an enemy, whose
ambition threatened the monarch of the East. With respect to the
former, however, it was at least the most generous policy, and like
that of the elder Athenians in their most illustrious days—not to
await the ruin of their independence submissively, until every means
had been tried for averting it; for the latter, such charges are hard
either to be proved or refuted. The character of Demosthenes
certainly does not stand above the suspicion of pecuniary corruption,
but it has not been shown, nor is it necessary or probable to
suppose, that his jealousy of Philip of Macedon was not, in the first
instance, far-sighted and patriotic. During fourteen years, from 352
to 338, he exhausted every resource of eloquence and diplomatic
skill to check the progress of that aspiring monarch; and whatever
may be thought of his moral worth, none can undervalue the genius
and energy which have made his name illustrious, and raised a
memorial of him far more enduring than sepulchral brass.

In 339 B. C., Philip’s appointment to be general of the Amphictyonic
League gave him a more direct influence than he had yet possessed;
and in the same year, the decisive victory of Cheronea, won over the
combined forces of Thebes, Athens, &c., had made him master of
Greece. Demosthenes served in this engagement, but joined, early
in the flight, with circumstances, according to report, of marked
cowardice and disgrace. He retired for a time from Athens, but the
cloud upon his character was but transient for, shortly after, he was
entrusted with the charge of putting the city in a state of defence,
and was appointed to pronounce the funeral oration over those who
had been slain. After the battle of Cheronea, Philip, contrary to
expectation, did not prosecute hostilities against Athens; on the
contrary, he used his best endeavors to conciliate the affections of
the people, but without success. The party hostile to Macedon soon
regained the superiority, and Demosthenes was proceeding with his
usual vigor in the prosecution of his political schemes, when news
arrived of the murder of Philip, in July, 336.
The daughter of Demosthenes had then lately died; nevertheless, in
violation of national usage, he put off his mourning, and appeared in
public, crowned with flowers and with other tokens of festive
rejoicing. This act, a strong expression of triumph over the fall of a
most dangerous enemy, has been censured with needless asperity;
the accusation of having been privy to the plot for Philip’s murder,
beforehand, founded on his own declaration of the event some time
before intelligence of it came from any other quarter, and the
manifest falsehood as to the source of the information, which he
professed to derive from a divine revelation, involves—if it be judged
to be well founded—a far blacker imputation.
Whether or not it was of his own procuring, the death of Philip was
hailed by Demosthenes as an event most fortunate for Athens, and
favorable to the liberty of Greece. Thinking lightly of the young
successor to the Macedonian crown, he busied himself the more in
stirring up opposition to Alexander, and succeeded in urging Thebes
into that revolt, which ended in the entire destruction of the city, B.
C., 335. This example struck terror into Athens. Alexander demanded

that Demosthenes, with nine others, should be given up into his
hands, as the authors of the battle of Cheronea and of the
succeeding troubles of Greece; but finally contented himself with
requiring the banishment of Charidemus alone.
Opposition to Macedon was now effectually put down, and, until the
death of Alexander, we hear little more of Demosthenes as a public
man. During this period, however, one of the most memorable
incidents of his life occurred, in that contest of oratory with
Æschines, which has been more celebrated than any strife of words
since the world began. The origin of it was as follows. About the
time of the battle of Cheronea, one Ctesiphon brought before the
people a decree for presenting Demosthenes with a crown for his
distinguished services; a complimentary motion, in its nature and
effects very much like a vote in the English parliament, declaratory
of confidence in the administration. Æschines, the leading orator of
the opposite party, arraigned this motion, as being both untrue in
substance and irregular in form; he indicted Ctesiphon on these
grounds, and laid the penalty at fifty talents, equivalent to about
$50,000. Why the prosecution was so long delayed, does not clearly
appear; but it was not brought to an issue until the year 330, when
Æschines pronounced his great oration “against Ctesiphon.”
Demosthenes defended him in the still more celebrated speech “on
the crown.” These, besides being admirable specimens of rhetorical
art, have the additional value, that the rival orators, being much
more anxious to uphold the merits of their own past policy and
conduct, than to convict and defend the nominal object of
prosecution, have gone largely into matters of self-defence and
mutual recrimination, from which much of our knowledge of this
obscure portion of history is derived. Æschines lost the cause, and
not having the votes of so much as a fifth part of the judges,
became liable, according to the laws of Athens, to fine and
banishment. He withdrew to Rhodes, where he established a school
of oratory. On one occasion, for the gratification of his hearers, he
recited first his own, then his adversary’s speech. Great admiration
having been expressed of the latter, “What then,” he said, “if you

