2. Indus valley Civilization
• Harappa and Mohenjodaro were the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilization,
emerging around 2600 BCE along the Indus River Valley in the Sindh and Punjab
provinces of Pakistan.
• Their discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries provided important
archaeological data regarding the civilization’s architecture, technology, art, trade,
transportation, writing, and religion.
• Some of other important archaeological sites belonging to this period are- Kot Diji
in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana,
Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. Amongst the excavated
sites, Rakhigarhi (It is a village located in Haryana) is the largest IVC site.
4. Indus Culture
• Granaries: The granary was the largest structure in Mohenjodaro, and in Harappa there were
about six granaries or storehouses. These were used for storing grain.
• Houses: The houses varied in size. Some might have had two storeys. The houses were made
of burnt bricks. Most of the houses had a central courtyard, a well, a bathing area, and a
kitchen.
• Drainage system:
• The Harappans were master in hydraulic engineering. They developed the efficient system
• The drops at the regular intervals were constructed in the drains for self cleaning
• The private drains drained in to small drains and the small drams into large drains. The large drains took
the entire waste water of the city to the outside in open area or in some kinds of ponds.
• Some drains were covered with stones or large sized bricks. Soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, etc. were the
important components of drainage system.
5. Indus Culture
• Water management:
• Harappan people were very skilled in water management. The Harappan agriculture
depended on monsoon but they constructed the canals for better production and
to prevent their crops from adverse climatic conditions.
• They also constructed some hydraulic structure to collect the rain water, so that they
could use that water in irrigation. Some evidences like dams, canals and reservoirs
were found at different sites
• The greatest construction made by the Lothal engineers to the advancement of
science and technology consisted in building an artificial dock for berthing ships.
• Indus Civilization - INSIGHTSIAS Indus Civilization architecture (insightsonindia.com)
9. Keeladi
• The usual Sangam age reference is by around 300 BC, but the Keeladi
finding confirms the presence of civilisation in TN dating back to 580 BC
along the river banks of Vaigai in Sivaganga district,
• Second urbanization - Discoveries date to around 500 B.C
10. Sculpture of India
• http://www.mcrhrdi.gov.in/army/week4/syndicate/group9.pdf
• https://www.nga.gov/content/dam/ngaweb/research/publications/pdfs/sc
ulpture-of-india.pdf
11. Indian Cuisine
• A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and
dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region.
• Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian
subcontinent.
• Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines
vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.
• Religious food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine, such as Hinduism in
Indian cuisine, Sikhism in Punjabi cuisine, Buddhism in East Asian cuisine
• Cuisine usually comprise of : Tiffin's, Snacks, Sweets, Thali
12. Early Indian Diet
The ancient Indians ate a diet of mostly wheat, barley, vegetables,
fruits (Indian dates, mangoes, and berries), meats (cow, sheep and
goats), and dairy products. ... And they domesticated cows, pigs,
buffalo, and sheep. They cooked using clay ovens, cauldrons, and
open fires.
13. What did ancient India eat?
• A prayer, composed around 800 BC, gives us a pretty good indication of the food of that
people ate during that period
• Prayer from the Yajurveda: “May for me prosper, through the sacrifice, milk, sap, ghee, honey,
eating and drinking at the common table, ploughing, rains, conquest, victory, wealth, riches. May for me
prosper, through the sacrifice, low-grade food, freedom from hunger, rice, barley sesame, kidney
beans, vetches, wheat, lentils, millets, panicum grains and wild rice. May for me prosper,
through the sacrifice, trees, plants, which grows in ploughed land and which grows in unploughed land.”
• This is quoted from the eminent food historian K.T. Achaya’s book on Indian food.
• https://www.itrhd.com/magazine/special-issue1.pdf
14. • The Kashyapa Samhita(200 BC) has detailed accounts of every aspect of rice
cultivation: sowing, irrigation, seed transplanting, weeding, watering,
protection from birds (using scarecrows), defense against vermin and finally
threshing. Even conditions for second round of crops are elaborated.
15. Food items Mentioned in Rigveda and
Yajurveda
• Rig Veda does not mention rice or wheat, only barley (yava). Thus making barley one of the earliest grains
known to India
• The Rig Veda mentions the lotus stem, cucumber and later lotus roots, bottle gourd, singhada, aquatic
plants, bitter gourd, a variety of methi for flavouring, mahua flowers, yam and other roots. Spinach, leafy
vegetables, elephant yam (suran) and sweet potato are also mentioned.
• The cultivation of rice, pulses, beans, peas, wheat, linseed and even hemp is mentioned in the Yajurveda.
