Pediatric poisoning .ppt

Ramin Nazari, MD
March 2015
Poisoning
In
Children

Objectives
• Review the initial assessment of the child with a
possible ingestion
• Describe the general management principles for
ingestions and toxic exposures
• Describe likely presentations for common and/or
potentially fatal pediatric ingestions

Introduction
• Since 1960, there has been a 95% decline in the
number of pediatric poisoning deaths
• child resistant packaging
• heightened parental awareness
• more sophisticated interventions

Introduction
• 60% of poison control center calls are for patients
under the age of 17
• Most pediatric ingestions are accidental and
minimally toxic
• Higher morbidity in adolescent ingestions
• Many pediatric patients present with unexplained
signs and symptoms

Initial Assessment: Overview
• Treat the patient, not the poison
• Assessment triangle
• General appearance
• Work of breathing
• Circulation
• ABCDs
• IV access and monitors
• High Suspicion

Initial Assessment:
Physical Examination
• Directed exam (after ABCs)
• mental status
• vital signs
• pupillary size
• skin signs

Initial Assessment:
Diagnostics
• Cardiac monitoring or 12-lead EKG
• Chest and abdominal radiographs
• Electrolytes (anion and osmolar gaps)
• Toxin screening rarely helpful
• Specific drug levels

Secondary Assessment
• AMPLE
• A- Allergies
• M- Medications
• P- Past Medical History
• L- Last Po Intake
• E- Events Prior To Presentation

Secondary Assessment
• Obtain detailed history of the amount and time of
ingestion
• Use family or friends as historians
• May need to search the home

Prevention or Minimization of Absorption
• Ipecac
• No longer recommended
• Gastric lavage (also
almost never used)
• massive ingestions
• arrival within one hour of
ingestion

Activated Charcoal
• Ineffective in some
ingestions
• pesticides
• hydrocarbons
• acids, alkalis, and alcohols
• iron
• lithium

Activated Charcoal
• Recommended dose
• child under 6 years: 1 - 2 grams/kg
• 6 years and older: 50 - 100 grams
• Sorbitol?
• Hypernatremia
• Dehydration

Cathartics
• Studies of the effectiveness of cathartics are
inconclusive
• Complications related to systemic absorption
• electrolyte disturbance and severe dehydration
• neuromuscular impairment and coma

Whole Bowel Irrigation
• Golytely® (PEG-ELS)
• combination of electrolytes and polyethylene glycol
(PEG)
• 0.5 L/hr for small children and 2 L/hr for adolescents
and adults
• administer for 4 - 6 hours or until effluent is clear
• useful for ingestions of iron, lithium, and sustained
release preparations

Enhancement of Excretion
• Ion trapping
• Traps weak acids in renal tubular fluid
• Dose 1-2 mEq/kg every 3-4 hours
• alkalinization of the urine (goal pH 7-8)
• salicylates, phenobarbital, TCA

Enhancement of Excretion
• Multiple dose charcoal
• May cause bowel obstruction
• phenobarbital, theophylline
• Hemodialysis
• Alcohols
• Salicylates
• Lithium

What is ingested?
• Toddler/Preschoolers
• Most common ingestion: Acetaminophen
• Most common fatal ingestion: Iron
• Adolescents
• Most common ingestion: Acetaminophen
• Most common fatal ingestion: Cyclic antidepressants

Case #1
• You are called to transport a 16 year old girl after she
tells her boyfriend “I took as much Tylenol® as I could”
• Denies other ingestions or medication use
• Ingestion occurred three hours prior

Case Progression
• Patient is anxious, diaphoretic nauseated
• PE reveals a mildly tender abdomen
• HR- 120 RR-20 BP 100/70

Case Discussion: Acetaminophen
• Most widely used pediatric analgesic on the market
• Most common ingestion in toddlers, preschoolers and adolescents
• Normal cytochrome P-450 metabolism yields small amounts of free
oxidants that are hepatotoxic
• Glutathione depletion

Case Discussion: Stages
• stage 1 (4 - 12 hours)
• malaise, nausea, vomiting
• asymptomatic, increasing LFTs
• liver failure, elevated prothrombin time
• stage 4 (7 - 8 days)
• resolution of liver injury

Case Discussion: Diagnosis
• Kinetics dictate that a serum level be checked 4 hours
after ingestion
• Toxic dose: 150 mg/kg
• 4 hour toxic blood level 150mg/dl
• Apply the level to the management nomogram

http://www.pajournalcme.com/pajournal/cme/pa010a02.htm

Our Patient
• Charcoal 50mg
• 4 hour level is 215 g/ml
• Now What?????