had heard the brute himself?” bearing testimony in these words to
the remarkable energy and fire of delivery which was one of
Demosthenes’ chief excellences as an orator.
A fate similar to that of his rival, overtook Demosthenes himself, a
few years later, B. C. 324. Harpalus, an officer high in rank and favor
under Alexander, having been guilty of malversation to such an
extent that he dared not await discovery, fled to Greece, bringing
with him considerable treasures and a body of mercenary soldiers.
He sought the support of the Athenians; and, as it was said, bribed
Demosthenes not to oppose his wishes. Rumors to that effect got
abroad, and though his proposals were rejected by the assembly,
Demosthenes was called to account, and fined fifty talents, nearly
$50,000, as having been bribed to give false counsel to the people.
Being unable to pay the amount of the fine, it acted as a sentence of
banishment, and he retired into Ægina. Like Cicero, when placed in a
similar situation, he displayed effeminacy of temper, and an unmanly
violence of regret, under a reverse of fortune.
In the following year, however, the death of Alexander restored him
to political importance; for when that event opened once more to
the Athenians the prospect of shaking off the supremacy of
Macedonia, Demosthenes was recalled, with the most flattering
marks of public esteem. He guided the state during the short war
waged with Antipater, the Macedonian viceroy, until the inequality of
the contest became evident, and the Macedonian party regained its
ascendency. Demosthenes then retired to the sanctuary of Calauria,
an island sacred to Neptune, on the coast of Argolis. Sentence of
death was passed on him in his absence. He was pursued to his
place of refuge by the emissaries of Antipater, and being satisfied
that the sanctity of the place would not protect him, he took poison,
which, as a last resort, he carried about his person, concealed in a
quill.
Most of the speeches of Demosthenes are short, at least compared
with modern oratory. He rarely spoke extempore, and bestowed an
unusual degree of pains on his composition. That style which is

described by Hume as “rapid harmony, exactly adapted to the sense;
vehement reason, without any appearance of art; disdain, anger,
boldness, freedom, involved in a continued stream of argument”—
instead of being, as it would seem, the effervescence of a powerful,
overflowing mind, was the labored produce of much thought, and
careful, long-continued polish.
If we compare the two greatest orators of antiquity—Cicero and
Demosthenes—it may seem difficult to decide between them. By
devoting his powers almost exclusively to oratory, the latter excelled
in energy, strength, and accuracy; and as a mere artist, was
probably the superior. Cicero, by cultivating a more extended field,
was doubtless far the abler lawyer, statesman and philosopher. Of
the value of their works to mankind, there is no comparison; for
those of Cicero are not only more numerous and diversified, but of
more depth, wisdom, and general application. We must also remark,
that while the soul of Demosthenes appears to have been selfish and
mean, that of Cicero ranks him among the noblest specimens of
humanity, whether of ancient or modern times.
If we compare the speeches of these great men with the efforts of
modern orators, we shall see that the latter greatly surpass them in
range of thought, power of diction and splendor of illustration. The
question then arises, why did the orations of Cicero and
Demosthenes produce such electrical effects upon their auditors?
The reason doubtless was, that they paid the greatest attention to
action, manner and tones of voice—thus operating upon their
hearers by nearly the same powers as the modern opera. There was
stage effect in their manner, and music in their tones, combined with
most perfect elocution—and the application of these arts, carried to
the utmost perfection, was made to the quick Italians or mercurial
Athenians. These suggestions may enable us to understand the fact,
that speeches, which, uttered in the less artful manner of our day,
and before our colder audiences, would fall flat and dead upon the
ear, excited the utmost enthusiasm, in more southern climes, two
thousand years ago.