• Amongst pulses the three prominent ones were urad, mung and masur. Rajma too makes an appearance and
meat was commonly eaten. Ox, goats, birds; buffalo, humped bull and sheep were slaughtered for food.
• Barley is one of the oldest grains. Rice came in much later, but it quickly found a place of prominence. Meat
eating was common, but killing of animals other than for eating or religious sacrifices, was not encouraged.
16. Food habits in Vijayanagara Times
• https://www.kamat.com/database/articles/vnagar_foods.htm
• Domingos Paes and Fernao Nuniz, who visited the Vijayanagara Empire in the first half and the latter part of the
16th century respectively, describe in glowing terms the abundance and cheapness of provisions.
• Paes states that the city “is stocked with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, India corn and a certain
amount of barley and beans, moong, pulses and horse-gram which grow in this country, and which are the
food of the common people and there is a large store of these and very cheap”
• Paes is supported by Nuniz, who says ".....The markets are overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes and
oranges, limes, pomegranates, jackfruit and mangoes and all very cheap
• Ibn Battuta, who visited Vijayanagara in the reign of Harihara I (A.D. 1336-1357), describes a dinner he had
with the Muslim chief of Hinawr (modern Honavar) at which a beautiful girl served pickles of "pepper, green
ginger, or lemon and mangoes ". The pickles remained fresh and green at the stem even after many days.
Happala (papadas) and sandige were the other important items of a dinner.
17. Food habits in Vijayanagara Times
• The Bhujabalicharite or Panchabana (A.D. 1612) describes the preparation of Talida (cooked vegetables, or palya, of modern
times) .
• For seasoning, cumin seeds, black-gram dal, methi (Fenugreek), mustard, black sesame seeds and pepper were used along with
ghee. The vegetables were (green) plantains, brinjals, tonde, pumpkin, Heere (sponge gourd), jackfruit, drumsticks
and magge (a kind of cucumber).
• Raw dishes and salads such as krisara , paccadi and kusambhari were known. There were varieties of vegetable hotchpotch
(Kalasogara) , spiced preparations (shaak, melogara), and soups (kattogara, sargal).
• Poet Mangarasa, in his 'Supa Shastra', gives a number of recipes of dishes, of which gharivilangai, halagarige (fried cake prepared
in milk) and savadu rotti (pancake).
• Juicy fruits were eaten as part of the middle course of a dinner, the most important being mangoes, grapes, pomegranates, plantains,
jackfruit, figs, dates, apples (semb or sebu?), jambu (rose apple) and oranges
• Kanakadasa, who lived in the first half of the 16th century, mentions the following fruits:
• Coconut, jackfruit, orange, mangoes, sweet citrus, guava, grapes, pomengranates, dates, varieties of banana, jamun, (Euginia
jambolana), wood apple, inknut, berries, mangosteen, cyprus pertenuis (?)
18. Food habits in Vijayanagara Times
• Barbosa speaks of Brahmins as follows: "They eat honey and butter, rice, sugar, stews of pulse and milk".
• About Lingayats he writes: "they also eat no flesh, nor fish ". It appears that meat-eating was practised by other communities.
• Paes speaks about the big meat market in Vijayanagara and the variety and cleanliness of meat which was 'so white and clean that you could never see better in any country ".
• Nuniz, writing about the food habits of the kings of Vijayanagara, says:
• "These kings of Vijayanagara eat all sort of things but not the flesh of oxen or cows: ... they eat mutton, pork, venison, partidges, hares, doves, quail and all kinds of
birds, sparrows, rats and cats and lizards, all of which are sold in the market of Bisnaga ".
• We have positive evidence of the popularity on non-vegetarian dishes from Manasollasa, and encyclopaedia ascribed to king Someswara Chalukya (A.D. 1122-38). In this work,
methods of cooking different meats such as pork (varahapalalam), venison (sarangajam), of rabbits (sasodbhavam), sakunam (a bird) and of other birds
(paksinamapi sarvesam) .
• A special variety of field rats (kshetasambhutah musakah) and tortoise are also mentioned. Since food habits change little with time, we can fairly accept that meat of birds and
other herbivorous animals (except beef) was relished by some communities in the Empire.
• Fish formed part of the daily food in coastal towns. Ibn Battuta, who visited Hinawr (Honavar) gives a grand description of a dinner in which "a good many dishes of fish
were served ".
• Mention is made of Bhuktashalas (or dining places) in Mohantarangini. These were established along the highways in which were served panaka (cold drink) and curd-rice
(kenemosaranna).