Case Discussion:
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) Therapy
• Proven to be 100% effective when given within 8 - 16
hours of ingestion
• Load with 140 mg/kg orally
• Complete regimen with 17 subsequent doses of 70
mg/kg every four hours

Case Discussion:
N-acetylcysteine(NAC)Therapy
• IV NAC (Acetadote)
• Load with 50 mg/kg over 4 hours
• Maintenance 100mg/kg over 16 hours

Q
A 16-year-old girl presents after telling her ex-boyfriend that she took
40 Tylenol tablets. She is angry about having been brought to a
medical facility and is tearful. She is otherwise asymptomatic and
“feels fine.” Which of the following statements about this clinical
scenario is NOT TRUE?
a) Acetaminophen level should be checked 4 hours after ingestion
b) If the patient is asymptomatic at this time, she is unlikely to have a
significant ingestion
c) A psychiatric consult is indicated after the patient is medically
cleared
d) Teenagers are more likely to talk about an act rather than actually
doing it
e) If acetaminophen overdose is present, N-acetylcysteine is the
antidote of choice and may be given IV or PO
f) The liver is the primary organ affected by acetaminophen overdose

Case #2
• 12 year old boy was dared by his friends to drink from
a bottle filled with antifreeze
• Swallowed a few gulps, and then yelled and dropped
the bottle
• His father, utters a few choice words and calls an
ambulance

Case Progression
• Upon arrival, the child has clumsy movements with a
decreased level of consciousness
• Vital signs: HR 120, RR 20,
BP 80/50, T 37.4º C, weight 45 kg
• What class of toxin has this child ingested?

Alcohol
• Why can’t we let him ‘sleep it off’?

Case Discussion: Alcohols
• Ethanol
• hypoglycemia, osmolar gap, ketoacidosis
• Methanol
• blindness, large osmolar gap, metabolic acidosis
• Ethylene glycol
• renal failure (calcium oxalate crystals), osmolar gap,
metabolic acidosis

Alcohol metabolism
• Ethylene glycol
• Broken down by ADH to oxalic acid
• Results in renal failure
• Methanol
• Broken down by ADH to formic acid
• Results in blindness

Alcohol metabolism
• Ethanol
• Broken down by ADH to CO2 and H2O
• Results in DRUNK
• Isopropanol
• Broken down by ADH to CO2 and H2O
• Results in REALLY DRUNK

Osmolar Gap
• osmolar gap = measured – calculated
• calculated = (2 x Na) + (glucose/18) +(BUN/2.8)
• normal = 10 – 15 mOsm/kg H2O
• all alcohols cause an elevated osmolar gap

Anion Gap
• [Na + K] – [HCO3 + Cl] > 12
• M- Methanol
• U- uremia
• D- DKA
• P- Paraldehyde
• I- Iron
• L- Lactic Acidosis
• E- Ethylene Glycol
• S- Salicylates

Case Progression
• Patient has an osmolar gap and metabolic acidosis
consistent with ingestion of ethylene glycol
• Now what?????

Therapeutic Intervention
• IV ethanol (old)
• competes for alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) to prevent build up
of toxic metabolites
• Fomepizole (4-methyl pyrazole)
• Blocks alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
• Requires ICU admission

Q
The osmolal gap is calculated by subtracting the calculated
osmolarity, (2 * Na) + (BUN/2.8) + (glucose/18), from the
measured serum osmolarity. An osmolal gap >10 mmol/L
suggests the presence of large amounts of osmotically active
substances of low molecular weight, including all of the following
EXCEPT:
a) glycerol.
b) mannitol.
c) ethylene glycol.
d) ethanol.
e) gasoline or other petroleum distillates.
f) isopropyl alcohol.

Q
Clinical and laboratory findings with isopropanol poisoning
include all of the following EXCEPT:
a) fruity breath odor is common.
b) CNS depression.
c) ketosis without metabolic acidosis.
d) hemorrhagic gastritis with nausea and bloody emesis may
occur.
e) Hyperglycemia is a common complication.

Case #3
• You arrive at a home where a parent has called
911. You find a 5 year old who is crying and
rubbing at his arms yelling “get the bugs off me.”
• T-102, HR- 150, RR-23, BP- 100/60
• Skin is flushed, pupils are dilated and extremities
are warm and dry.
• His neuro exam is nonfocal
• What toxidrome?

ANTI-CHOLINERGIC
You decide to????

Case #3
a. Transport to the nearest ED with lights and sirens
b. Tell the mom her child is hallucinating and call
psychiatry
c. Run away- you are deathly afraid of insects
d. Transport to a medical facility after astutely
recognize that this child likely took a large dose of
benadryl

Toxidrome: Anticholinergics/antihistamines
• Mad as a hatter
• Red as a beet
• Dry as a bone
• Hot as a hare
• Blind as a bat

Anticholinergic Toxidrome
• CNS
• agitation, hallucinations, coma
• Respiratory
• Circulation
• tachycardia, arrhythmias, hypertension
• Skin
• warm, flushed, dry
• Eyes
• mydriasis

Case Progression
• gastric decontamination
• charcoal, 50 grams
• supportive care
• antidote: physostigmine
• indications: coma, unstable vital signs
• 0.5 mg IV (child) or 1 - 2 mg IV (teen)
• Contraindicated if wide QRS

Case #4
• You are dispatched to a home after a call by a parent
whose 2 year old was found with a container of
dishwasher detergent in his hands and some around
the mouth
• patient is asymptomatic
• physical exam is normal, including oropharynx

Case #4
• What are you going to do?
• Reassure parents and leave them to follow-up with
the pediatrician as needed?
• Offer transport to the local ED?