Organizational Behavior Emerging Knowledge 5th Edition McShane Test Bank

APELLES.
Apelles was a celebrated painter of Cos, a little island in the Egean
Sea. The date of his birth is not known, but he painted many
portraits of Philip, and was still nourishing in the time of Alexander,
who honored him so much that he forbade any other artist to draw
his picture. His chief master was Pamphilius, a famous painter of
Macedon. He was so attentive to his profession, that he never spent
a day without employing his pencil,—whence the proverb of Nulla
die sine linea. His most perfect picture was the Venus Anadyomene,
which, however, was not wholly finished when the painter died.
He executed a painting of Alexander, holding thunder in his hand, so
much like life, that Pliny, who saw it, says that the hand of the king
with the thunder seemed to come out of the picture. This was
placed in Diana’s temple at Ephesus. He made another picture of
Alexander; but the king, on coming to see it after it was painted,
appeared not to be satisfied with it. It happened, however, at that
moment a horse, passing by, neighed at the horse in the picture,
supposing it to be alive; upon which the painter said, “One would
imagine that the horse is a better judge of painting, than your
majesty.” When Alexander ordered him to draw the picture of
Campaspe, one of his favorites, Apelles became enamored of her,
and the king permitted him to marry her. He wrote three volumes on
painting, which were still extant in the age of Pliny,—but they are
now lost. It is said that he was accused, while in Egypt, of conspiring
against the life of Ptolemy, and that he would have been put to
death, had not the real conspirator discovered himself, and thus
saved the artist. Apelles put his name to but three pictures; a
sleeping Venus, Venus Anadyomene, and an Alexander.
Apelles appears to have been not only an excellent artist, but a man
of admirable traits of character. Being once at Rhodes, he met with

the productions of Protogenes,[10] which so greatly delighted him
that he offered to purchase the whole. Before this, Protogenes was
entirely unappreciated by his countrymen, but the approbation of
one so distinguished as Apelles, brought him into notice, and his
fame soon became established.
Another story of Apelles is told as having given rise to the well-
known maxim, Ne sutor ultra crepidam: Let the shoemaker stick to
his last. Apelles placed a picture, which he had finished, in a public
place, and concealed himself behind it, in order to hear the criticisms
of the passers-by. A shoemaker observed a defect in the shoe, and
the painter forthwith corrected it. The cobbler came the next day,
and being somewhat encouraged by the success of his first remark,
began to extend his censure to the leg of the figure, when the angry
painter thrust out his head from behind the figure, and told him to
keep to his trade.
Apelles excelled in grace and beauty. The painter, who labored
incessantly, as we have seen, to improve his skill in drawing,
probably trusted as much to that branch of his art, as to his coloring.
We are told that he only used four colors. He used a varnish which
brought out the colors, and at the same time preserved them. His
favorite subject was the representation of Venus, the goddess of
love,—the female blooming in eternal beauty; and the religious
system of the age favored the taste of the artist.
Apelles painted many portraits of Alexander the Great, who, we are
told, often visited his painting room. It is not easy to reconcile his
rambling life with this account, unless we suppose that Apelles
followed him into Asia; a conjecture not altogether improbable, if we
read the account of the revelries at Susa, after Alexander’s return
from India, and of the number of all kinds of professional artists
then assembled to add to the splendor of the festival.