• A sweetmeat shop, or mithai angadi, is mentioned in a poem where a great variety of sweets was available, and a fruit-stall is described in Mohanatarangini (Panapasara).
• Dry dates, raisins, sugar candy, jaggery coated coconut pieces, and all other naturally riped fruits were sold.
27. Aesthetics
• Aesthetics is concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty.
• It is a set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement.
• What is Indian aesthetic called?
• Indian concept of aesthetic flavour, an essential element of any work of visual,
literary, or performing art that can only be suggested, not described.
• What are the 5 schools of Indian aesthetics?
• Modern scholars has established following schools and theories ( 1) The Rasa
theory, (2) The Alamkara theory, (3) The Dhvani theory, (4) The vakrokti theory, (5)
The Riti theory, (6) The Aucitya theory, (7) The anumana theory.
28. • Creativity, according ancient aestheticians like Rajashekhara, Anandavardhan,
Abhinavagupta, depended on the following factors : 1. Rasa – Aesthetic sentiment
• 2. Alamkara – Figures of speech
• 3. Riti – Style
• 4. Dhvani – Suggestion
• 5. Vakrokti – Oblique expression
• 6. Aucitya – Propriety
29. • Bharatamuni described eight kinds of primary rasas, to which list Abhinavagupta added a ninth. These can be briefly described as follows:
• 1. ringāra rasa: The rasa dealing with love, attraction and acts pertaining to them. The presiding deity of this rasa is Vi nū, while the colour
Ṣ ṣ
attributed to it is green.
• 2. Hāsya rasa: Laughter, humour and mirth are included in the Hāsya rasa. It is associated with the colour white and the deity Pramatā.
• 3. Raudra rasa: Anger and fury are encapsulated in the Raudra rasa. Naturally, it is associated with the Lord Rudra and its colour is red.
• 4. Karu a rasa: Compassion, tragedy and pathos fall under the purview of Karu a rasa. With grey as its colour, the rasa's deity is Yama.
ṇ ṇ
• 5. Bibhatsa rasa: The emotions of repulsion and horror comprise the Bibhatsa rasa. Śiva is its presiding deity, while its colour is blue.
• 6 The Navarasas or Nine Rasas depicted in a Kerala style mural [Image source: andhraportal.org] 6. Bhayānaka rasa: The deity Kāla reigns over
this rasa, which is about fear, horror and terror. The colour given to it is understandably black.
• 7. Veera rasa: The king of gods, Indra, represents this rasa of heroism, courage and valour. The colour of veerya is a shade of yellow.
• 8. Adbhuta rasa: Presided over by Brahmā, the Adbhuta rasa brings within its fold the emotions of wonder and amazement. Its colour is yellow.
• 9. Śānta rasa: This rasa was formulated by Abhinavagupta in his treatise, Abhinavabhārati in 10th century CE.
• Its scope were the emotions of tranquility and peace, its deity, Vi nū, and its colour, blue
ṣ
31. 8 Different Forms of Martial Arts in India
• Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent.
• One of the earliest extant manual of Indian martial arts is in the Agni Purana (dated to between the 8th and
the 11th century).The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251
• Kalaripayattu – Kerala. ...
• Silambam – Tamil Nadu. ...
• Gatka – Punjab. ...
• Musti Yuddha. ...
• Thang Ta – Manipur. ...
• Lathi Khela – West Bengal. ...
• Mardani Khel – Maharashtra. ...
• Pari Khanda -Bihar.
32. Martial arts of India
• India is a land of diverse culture and ethnicities and so is famous for its martial arts that have developed since ancient
times.
• Indian martial arts refers to the fighting systems of the Indian subcontinent.
• One of the earliest extant manuals of Indian martial arts is in the Agni Purana (dated to between the 8th and the 11th century)
• Dhanurveda, a section of the Vedas (1700 BCE – 1100 BCE), contains references to martial arts.
• It is a Sanskrit treatise on warfare and archery
• Dhanurveda describes the practices and uses of archery, bow- and arrow-making, military training, and rules of engagement.
• The treatise discusses martial arts in relation to the training of warriors, charioteers, cavalry, elephant warriors, infantry etc
• Scattered references to fighting arts in medieval texts include the
• Kamandakiya Nitisara (c. 8th century[
ed. Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1896), the Nitivakyamrta by Somadeva Suri (10th century),
• the Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja (11th century) and
• the Manasollasa of Somesvara III (12th century).
33. Martial arts of India
• Nowadays these art forms are used in rituals, celebrations, in sports,
means of physical fitness, as a self defence but earlier it is used for
warfare.