Case Discussion: Caustics
• drain cleaners, oven cleaners, automatic dishwasher
detergents
• If pH <3 or >12 = BAD
• DO NOT LAVAGE, GIVE ACTIVATED CHARCOAL, GIVE
CATHARTICS OR GIVE IPECAC

Caustics
• Acids
• Coagulation necrosis
• Stomach injury
• Alkali
• Liquefaction necrosis
• Oropharyngeal and esophageal injury

Caustics
• Dilution
• Water
• Milk
• Saline
• Give within 30 minutes

Caustics
• Can your PE predict injury?
NO!!!!!

Q
• Management of the patient with caustic ingestion includes
all of the following EXCEPT:
a) Respiratory distress is usually due to upper airway
edema. In this case, intubation should be performed
early under direct visualization.
b) Activated charcoal should be given upon arrival to the
ED.
c) Immediately give water or milk to drink.
d) Give steroids (prednisone 2 mg/kg per day) for deep
discrete burns and circumferential esophageal burns.

Q
• The most frequent delayed complication of alkali (e.g.,
lye) ingestion is:
• upper airway obstruction
• esophageal stricture
• esophageal or gastric perforation
• duodenal atresia

All of the following are true statements regarding the effects
of a significant caustic ingestion EXCEPT:
a) Dyspnea or hoarseness may result from upper airway
edema.
b) Caustic burns may cause dysphagia, odynophagia, and
drooling.
c) Absence of oral lesions rules out significant esophageal
injury and the need for endoscopy.
d) Dyspnea, hematemesis, metabolic acidosis and shock
can occur.
e) All choices listed are true.
Q

Case #5
• Grandma says her 18 month old grandson “isn’t acting
right”
• Grandmother is concerned that child may have ingested
some of her medication
• Digoxin
• Furosemide
• “some kind of” antihypertensive medication

Case Progression
• Examination reveals lethargic child with 1 - 2 mm
pupils
• vital signs: HR 70, RR 12, BP 80/45, T 37º C, weight 13
kg

Case Progression
• 1 - 2 mm pupils- miosis
• HR- 70- bradycardia
• RR- 12- bradypnea

Which medication?
• Digoxin?
• Furosemide?
• Other Antihypertensive?
• Opiate?

Case Discussion: Clonidine
• central acting antihypertensive; also used to treat
narcotic withdrawal
• comes in small tablets and in patch form
• low blood pressure (after transient hypertension),
miosis, coma
• naloxone may work to reverse respiratory
depression

Clonidine
• Always be ready to support breathing
• Rapid decline

Opiate/Clonidine Toxidrome
• CNS
• lethargy, seizures, coma
• respiratory
• slow respirations, pulmonary edema
• circulation
• hypotension, bradycardia
• eyes
• miosis

Case #6
• 3 year old boy who drank from a soda bottle containing
gasoline
• Cried immediately, gagged and coughed, and then
vomited
• Alert and crying. HR- 122, RR-24, BP-90/60
• You arrive on the scene…do you transport?

Case Discussion: Hydrocarbons
• Degreasers, solvents, fuels, pesticides, and additives in
household cleaners and polishes
• Low surface tension allows for rapid movement through
pulmonary system
• Toxic effects
• pulmonary, cardiovascular, or systemic

Case Discussion: Management Issues
• Admit all symptomatic patients and obtain ABG, EKG,
and CXR
• Absence of symptoms for 4-6 hours after ingestion
makes chemical pneumonia unlikely
• Ipecac?
• Steroids?
• Prophylactic antibiotics?
NO!!
NO!!
NO!!

Case #7
• A 5 year old girl was at school, when she
developed
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• bloody diarrhea

Case #7
• Patient reports that she ate some of her mother’s
prenatal vitamins at breakfast
• The bottle had contained 30 pills of ferrous sulfate,
and is now empty

Case Discussion: Iron
• Toxic exposure is based on elemental iron load
• Most children’s preparations contain less iron than
adult preparations
• children’s: 3 - 25 mg per pill
• adult: 37 - 65 mg per pill

Case Discussion: Iron
• Toxic dose: 40-69 mg/kg elemental iron
• Lethal Dose: 180 mg/kg elemental iron

Case Discussion: Clinical Presentation
• Gastrointestinal stage (30min-6h)
• nausea, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea
• Relative stability (6-24h)
• apparent clinical improvement
• Shock stage (12-48h)
• coma, shock, seizures, coagulopathy
• Hepatotoxicity stage (within 48 hours)
• GI scarring (4-6 weeks)

Case Discussion: Management
• AXR- iron tablets are
radio-opague

• Whole bowel irrigation
• 500cc/hour (children) 1-2L/hr (adults)
• Effluent=Influent
• Deferoxamine
• Serum fe >500mcg/dl
• Significant clinical toxicity
• Persistent XR findings despite GI decontamination

Q
Serum iron levels usually peak 2-6 hrs after ingestion.
Which of the following statements regarding the treatment
of iron poisoning is incorrect?
a) Administer activated charcoal within one hour of
ingestion.
b) With toxic ingestions, iron pills may be visible on x-ray.
c) Patients remaining asymptomatic for 6 hours after
ingestion may be discharged with appropriate follow-up
for psychiatric evaluation.
d) Treat hypotension caused by hemorrhagic
gastroenteritis with crystalloid fluid and blood
transfusions.