[10] Protogenes, a painter of Rhodes, who flourished about 328
years B. C. He was originally so poor that he painted ships to
maintain himself. His countrymen were ignorant of his merits,
before Apelles came to Rhodes and offered to buy all his pieces,
as we have related. This opened the eyes of the Rhodians; they
became sensible of the talents of their countryman, and liberally
rewarded him. Protogenes was employed seven years in finishing
a picture of Jalysus a celebrated huntsman, supposed to have
been the son of Apollo and the founder of Rhodes. During all this
time the painter lived only upon lupines and water, thinking that
such aliment would leave him greater flights of fancy; but all this
did not seem to make him more successful in the perfection of his
picture. He was to represent in this piece a dog panting, and with
froth at his mouth; but this he could never do with satisfaction to
himself; and when all his labors seemed to be without success, he
threw his sponge upon the piece in a fit of anger. Chance alone
brought to perfection what the utmost labors of art could not do;
the fall of the sponge upon the picture represented the froth of
the mouth of the dog in the most perfect and natural manner, and
the piece was universally admired. Protogenes was very exact in
his representations, and copied nature with the greatest nicety;
but this was blamed as a fault by his friend Apelles. When
Demetrius besieged Rhodes, he refused to set fire to a part of the
city, which might have made him master of the whole, because he
knew that Protogenes was then working in that quarter. When the
town was taken, the painter was found closely employed, in a
garden, finishing a picture; and when the conqueror asked him
why he showed not more concern at the general calamity, he
replied, that Demetrius made war against the Rhodians; and not
against the fine arts.

DIOGENES.
This eccentric individual was a native of Sinope, a city of Pontus, and
born 419 B. C. Having been banished from his native place, with his
father, upon the accusation of coining false money, he went to
Athens, and requested Antisthenes, the Cynic,[11] to admit him
among his disciples. That philosopher in vain attempted to drive
away the unfortunate supplicant. He even threatened to strike him;
but Diogenes told him he could not find a stoic hard enough to repel
him, so long as he uttered things worthy of being remembered.
Antisthenes was propitiated by this, and received him among his
pupils.
Diogenes devoted himself, with the greatest diligence, to the lessons
of his master, whose doctrines he afterwards extended and enforced.
He not only, like Antisthenes, despised all philosophical speculations,
and opposed the corrupt morals of his time, but also carried the
application of his principles, in his own person, to the extreme. The
stern austerity of Antisthenes was repulsive; but Diogenes exposed
the follies of his cotemporaries with wit and humor, and was,
therefore, better adapted to be the censor and instructor of the
people, though he really accomplished little in the way of reforming
them. At the same time, he applied, in its fullest extent, his principle
of divesting himself of all superfluities. He taught that a wise man, in
order to be happy, must endeavor to preserve himself independent
of fortune, of men, and of himself; and, in order to do this, he must
despise riches, power, honor, arts and sciences, and all the
enjoyments of life.
He endeavored to exhibit, in his own person, a model of Cynic
virtue. For this purpose, he subjected himself to the severest trials,
and disregarded all the forms of polite society. He often struggled to
overcome his appetite, or satisfied it with the coarsest food;

practised the most rigid temperance, even at feasts, in the midst of
the greatest abundance, and did not consider it beneath his dignity
to ask alms.
By day, he walked through the streets of Athens barefoot, with a
long beard, a stick in his hand, and a bag over his shoulders. He was
clad in a coarse double robe, which served as a coat by day and a
coverlet by night; and he carried a wallet to receive alms. His abode
was a cask in the temple of Cybele. It is said that he sometimes
carried a tub about on his head which occasionally served as his
dwelling. In summer he rolled himself in the burning sand, and in
winter clung to the marble images covered with snow, that he might
inure himself to the extremes of the climate. He bore the scoffs and
insults of the people with the greatest equanimity. Seeing a boy
draw water with his hand, he threw away his wooden goblet, as an
unnecessary utensil. He never spared the follies of men, but openly
and loudly inveighed against vice and corruption, attacking them
with keen satire, and biting irony. The people, and even the higher
classes, heard him with pleasure, and tried their wit upon him. When
he made them feel his superiority, they often had recourse to abuse,
by which, however, he was little moved. He rebuked them for
expressions and actions which violated decency and modesty, and
therefore it is not credible that he was guilty of the excesses with
which his enemies reproached him. His rudeness offended the laws
of good breeding, rather than the principles of morality.
On a voyage to the island of Ægina, he fell into the hands of pirates,
who sold him as a slave to Xeniades, a Corinthian. He, however,
emancipated him, and entrusted to him the education of his
children. He attended to the duties of his new employment with the
greatest care, commonly living in summer at Corinth, and in the
winter at Athens. It was at the former place that Alexander found
him at the road-side, basking in the sun; and, astonished at the
indifference with which the ragged beggar regarded him, entered
into conversation with him, and finally gave him permission to ask
him a boon. “I ask nothing,” answered the philosopher, “but that
thou wouldst get out of my sunshine.” Surprised at this proof of