• Kalaripayattu (Oldest Martial Art in India)
• Silambam (is a kind of Staff Fencing)
• Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak
• Gatka
• Musti Yuddha
34. • Originated: This art was created by the Meitei people of Manipur.
• About it:
• Thang refers to a ‘sword’ while Ta refers to a ‘spear’ and is an armed
martial art whereas Sarit Sarak is an unarmed art form that uses
hand to hand combat.
• In 17th century this art was used by Manipuri kings against Britishers
later on when Britishers captured the area this technique was
banned.
• Thang-Ta is also known as HuyenLallong, which is a popular ancient
martial art which uses other weapons including an axe and a shield.
• It is practiced in 3 different ways: Firstly, ritualistic in nature linked
with tantric practices, secondly, mesmerising performance of sword
and sword dances and thirdly, is the actual technique of fighting.
35. • Kalari is a Malayalam word which means
School/gymnasium/training hall where Martial arts are
practiced or taught.
• Kalaripayattu was introduced as martial art by a legend,
sage Parasurama, who built temples.
• This art is used as a means of unarmed self-defence and a
way to achieve physical fitness today. Also used in traditional
rituals and ceremonies.
• It includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and
physical exercises, important aspect is the style of fighting
and is nor accompanied by any drumming or song.
• Its important key is footwork which includes kicks, strikes
and weapon based practice.
36. • Originated: In Tamil Nadu, a modern and scientific martial art.
• Techniques of Silambam: Swift movements of the foot, use of thrust, cut,
chop, sweep to achieve mastery & development of force, momentum &
precision at different levels of the body, snake hits, monkey hits, hawk hits etc.
• About it:
• Silambam is promoted in Tamil Nadu by the rulers Pandya, Chola and Chera
and the reference to the sale of Silambam staves, pearls, swords and armours
can be seen in a Tamil literature ‘Silapaddigaram’.
• This art also travelled to Malaysia, where it is a famous sport apart from a self
defence technique.
• For mock fighting and self-defence the long-staff technique is used. Infact,
Lord Muruga (in Tamil Mythology) and sage Agasthya are credited with the
creation of Silambam. Even during Vedic age, training was imparted to young
men as a ritual and for an emergency.
• https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/top-10-most-famous-martial-arts-in-india-
1467440667-1
37. • Originated: Punjab
• About it:
• Gatka is a weapon based martial art form performed
by Sikhs of Punjab.
• Gatka means whose freedom belongs to grace.
Others say that ‘Gatka’ comes from a Sanskrit word
‘Gadha’ means mace.
• This art uses weapons like Kirpan, Talwar and Kataar.
• It is displayed in various occasions, celebrations in
the state including fairs.
![• Bharatamuni described eight kinds of primary rasas, to which list Abhinavagupta added a ninth. These can be briefly described as follows:
• 1. ringāra rasa: The rasa dealing with love, attraction and acts pertaining to them. The presiding deity of this rasa is Vi nū, while the colour
Ṣ ṣ
attributed to it is green.
• 2. Hāsya rasa: Laughter, humour and mirth are included in the Hāsya rasa. It is associated with the colour white and the deity Pramatā.
• 3. Raudra rasa: Anger and fury are encapsulated in the Raudra rasa. Naturally, it is associated with the Lord Rudra and its colour is red.
• 4. Karu a rasa: Compassion, tragedy and pathos fall under the purview of Karu a rasa. With grey as its colour, the rasa's deity is Yama.
ṇ ṇ
• 5. Bibhatsa rasa: The emotions of repulsion and horror comprise the Bibhatsa rasa. Śiva is its presiding deity, while its colour is blue.
• 6 The Navarasas or Nine Rasas depicted in a Kerala style mural [Image source: andhraportal.org] 6. Bhayānaka rasa: The deity Kāla reigns over
this rasa, which is about fear, horror and terror. The colour given to it is understandably black.
• 7. Veera rasa: The king of gods, Indra, represents this rasa of heroism, courage and valour. The colour of veerya is a shade of yellow.
• 8. Adbhuta rasa: Presided over by Brahmā, the Adbhuta rasa brings within its fold the emotions of wonder and amazement. Its colour is yellow.
• 9. Śānta rasa: This rasa was formulated by Abhinavagupta in his treatise, Abhinavabhārati in 10th century CE.
• Its scope were the emotions of tranquility and peace, its deity, Vi nū, and its colour, blue
ṣ](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/indusculture-250327055812-16fe804b/85/pptIndus-Culture-important-for-our-country-29-320.jpg)
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