Q
All of the following are true about the use of deferoxamine
EXCEPT:
• Indicated for serum iron >500-600 microgram/dL, and all
patients showing signs of serious toxicity such as shock and
acidosis.
• Rapid infusion is indicated in the sickest of patients.
• Dosages of 10-15 mg/kg/h by constant infusion are well
tolerated in most cases.
• Deferoxamine therapy will turn the urine orange or pink,
termed "vin rose urine." Therapy can be discontinued when
the patient's urine returns to a normal color, and the
patient's serum iron falls into the normal range.

Case #8
• 6 year old boy who was playing outside and returned
to his house with respiratory distress
• You arrive on the seen and you note him to be
lethargic, diaphoretic, and in moderate respiratory
distress

Case Progression
• Physical exam reveals rales and wheezing in all lung
fields with copious oral secretions
• Lethargic with 1 mm pupils
• Vital signs: HR 50, RR 70, BP 90/palp, T 37.8º C, weight
25 kg

Cholinergic (Organophosphate) Toxidrome
• clinical presentation
• D diarrhea
• U urination
• M miosis
• B bradycardia
• B bronchosecretions
• E emesis
• L lacrimation
• S salivation

Cholinergic toxidrome- organophosphatepoisoning
• ATIONS
• Salivation
• Lacrimation
• Urination
• Fasciculation
• HEAS
• Diarrhea
• Bronchorrhea
• Rhinorrhea
• Bradycardia

Cholinergic agents
• Inhibit
ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE

• REMOVE CLOTHING- Skin decontamination
• Atropine (vagal block)
• Dries secretions, decreases bronchoconstriction and increases
heart rate
• large doses (0.5 - 10 mg IV) may be needed
• Pralidoxime (Protopam, 2-PAM)
• Regenerates acetylcholinesterase
• 20 - 50 mg/kg/dose (IM or IV)

Case #9
• 3 year old has fever, progressive sleepiness, and
respiratory distress 2 hours after drinking some oil of
wintergreen from the kitchen cabinet
• Patient noted to be lethargic and tachypneic, with
adequate circulation

Case Progression
• Patient responds to mother’s voice, and there are no
focal findings on neurologic exam
• Vital signs: HR 140, RR 60 and deep, BP 90/70, T 40º
C, weight 12 kg
• I stat shows 7.25/25 HCO3-10

What did this patient ingest????
• Hint: Remember your blood gas
• PH: 7.25
• CO2: 25
• HCO3: 10

Salicylates
• Metabolic acidosis with respiratory alkalosis=
• SALICYLATE toxicity until proven otherwise

Case Discussion: Salicylates
• Respiratory alkalosis
• Increased Temp, HR, RR
• Alters platelet function and bleeding time
• May develop cerebral edema secondary to
vasoactive effects
• Tinnitus

Case Discussion: Clinical Manifestations
• Vomiting, hyperpnea, tinnitus, and lethargy
• Severe intoxication: coma, seizures, hypoglycemia,
hyperthermia, and pulmonary edema
• Death from cardiovascular collapse

Case Discussion:
Toxic Dose
• Therapeutic dose is 10 - 15 mg/kg
• Toxic dose is over 150 mg/kg
• Done nomogram ONLY useful in acute toxicity

Salicylate toxicity management
• Urinary alkalinization with sodium bicarbonate to
maintain urine pH > 7
• Keeps ASA in renal tubules

Salicylate toxicity management
• Hemodialysis is very effective for drug removal and to
control acid-base imbalance
• Acute ingestions > 100mg/dl
• Chronic ingestions > 60 mg/dl
• Persistent rise in ASA
• Renal insufficiency
• Refractory metabolic acidosis
• Altered mental status

Case #10
• Called to transport a 13 year old after her parents
arrived home from work to find the patient
unresponsive
• Long history of psychiatric problems in the family,
including the patient

Case Progression
• VS: T 38°C, HR 120s with widened QRS on the
monitor, RR 24, BP 90/50
• Pupils are dilated and reactive, skin is dry and flushed,
and patient is responding to deep pain only

Case Discussion: Tricyclic Antidepressants
• Clinical picture is….. anticholinergic intoxication, CNS
depression, and cardiovascular instability
• Mainstay of therapy is sodium bicarbonate in addition
to supportive measures

Case Progression: Management
• Charcoal, 50 grams after airway secured
• Fluid bolus
• Alkalinization
• 100 meq/L of NaHCO3
• EKG
• QRS duration, PR interval, QTc
• R wave height of > 3 mm in aVR
• QRS duration of > 120 ms