content, the king is said to have exclaimed, “Were I not Alexander, I
would be Diogenes.” The following dialogue, though not given as
historical, is designed to represent this interview.
Diogenes. Who calleth?
Alexander. Alexander. How happeneth it that you would not come
out of your tub to my palace?
D. Because it was as far from my tub to your palace, as from your
palace to my tub.
A. What! dost thou owe no reverence to kings?
D. No.
A. Why so?
D. Because they are not gods.
A. They are gods of the earth.
D. Yes, gods of the earth!
A. Plato is not of thy mind.
D. I am glad of it.
A. Why?
D. Because I would have none of Diogenes’ mind but Diogenes.
A. If Alexander have anything that can pleasure Diogenes, let me
know, and take it.
D. Then take not from me that you cannot give me—the light of the
sun!
A. What dost thou want?
D. Nothing that you have.
A. I have the world at command.
D. And I in contempt.
A. Thou shalt live no longer than I will.

D. But I shall die, whether you will or no.
A. How should one learn to be content?
D. Unlearn to covet.
A. (to Hephæstion.) Hephæstion, were I not Alexander, I would wish
to be Diogenes.
H. He is dogged, but shrewd; he has a sharpness, mixed with a kind
of sweetness; he is full of wit, yet too wayward.
A. Diogenes, when I come this way again, I will both see thee and
confer with thee.
D. Do.
We are told that the philosopher was seen one day carrying a
lantern through the streets of Athens: on being asked what he was
looking after, he answered, “I am seeking an honest man.” Thinking
he had found among the Spartans the greatest capacity for
becoming such men as he wished, he said, “Men, I have found
nowhere, but children, at least, I have seen in Lacedæmon.” Being
asked, “What is the most dangerous animal?” his answer was,
“Among wild animals, the slanderer; among tame, the flatterer.” He
expired 323 B. C., at a great age, and, it is said, on the same day
that Alexander died. When he felt death approaching, he seated
himself on the road leading to Olympia, where he died with
philosophical calmness, in the presence of a great number of people
who were collected around him.
None of the works of Diogenes are extant; in these he maintained
the doctrines of the Cynics. He believed that exercise was of the
greatest importance, and capable of effecting everything. He held
that there were two kinds of exercise,—one of the body, and one of
the mind,—and that one was of little use without the other. By
cultivation of the mind, he did not mean the accumulation of
knowledge or science, but a training which might give it vigor, as
exercise endows the body with health and strength.

[11] The Cynics were a sect of philosophers, founded by
Antisthenes, at Athens; they took their name from their
disposition to criticise the lives and actions of others. They were
famous for their contempt of riches, their neglect of dress, and
the length of their beards. They usually slept on the ground.

PLATO.
It has been remarked by Coleridge, that all men are born disciples
either of Plato or Aristotle: by which he means that these two great
men are the leaders in the two kinds of philosophy which govern the
thinking world,—the one looking into the soul, as the great well of
truth; the other, studying the outward world, and building up its
system upon facts collected by observation. The truth is doubtless to
be found by compounding the two systems.
Plato was born at Athens, in May, 429 B. C. He was the son of
Ariston and Perectonia. His original name was Aristocles, and it has
been conjectured that he received that of Plato, from the largeness
of his shoulders: this, however, is improbable, as Plato was then a
common name at Athens. Being one of the descendants of Codrus,
and the offspring of a noble, illustrious, and opulent family, he was
educated with the utmost care; his body was formed and invigorated
with gymnastic exercises, and his mind was cultivated and trained by
the study of poetry and of geometry; from which two sources he
doubtless derived that acuteness of judgment and warmth of
imagination, which stamped him as at once the most subtle and
flowery writer of antiquity.
He first began his literary career by writing poems and tragedies; but
he was disgusted with his own productions, when, at the age of
twenty, he was introduced into the society of Socrates, and was
qualified to examine, with critical accuracy, the merit of his
compositions, and compare them with those of his poetical
predecessors. He, therefore, committed them to the flames. During
eight years he continued to be one of the pupils of Socrates; and
though he was prevented by indisposition from attending the
philosopher’s last moments, he collected, from the conversation of
those that were present, and from his own accurate observations,

