PDU 214 Methods of Observation & Interviewing: Introduction to Observation

PDU 214 METODE OBSERVASI & WAWANCARA
SEMESTER GENAP 2015/2016
FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS KATOLIK INDONESIA ATMA JAYA
Kuliah II - 25 Januari 2016
OBSERVATION: 
Introduction

One Day
Objectives
Mahasiswa mampu membedakan karakteristik
masing-masing teknik observasi yang
digunakan dalam pengumpulan data kualitatif;
2
Mahasiswa mampu memilih teknik observasi
sesuai dengan tujuan;3
Mahasiswa mampu memahami hakikat
observasi sebagai metode 
pengumpulan data pada 
penelitian kualitatif;
1
Mahasiswa mampu memahami tahap
pelaksanaan observasi untuk 
pengumpulan data kualitatif.
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FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS KATOLIK INDONESIA ATMA JAYA © 2016 Ardhiati
Why Observe?
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What they say they do What they actually do

Observation deals not with 
what people say they do 
but what they actually do.
“Observing” can be an invaluable way of collecting data 
because what you see with your own eyes 
and perceive with your own senses is not filtered 
by what others might have (self-) reported to you 
or what the author of some document might have seen. 
In this sense, your observations are a form of primary data, 
to be highly cherished.
Why Observe?
5
(Gillham, 2008: 1; Yin, 2011: 143)

We don’t always know what 
is going to interest or appeal; 
only our behaviour shows that.
You study behaviour nor just 
for its own sake but because 
it reflects those elusive 
internal states that underlie 
what people do, and of which 
they may not be fully aware.
Why Not Just Ask People?
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(Gillham, 2008: 18)

(Present)
Behaviour.
What to be Observed?
7

be|hav¦iour
/bɪˈheɪvjə/
noun
1. [MASS NOUN] the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, 
especially towards others:
“he will vouch for her good behaviour"
“his insulting behaviour towards me”
[MASS NOUN] “behaviour patterns”
[COUNT NOUN] “management is a set of techniques and behaviours for getting things done”
1.1. the way in which an animal or person behaves in response 
to a particular situation or stimulus:
“the feeding behaviour of predators”
1.2. the way in which a machine or natural phenomenon works or functions:
“the erratic behaviour of the old car”
What to be Observed?
8
(Oxford Dictionary)

Why do we observe behaviours 
rather than ‘still images’?
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10
IMAGE CREDIT: 
lynncinnamon.com
WHAT IS 
SHE THINKING?

11
IMAGE CREDIT: 
scene from movie Amy (2015)
HOW DOES 
SHE FEEL?

12
IMAGE CREDIT: 
scene from movie Amy (2015)
WHAT IS 
HAPPENING?

Making conclusions and inferences from a single (visual) information 
is not only difficult for the researcher, but can also caused misleading.
WHY?
13
Let’s Discuss!

According to Research Designs
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THE USES OF OBSERVATION
ExplanatoryDescriptive Exploratory
(Gillham, 2008: 6-7)

The most general use of observation 
in research is exploratory, 
as it is in real life.
It is also widely applicable 
in the preliminary stage of 
much social research, 
from which purpose, questions 
and methods emerge.
According to Research Designs
16
THE USES OF OBSERVATION
(Gillham, 2008: 6-7)
Exploratory

The techniques differ according to 
the kind of data the researcher needs.
Observation Techniques
17

17
STRUCTURED UNSTRUCTURED
TIME Economical Very expensive
TYPES OF DATA Largely quantitative Largely qualitative
RESEARCHER’S
ROLE
Non-participant Participant
DATA
SUMMARIZING
Easily Require extended presentation
THE DEPTH OF
THE DATA
Essentially superficial Capable of analysis of meaning 
in depth
SOCIAL CONTEXT Limited linkage Embedded
BEHAVIOUR
Not suited to the study of
extended and elaborate
sequences of behaviour
Behaviour viewed as part of
complex social interaction
(Gillham, 2008: 3-6)

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STRUCTURED
SEMI-
STRUCTURED
UNSTRUCTURED
TIME Economical
The extremes can be
used in combination
to complement each
other;
The extremes
represent points on a
graded scale
because there are
thechniques with
varying degrees of
structure.
Very expensive
TYPES OF DATA Largely quantitative Largely qualitative
RESEARCHER’S
ROLE
Non-participant Participant
DATA
SUMMARIZING
Easily Require extended presentation
THE DEPTH OF
THE DATA
Essentially superficial Capable of analysis of meaning 
in depth
SOCIAL CONTEXT Limited linkage Embedded
BEHAVIOUR
Not suited to the study of
extended and elaborate
sequences of behaviour
Behaviour viewed as part of
complex social interaction
(Gillham, 2008: 3-6)