QRS duration
• QRS > 100ms associated with seizures
• QRS > 160ms associated with cardiac arrhythmia

Case #11
• 2 year old who was found unconscious with empty
bottle of grandma’s calcium channel blockers at his
side
• multiple episodes of vomiting on transport to the
hospital, producing pill fragments

Case Progression
• VS: T 37.5°C, HR 45 with third degree heart block,
RR10, BP 70/25
• Patient responsive to deep pain only, extremities cool
with decreased pulses

Case Discussion: Calcium Channel Blockers
• Morbidity and mortality after toxic exposures result
from cardiovascular collapse
• Therapy
• gastric decontamination (charcoal, WBI)
• blood pressure support
• calcium
• glucagon

Q
Patients with serious calcium channel blocker toxicity generally
have ingested doses of at least 5-10 times the normal
therapeutic dose. Findings with calcium channel blocker
overdose may include all of the following EXCEPT:
a) hypotension
b) atrioventricular block and bundle branch blocks
c) pulmonary edema
d) hepatic failure
e) metabolic acidosis with hyperglycemia

Case # 12
• 15 yo twins are brought to the ED by mom.
• She found them both unconscious in the hallway at
home and dragged them out of the house where they
both woke up.
• She is now in the ED and they both are alert and
appropriate.

Case Progression
• On arrival in the ER, the boys are afebrile with normal
vital signs
• O2 sats of 98%
• CBC, EKG, and CXR are normal

• You are bothered by the fact that both boys had LOC.
• You decide to order a…………….
• Carboxy hemoglobin level

Case Discussion:
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
• CO-hgb affinity is 250 times O2-hgb affinity; results in
decreased oxygen delivery to the tissues
• Non-irritating, tasteless, odorless, and colorless gas
• Sources: smoke inhalation, auto exhaust, poorly
ventilated charcoal, kerosene or gas heaters, and
cigarette smoke

Case Discussion: Carbon Monoxide
• Toxic effects are the result of cellular hypoxia
• Concentrations of 20% produce neurologic
symptoms, and death can occur with
concentrations over 60%
• Pulse oximetry may be normal
• Peak level may occur in the field prior to O2
delivery

Case Discussion: Therapy
• Administering oxygen at high concentrations reduces
half life of CO from 6 hours to 1 hour
• Hyperbaric therapy
• neurologic dysfunction
• pregnant women
• Unstable
• children with levels over 25%

Q
Treatment for CO poisoning includes all of the following
EXCEPT:
a) Administration of oxygen by nasal prongs.
b) Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (100% O2 at 3 ATA) for
patients experiencing confusion, loss of consciousness,
seizures, and coma.
c) In cases of carbon monoxide poisoning as a result of
smoke inhalation, consider the possibility of cyanide
poisoning or methemoglobinemia.
d) Sedation, intubation and hyperventilation with room
air.

Q
Which of the following statements are false about the
pathophysiology of carbon monoxide poisoning:
a) Carbon monoxide binds tightly to heme proteins,
resulting in a decrease the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood.
b) Carbon monoxide inhibits cytochrome oxidase,
interfering with the cell's ability to utilize oxygen
c) Carbon monoxide binds to myoglobin, which may result
in impaired contractility of the heart
d) Carbon monoxide shifts the oxyhemoglobin dissociation
curve to the right, resulting in disrupted oxygen delivery
to the tissues

Q
Which statement is true about the interpretation of
monitoring in patients poisoned by carbon monoxide?
a) Arterial blood gases show a low P(O2)
b) Pulse oximetry reading shows desaturation
c) Pulse oximetry shows false high reading
d) Arterial blood gases show an extremely high P(C02) and
are diagnostic

Summary
• Most pediatric ingestions are non-life threatening
• Recognition of toxidromes and knowledge of available
antidotes MAY assist in the initial management of the
poisoned patient, but supportive measures are more
likely to be life saving

Initial Assessment: Pupillary Size
• Miosis
• C cholinergics, clonidine
• O opiates, organophosphates
• P phenothiazines, phenobarbital, pilocarpine
• S sedative-hypnotics

Initial Assessment:
Pupillary Size
• Mydriasis
• A antihistamines
• A antidepressants
• A anticholinergics, atropine
• S sympathomimetics

Initial Assessment:
Skin Signs
• Diaphoresis
• S sympathomimetics
• O organophosphates
• A ASA (salicylates)
• P PCP (phencyclidine)

Antidotes
• opiates  naloxone
• acetaminophen  NAC
• iron  deferoxamine
• digoxin  Fab fragments (Digibind®)
• phenothiazines  diphenhydramine
cogentin
• organophosphates  atropine
pralidoxime

Antidotes
• ethylene glycol, methanol  ethanol
fomepizole
• nitrates, dapsone  methylene blue
• ß and Ca+ channel blockers  glucagon
• carbon monoxide  oxygen
• isoniazid  pyridoxine
• cyanide  amyl or sodium nitrite
sodium thiosulfate