very minute and circumstantial accounts, which exhibit the concern
and sensibility of the pupil, and the firmness, virtue, and elevated
moral sentiments of the dying philosopher.
After the death of Socrates Plato retired from Athens, and, with a
view to emerge his stores of knowledge, he began to travel over
different countries. He visited Megara, Thebes, and Elis, where he
met with the kindest reception from his fellow-disciples, whom the
violent death of their master had likewise removed from Attica. He
afterwards visited Magna Græcia, attracted by the fame of the
Pythagorean philosophy, and by the learning, abilities, and
reputation of its professors, Philolaus, Archytas, and Eurytus. He
then passed into Sicily, and examined the eruptions of Etna. He
visited Egypt, where the mathematician Theodorus, then flourished,
and where he knew that the tenets of the Pythagorean philosophy
had been fostered.
When he had finished his travels, Plato retired to the groves of
Academus, in the neighborhood of Athens, and established a school
there; his lectures were soon attended by a crowd of learned, noble,
and illustrious pupils; and the philosopher, by refusing to have a
share in the administration of political affairs, rendered his name
more famous and his school more frequented. During forty years he
presided at the head of the academy, and there he devoted his time
to the instruction of his pupils, and composed those dialogues which
have been the admiration of every succeeding age. His studies,
however, were interrupted for a while, as he felt it proper to comply
with the pressing invitations of Dionysius, of Syracuse, to visit him.
The philosopher earnestly but vainly endeavored to persuade the
tyrant to become the father of his people, and the friend of liberty.
In his dress, Plato was not ostentatious; his manners were elegant,
but modest, simple, and without affectation. The great honors which
were bestowed upon him, were not paid to his appearance, but to
his wisdom and virtue. In attending the Olympian games, he once
took lodgings with a family who were totally strangers to him. He ate
and drank with them, and partook of their innocent pleasures and

amusements; but though he told them his name was Plato, he did
not speak of the employment he pursued at Athens, and never
introduced the name of that great philosopher, whose doctrines he
followed, and whose death and virtues were favorite topics of
conversation in every part of Greece. When he returned to Athens,
he was attended by the family which had so kindly entertained him;
and, being familiar with the city, he was desired to show them the
celebrated philosopher whose name he bore. Their surprise may be
imagined, when he told them that he was the Plato whom they
wished to behold.
In his diet he was moderate; and, indeed, to sobriety and
temperance in the use of food, and abstinence from those
indulgences which enfeeble the body and enervate the mind, some
have attributed his preservation during a terrible pestilence which
raged in Athens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. Plato
was never subject to any long or lingering indisposition; and, though
change of climate had enfeebled a constitution naturally strong and
healthy, the philosopher lived to an advanced age, and was often
heard to say, when his physicians advised him to leave his residence
at Athens, where the air was impregnated by the pestilence, that he
would not advance one single step to gain the top of Mount Athos,
were he assured of attaining the longevity which the inhabitants of
that mountain were said to enjoy. Plato died on his birth-day, in the
eighty-first year of his age, about the year 348 B. C. His last
moments were easy, and without pain; and, according to some
authors, he expired in the midst of an entertainment; but Cicero tells
us that he died while in the act of writing.
The works of Plato are numerous; with the exception of twelve
letters, they are all written in the form of dialogue, in which Socrates
is the principal interlocutor. Thus he always speaks by the mouth of
others, and the philosopher has nowhere made mention of himself,
except once in his dialogue entitled Phædon, and another time in his
Apology for Socrates. His writings were so celebrated, and his
opinions so respected, that he was called divine; and for the
elegance, melody, and sweetness of his expressions, he was

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