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MASS-STORAGE SYSTEMS
 Overview of Mass Storage Structure
 Disk Structure
 Disk Scheduling
 Disk Management
 Swap-Space Management
 RAID Structure
 Stable-Storage Implementation

OBJECTIVES
 Describe the physical structure of secondary and
tertiary storage devices and the resulting effects
on the uses of the devices
 Explain the performance characteristics of mass-
storage devices
 Discuss operating-system services provided for
mass storage, including RAID and HSM

OVERVIEW OF MASS STORAGE
STRUCTURE
 Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern
computers
 Drives rotate at 60 to 200 times per second
 Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and
computer
 Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk
arm to desired cylinder (seek time) and time for desired sector
to rotate under the disk head (rotational latency)
 Head crash results from disk head making contact with the
disk surface
 That’s bad
 Disks can be removable
 Drive attached to computer via I/O bus
 Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre
Channel, SCSI
 Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk
controller built into drive or storage array

 Magnetic tape
 Was early secondary-storage medium
 Relatively permanent and holds large quantities of data
 Access time slow
 Random access ~1000 times slower than disk
 Mainly used for backup, storage of infrequently-used
data, transfer medium between systems
 Kept in spool and wound or rewound past read-write head
 Once data under head, transfer rates comparable to disk
 20-200GB typical storage
 Common technologies are 4mm, 8mm, 19mm, LTO-2 and
SDLT

DISK STRUCTURE
 Disk drives are addressed as large 1-
dimensional arrays of logical blocks, where
the logical block is the smallest unit of
transfer
 The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is
mapped into the sectors of the disk
sequentially
 Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on
the outermost cylinder
 Mapping proceeds in order through that
track, then the rest of the tracks in that
cylinder, and then through the rest of the
cylinders from outermost to innermost

DISK SCHEDULING
 The operating system is responsible for using hardware
efficiently — for the disk drives, this means having a
fast access time and disk bandwidth
 Access time has two major components
 Seek time is the time for the disk are to move the
heads to the cylinder containing the desired sector
 Rotational latency is the additional time waiting
for the disk to rotate the desired sector to the disk
head
 Minimize seek time
 Seek time ≈ seek distance
 Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes
transferred, divided by the total time between the first
request for service and the completion of the last
transfer

DISK SCHEDULING
 Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing
of disk I/O requests
 We illustrate them with a request queue (0-199)
98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67
Head pointer 53

FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders

SSTF
 Selects the request with the minimum seek
time from the current head position
 SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF
scheduling; may cause starvation of some
requests
 Illustration shows total head movement of
236 cylinders

SCAN
 The disk arm starts at one end of the disk,
and moves toward the other end, servicing
requests until it gets to the other end of the
disk, where the head movement is reversed
and servicing continues.
 SCAN algorithm Sometimes called the
elevator algorithm
 Illustration shows total head movement of
208 cylinders

C-SCAN
 Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN
 The head moves from one end of the disk to
the other, servicing requests as it goes
 When it reaches the other end, however, it
immediately returns to the beginning of the
disk, without servicing any requests on the
return trip
 Treats the cylinders as a circular list that
wraps around from the last cylinder to the first
one

C-LOOK
Version of C-SCAN
Arm only goes as far as the last
request in each direction, then
reverses direction immediately,
without first going all the way to the
end of the disk

SELECTING A DISK-SCHEDULING
ALGORITHM
 SSTF is common and has a natural appeal
 SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that
place a heavy load on the disk
 Performance depends on the number and types of
requests
 Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file-
allocation method
 The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a
separate module of the operating system, allowing it to
be replaced with a different algorithm if necessary
 Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the
default algorithm

DISK MANAGEMENT
 Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a
disk into sectors that the disk controller can read and write
 To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to
record its own data structures on the disk
 Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders
 Logical formatting or “making a file system”
 To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into
clusters
 Disk I/O done in blocks
 File I/O done in clusters
 Boot block initializes system
 The bootstrap is stored in ROM
 Bootstrap loader program
 Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks

BOOTING FROM A DISK IN WINDOWS
2000

SWAP-SPACE MANAGEMENT
 Swap-space — Virtual memory uses disk space as an
extension of main memory
 Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file
system, or, more commonly, it can be in a separate disk
partition
 Swap-space management
 4.3BSD allocates swap space when process starts;
holds text segment (the program) and data segment
 Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use
 Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a page is
forced out of physical memory, not when the virtual
memory page is first created

DATA STRUCTURES FOR SWAPPING ON
LINUX SYSTEMS

RAID STRUCTURE
 RAID – multiple disk drives provides
reliability via redundancy
 Increases the mean time to failure
 Frequently combined with NVRAM to
improve write performance
 RAID is arranged into six different levels

RAID
 Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of
multiple disks working cooperatively
 Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit
 RAID schemes improve performance and improve the reliability
of the storage system by storing redundant data
 Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each
disk
 Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1)
provides high performance and high reliability
 Block interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less
redundancy
 RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so
automatic replication of the data between arrays is common
 Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left
unallocated, automatically replacing a failed disk and having
data rebuilt onto them

EXTENSIONS
 RAID alone does not prevent or detect data corruption
or other errors, just disk failures
 Solaris ZFS adds checksums of all data and metadata
 Checksums kept with pointer to object, to detect if
object is the right one and whether it changed
 Can detect and correct data and metadata corruption
 ZFS also removes volumes, partitions
 Disks allocated in pools
 Filesystems with a pool share that pool, use and
release space like “malloc” and “free” memory
allocate / release calls

ZFS CHECKSUMS ALL METADATA AND
DATA

TRADITIONAL AND POOLED STORAGE

STABLE-STORAGE IMPLEMENTATION
 Write-ahead log scheme requires stable
storage
 To implement stable storage:
 Replicate information on more than one
nonvolatile storage media with
independent failure modes
 Update information in a controlled
manner to ensure that we can recover the
stable data after any failure during data
transfer or recovery

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