Antidotes
• sulfonylureas  glucose
octreotide
• tricyclic antidepressants  Na+ HCO3
-
• crotalid snakebite  antivenom
• midazolam  flumazenil (WITH CAUTION)
• methemoglobinemia  methylene blue

Clinical Clues: Odor
• Bitter almond
• cyanide
• Acetone
• isopropyl alcohol, methanol, ASA
• Oil of wintergreen
• salicylate
• Garlic
• arsenic, phosphorus, thallium, organophosphates

Clinical Clues: Skin
• Cyanosis
• methemoglobinemia secondary to nitrites, nitrates,
phenacetin, benzocaine
• Red flush
• carbon monoxide, cyanide, boric acid, anticholinergics

Clinical Clues: Skin
• Sweating
• amphetamines, LSD, organophosphates, cocaine,
barbiturates
• Dry
• anticholinergics

Clinical Clues:
Mucous Membranes
• Dry
• anticholinergics
• Salivation
• organophosphates, carbamates
• Oral lesions
• corrosives, paraquat
• Lacrimation
• caustics, organophosphates, irritant gases

Clinical Clues: Temperature
• Hypothermia
• sedative hypnotics, ethanol, carbon monoxide, clonidine,
phenothiazines, TCAs
• Hyperthermia
• anticholinergics, salicylates, phenothiazines, cocaine, TCAs,
amphetamines, theophylline

Clinical Clues: Blood Pressure
• Hypertension
• sympathomimetics (including phenylpropanolamine in OTC
cold meds), organophosphates, amphetamines,
phencyclidine, cocaine
• Hypotension
• antihypertensives (including beta and Ca channel blockers,
clonidine), barbiturates, benzodiazepines, TCAs

Clinical Clues: Heart Rate
• Bradycardia
• digitalis, sedative hypnotics, beta blockers, opioids
• Tachycardia
• anticholinergics, sympathomimetics, amphetamines,
alcohol, aspirin, theophylline, cocaine, TCAs
• Arrythmias
• anticholinergics, TCAs, organophosphates, digoxin,
phenothiazines, beta blockers, carbon monoxide, cyanide

Cinical Clues: Respirations
• Depressed
• alcohol, opioids, barbiturates, sedative-hypnotics, TCAs,
paralytic shellfish poison
• Tachypnea
• salicylates, amphetamines, carbon monoxide
• Kussmauls
• methanol, ethylene glycol, salicylates

Clinical Clues: CNS
• Seizures
• carbon monoxide, cocaine, amphetamines and
sympathomimetics, anticholinergics, aspirin, pesticides,
organophosphates, lead, PCP, phenothiazines, INH, lithium,
theophylline, TCAs
• Miosis
• opioids, phenothiazines, organophosphates,
benzodiazepines, barbiturates, mushrooms, PCP

Clinical Clues: CNS
• Mydriasis
• anticholinergics, sympathomimetics, TCAs, methanol
• Blindness
• methanol
• Fasciculations
• organophosphates

Clinical Clues: CNS
• Nystagmus
• barbiturates, carbamazepine, PCP, carbon monoxide, ethanol
• Hypertonia
• antocholinergics, phenothiazines
• Myoclonus/rigidity
• anticholinergics, phenothiazines, haloperidol

Clinical Clues: CNS
• Delirium/psychosis
• anticholinergics, sympathomimetics, alcohol, phenothiazines,
PCP, LSD, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, heavy metals
• Coma
• alcohols, anticholinergics, sedative hypnotics, opioids, carbon
monoxide, TCAs, salicylates, organophosphates
• Weakness/paralysis
• organophosphates, carbamates, heavy metals

Pediatric Foreign Body
Ingestions
October 20, 2008

Epidemiology
 Over 100,000 cases of foreign body ingestion reported per
year in US. Many go un-reported or un-discovered.
 80% of cases occur in children and infants, who are prone
to sticking objects in their mouth and less able to control
their oropharnxy and airways.
 Fatalities have been reported for children under age 4.
Diagram showing association of child’s age with incidence of FB ingestion and injury rate
From: Chen, X., S. Milkovich, et al. (2006). "Pediatric coin ingestion and aspiration."

 Menu of FB Ingestions
 Frequently found objects
include coins (most
common), safety pins,
batteries, toy parts,
magnets, bones.
 Anything a child can
possibly grab and
swallow is fair game!

 FB ingestions by the numbers
 At diagnosis, 60% located in stomach, 20% located
in esophagus.
 Older children and male children more likely
to spontaneously pass FB.
 60-90% spontaneously pass when located in
distal esophagus or below GE junction.
 Only 10-20% require endoscopic removal.
 66% of spontaneously passed FB’s are never found
in stool by parents.
 Previous surgery or congenital malformations
(TEF’s) increase risk of obstruction and
complications.
1
4

 Symptoms of FB ingestion
 Most are asymptomatic! History is most important
clue.
 Symptoms most often associated with location in
upper esophagus.
 Acute Esophageal: retrosternal pain, cyanosis,
dysphagia, drooling, wheezing, stridor, choking,
vomiting, hemoptysis, decreased PO intake,
gagging.
 Chronic Esophageal: weight loss, recurrent
aspiration.
 Stomach or Bowel: Abdominal pain, bloody stool.
10