Even though the structured and unstructured 
have differences, they both have a common characteristic, 
that is they both are systematic.
In taking this approach we come to see things, 
events and the connections between them 
that would either be overlooked or not recognized as significant. 
Detailed recording, in words or images, 
brings into focus what is there to be seen or understood.
Systematic observation: 
checking, specifying and seeking explanation 
forces us out of our preconceptions, 
leading to a shift in understanding.
19
(Gillham, 2008: 5-6)

Specifying exact behaviours and 
recording their frequency over short, 
usually intermittent, periods of time.
Defined
21
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
(Gillham, 2008: 9)
“
”

Event sampling is used when 
the behaviour of interest is discontinuous and low frequency, 
where you would miss the events if you didn’t observe continously. 
The behaviour has to be specified exactly 
so that it can be recorded on an observation schedule 
in a simple check-mark fashion.
You need to define the events 
to the very exact behaviour.
Event Sampling
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(Gillham, 2008: 11)

Time/interval sampling is used when 
you observe for a specified duration at specified intervals.
The general principle is that 
the higher the frequency of the ‘events’ 
the shorter the periods of observation.
Note that you would have to define 
in terms of specific behaviours 
what you mean by a ‘response.’
Time/Interval Sampling
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(Gillham, 2008: 14-15)

Basically, it is IMPOSSIBLE 
for the researcher to get a clear picture 
of every single behaviours, 
which we could called as 
the population of behaviours.
That’s why we need to make a clear definition 
of the ‘behaviour’ we would like to observe, 
choose samples of behaviours, and make sure that 
they are representing the ‘population.’
Why ‘sampling’?
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Semi-structured 
Observation

In the semi-structured variety of observation 
you go in with quite specific questions 
but they are ‘open’ so that you cannot predict 
what you are going to find.
Defined
26
SEMI-STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
(Gillham, 2008: 19)
“
”

Ecological psychology is about the interaction of people and their environment in terms of its
effect on their psychological make-up: at the detailed level of the behaviour and mental
experience of individuals.
It emphasizes that those psychological dimensions are only meaningfully
understood in the context in which they occur, and that the environment
facilitates or constrains people’s behavioural or mental state.
Ecological Psychology
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SEMI-STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
people
(Gillham, 2008: 22-23)
context

An observation technique 
which the researcher’s approach 
is less pre-formed, in the sense of knowing 
what they want to find out or 
how they plan to do it.
Defined
29
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
(Gillham, 2008: 39)
“
”

Ethnography began as the descriptive arm of social anthropology where the focus of the latter
was on the study of ‘primitive’ societies.
It aimed to describe the rules and practices of a culture and is concerned
with elucidating the character of a particular culture.
Ethnographic research by its very nature is not predetermined even as to broad direction, 
let alone its theoretical orientation.
Ethnography
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UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
(Gillham, 2008: 40-44)
FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS KATOLIK INDONESIA ATMA JAYA

UNSTRUCTUREDSTRUCTURED
SEMI-
STRUCTURED
Structured to Unstructured
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TIME PERIOD
TYPES OF DATA
DESCRIPTION OF
BEHAVIOUR
THE DEPTH OF
THE DATA
ROLE OF THEORY
INTERPRETATION
RESEARCHER’S
ROLE
USAGE
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES

SEMI-
STRUCTURED
32
TIME PERIOD
TYPES OF DATA
DESCRIPTION OF
BEHAVIOUR
THE DEPTH OF
THE DATA
ROLE OF THEORY
INTERPRETATION
RESEARCHER’S
ROLE
USAGE
OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES
(Gillham, 2008: 3-6)
Relatively short Moderate Relatively long
Quantitative Quantitative & Qualitative Qualitative
Minimal Moderate Extensive
Essentially Superficial Moderately Deep Essentially Deep
Plays a major role Plays a moderate role Plays a minor role
Easily Moderate Extended
Mostly non-participation
Moderately between non- and 
participation
Mostly participation
Mostly quantitative studies Mostly ecological psychology Mostly ethnographic studies

SEMI-
STRUCTURED
33
ANECDOTAL
RECORDS
PARTICIPATION
CHARTS
CHECKLISTS
RATING SCALES
BEHAVIOUR
TALLYING
CHARTING
PROCEDURES
METHODS OF OBSERVING & RECORD KEEPING

SEMI-
STRUCTURED
33
ANECDOTAL
RECORDS
PARTICIPATION
CHARTS
CHECKLISTS
RATING SCALES
BEHAVIOUR
TALLYING
CHARTING
PROCEDURES
METHODS OF OBSERVING & RECORD KEEPING
(Cartwright & Cartwright, 1984)

Want to Know More?
Cartwright, C.A. & Cartwright, G.P. (1984). Developing observation skills (2nd
ed.).
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Gillham, B. (2008). Observation techniques: Structured to unstructured. London:
Continuum International Publishing Group.
All illustrations designed by freepik.
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PDU 214 Methods of Observation & Interviewing: Introduction to Observation

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PDU 214 Methods of Observation & Interviewing: Introduction to Observation