 Complications of FB Ingestion
 Aspiration and airway obstruction
 Stricture or fistula formation
 GI obstruction, perforation, or bleeding
 Erosion into esophagus, aorta, or
other structures
 Death
15
1

 Indications for imaging
 Previous recommendations: asymptomatic
children tolerating PO intake do not need
radiographs.
 However, 20% of asymptomatic patients had
an esophageal FB.
 28% of esophageal coins pass spontaneously
within 24 hours.
 Risk of complications increases with esophageal FB.
 Current recommendations: ALL suspected
foreign body ingestion patients need
radiographs.
 Frontal radiograph of chest, KUB, and lateral
radiograph of neck needed to image entire length of
GI tract.

 Diagnosing Foreign Bodies
 Opaque: glass, most metal except
aluminum, animal bones, food, soil.
 Nonopaque: Fish bones, wood,
plastics, aluminum.
 Consider CT, US, or oral contrast for
nonopaque objects.
Courtesy of Dr. Mark Waltzman, Children’s Hospital Bos1to4n

 IInnddiiccaationforremovalofFB
 Patient Symptomatic
 Sharp or long (>5cm)
 Magnet
 Disk battery
in esophagus
 In esophagus >24 hours
 In stomach >4-6 wks
15
4

Observation
 Acceptable if patient asymptomatic, FB not sharp
or long (>5cm), not magnet, not esophageal
battery.
 20-30% of esophageal FB’s pass spontaneously.
 Most FB’s pass spontaneously after passing the
narrow esophagus, pylorus and duodenal sweep.
 Repeat radiograph in 8-16 hours for esophageal FB.
Serial radiographs weekly for distal FB until it
passes.
 Endoscopic removal of FB if retained in esophagus
>16 hours or retained in stomach >4 weeks, or
if patient becomes symptomatic. 15
5

 Special considerations for
button batteries
 Higher risk of perforation,
erosion, fistula, stenosis if
lodged in the esophagus.
 Electricity flow between
both battery poles through
contact of the tightly
surrounding esophageal
walls may cause liquefaction
necrosis and perforation.
 Leakage of contents: acidic
environment may erode seal
of battery and release heavy
metals and cause necrosis of
membranes.
Lithium button battery
radiographs to ensure passage. 22

http://www.poison.org/battery/guideline.asp

Button batteries: Beware the “coin
fake out”
•Look for “Halo Sign” of button battery
PA CXR of Coin ingestion (left) courtesy of Dr. Booya BIDMC and Upright KUB Battery ingestion (right) courtesy of Dr. Waltzman
Children’s Hospital Boston 23

Button batteries: Beware the “coin
fake out”
 On lateral, battery shows “step off appearance of edges” while coin has sharp
edges
Lateral CXR of Battery ingestion
Lateral neck fluoroscopy of two coin ingestion,
Courtesy of Dr. Fargol Booya, BIDMC
24
Courtesy of Dr. Marc Baskin, Children’s Hospital Boston

Overview
of
Category A Bioterrorism Agents

CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOWARFARE
• Potential for massive numbers of casualties
• Ability to produce lengthy illnesses requiring
prolonged and intensive care
• Ability of certain agents to spread via contagion
• Paucity of adequate detection systems
• Diminished role for self-aid and buddy aid, thereby
increasing sense of helplessness

CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOWARFARE
• Presence of an incubation period, enabling victims to
disperse widely
• Ability to produce non-specific symptoms,
complicating diagnosis
• Ability to mimic endemic infectious diseases, further
complicating diagnosis

Bioterrorism: Modes of Spread
Aerosol Sprays
Particle size of agent
Stability of agent
Wind Speed
Wind direction
Atmospheric stability
Explosives Tend to inactivate biological agents
Food and Water
Contamination
Fairly self-limited

Epidemiologic Clues to Bioterrorism
• Multiple simultaneous patients with
similar clinical syndrome
• Severe illness among healthy
• Predominantly respiratory symptoms
• Unusual (nonendemic) organsims
• Unusual antibiotic resistance patterns
• Atypical clinical presentation of disease
• Unusual patterns of disease such as
geographic co-location of victims
• Intelligence information
• Reports of sick or dead animals or
plants

“Agents Likely to be Used”
• Smallpox
• Plague
• Anthrax
• Botulism
• VEE
• Tularemia
• Q Fever
• Marburg
• Influenza
• Melioidosis
• Typhus
NEXT

Category A: Highest Priority
• Can be easily disseminated or
transmitted person-to-person
• Cause high mortality, with
potential major public health
impact
• Might cause public panic and social
disruption
• Require special action for public
health prepardeness
• Smallpox
• Anthrax
• Yersinia pestis
• Botulism
• Tularaemia
• Filoviruses (Ebola and Marburg)
• Arenaviruses (Lassa and Junin)

Category B: Second Highest Priority
• Moderately easy to disseminate
• cause moderate morbidity and low
mortality
• Require specific enhancements of
CDC’s diagnostic capacity and
enhanced disease surveillance
• Coxiella burnetti (Q fever)
• Brucella
• Burkholderia mallei (glanders)
• Alphaviruses (Venezuelan
encephalomyelitis and Eastern and
Western equine)
• Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis
• Epsilon toxin of C. perfringes
• Staph enterotoxin B
• Salmonella
• Shigella
• E. coli O157:H7
• Vibrio cholerae
• Cryptosporidium parvum

Category C: Third Highest Priority
• Pathogens that could be
engineered for mass destruction
because of availability, ease of
production and dissemination and
potential for high morbidity and
mortality and major health impact
• Nipah virus
• Hantavirus
• Tickborne hemorrhagic fever
viruses
• Tickborne encephalitis viruses
• Yellow fever
• MDR TB

• Gram positive bacillus that forms spores
• Spores found in soil worldwide
• Humans usually infected by contact with
infected animals or contaminated animal
products
• No person-to-person transmission
of inhalation anthrax
Anthrax: Overview

173
Anthrax ~ Bacillus anthracis
• Spore-forming bacteria; found naturally in soil worldwide
3 Types of disease:
• Cutaneous
– most common naturally occurring form
• skin inoculation with spores from infected animals, hides, wool,
etc.
• Gastrointestinal
• ingestion of undercooked, contaminated meat
• Inhalational
• inhalation of spores in 1-5 micron particles
• most deadly form and most likely in BT
• odorless and invisible

174
Cutaneous Anthrax
• Incubation period 1-10 days; (usually 5 days)
• Small macule or papule forms ulcer – (day 2)
• Vesicle appears and ruptures – (5-7 days)
• Ulcer dries into black eschar – (1-2 weeks)
• Malaise, low grade fever, lymphadenopathy
• Complications: toxic shock and death within 36 hours
in 20% of untreated patients
CDC Public Health Image Library

175
Inhalational Anthrax
• Incubation period: 1-5 days (up to 60+)
• Inhalation of spores (1-5 microns)
• Infective dose may be quite low
• Fever, fatigue, cough, headache, and chest discomfort
• Severe dyspnea, chest pain, abdominal pain, nausea,
vomiting, diaphoresis
• Hemorrhagic meningitis – 50%
• Toxic shock and death within 24-36 hrs

176
Pathophysiology of
• Spores are inhaled – taken up by alveolar macrophages
which then move to lymph nodes
• Spores germinate, producing edema factor and lethal
factor toxins
• Toxins produce local hemorrhagic lymphadenitis and
necrosis in the chest (mediastinum)
• Septicemia can result, leading to sepsis and multi-organ
failure
• Even with full ICU treatment, mortality is very high once
symptoms develop

177
Mediastinal widening with inhalation anthrax
(JAMA 1999:281:1735-1745)
Normal chest x-ray

178
Diagnosing Inhalational Anthrax
• Possible history of exposure
• Differential diagnosis: tularemia, staph/strep
• Widened mediastinum/possible pleural effusion on chest
xray
• Hemorrhagic mediastinal nodes on scan
• Gram positive bacteria (rods) on peripheral smear
• ELISA test – IgG for Protective Antigen -- rapid results
• Call your state epidemiologist for assistance with
collection of specimens and diagnosis

179
Treatment for Inhalational Anthrax
• For symptomatic patients – IV therapy with two or
more antibiotics, depending on sensitivity
• Supportive care (ICU – ventilator)
• Draw labs to confirm diagnosis and initiate therapy
immediately – delayed treatment results in worse
prognosis

180
Anthrax ~ Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
CDC recommends combined therapy:
• 3 doses of vaccine - investigational new drug (IND)
• Oral antibiotics for 60 days:
• ciprofloxacin
• doxycycline
• amoxicillin or penicillin (if susceptibility testing is supportive)
• Oral antibiotics – before symptom onset
• Vaccine alone is not protective for PEP
• PEP may depend on numbers of people exposed

181
Special Considerations - Anthrax
• Not spread person to person
• No risk of spreading disease among clinic attendees
• Minimal PEP needed to protect clinic staff
• Incubation period 1 to 60+ days
• PEP must be started very early
• Inhaled spores may stay viable inside body for >60
days
• PEP must be continued for at least 60 days

182
Special Considerations, Anthrax
• Inhalation anthrax is a DEADLY disease
• If PEP isn’t begun before symptoms arise, prognosis is grave
(“worst-case scenario”)
• Need great risk communication to target pop.
• CDC recommendation: oral antibiotics x 60 days +
series of 3 vaccinations
• Logistical challenges of delivering materiel on this
scale

STEPS IN MANAGEMENT
1. Maintain an index of suspicion
2. Protect thyself
3. Assess the patient
4. Decontaminate as appropriate
5. Establish a diagnosis
6. Render prompt therapy
7. Practice good infection control

STEPS IN MANAGEMENT
8. Alert the proper authorities
9. Assist in the epidemiologic investigation
10. Maintain proficiency and spread the gospel
US Army, Biologic Casualties Handbook, 2001

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