![36
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
τ = c + σn tanø
τ = c’+ (σn –u)tanø’
During an earthquake,
static pore pressure `u’ may
increase by an amount udyn
τ = c’+ [(σn – (u + udyn)]tanø’
Let us consider a situation
when u + udyn= σn, then τ = c’
In cohesionless soil, c’= 0,
hence τ = 0](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentation-30-141103204606-conversion-gate01/85/Earthquake-Hazards-Effects-and-its-mitigation-36-320.jpg)
![Jet Grouting
Grout is pumped through the rod and exits the horizontal nozzle(s) at high
velocity [approximately 200m/sec]. This energy breaks down the soil matrix
and replaces it with a mixture of grout slurry and in-situ soil (soilcrete). Jet
grouting is most effective in cohesionless soils.
97](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/presentation-30-141103204606-conversion-gate01/85/Earthquake-Hazards-Effects-and-its-mitigation-97-320.jpg)
Earthquake Hazards: Effects and its mitigation
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This document discusses earthquake hazards and mitigation. It notes that approximately 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, with around 100 being potentially dangerous. Major earthquakes typically occur annually and can release large amounts of seismic energy. Earthquakes cause damage through ground shaking, liquefaction, landslides, fires, and tsunamis. Mitigation strategies include avoiding hazard areas, building earthquake resistant structures using special materials and construction techniques, improving weak soils, and reducing seismic demand on structures. Proper architectural design and reinforcement of masonry and reinforced concrete buildings can also improve earthquake resistance.
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Earthquake Hazards: Effects and its mitigation
- 1. Earthquake Hazards: Effectand its Mitigation Dr. J. N. Jha Professor and Head (Civil Engineering) Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana
- 2. Tectonic hazards: earthquakes About 500,000 quakes occur every year: About 100 are potentially dangerous (Magnitude> 6 on Richter Scale ) On an average 2 major quakes occur annually (Magnitude> 8 on Richter Scale ) Very large quakes occur perhaps once in a decade: Releases nearly all the Earth’s seismic energy 90% of the seismic energy released between 1900 & 1975 was by 10 great quakes only. Energy released during the 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that released by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!
- 3. Tectonic hazards: earthquakes Over 40 countries are under threat from major destructive quakes The biggest losses occur where major quakes coincide with concentrations of people and structures Kobe earthquake in the year 1999 resulted in economic losses of US$ 200 bn Gujarat earthquake in the year 2001 may have affected over 100,000 people
- 4. List of MajorHistoric Earthquakes Year Location Deaths Magnitude 1556 China 5,30,000 8.0 1906 San Francisco 700 7.9 1960 S. Chile 2,230 9.5 1964 Alaska 131 9.2 1976 China 7,00,000 7.8 1985 Mexico City 9,500 8.1 1989 California 62 7.1 1995 Kobe 5,472 6.9 2001 Gujarat, India 16480 6.9 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia 2,30,210 9.3 2005 Pakistan 75000 7.6 2010 Haiti 46,000- 316,000 7.0 2011 Japan 15760 9.0
- 6. Some Past Earthquakesin India
- 7. 9.6 9.4 9.2 9 8.8 8.6 8.4 8.2 8 7.8 Great (M > 8) Earthquakes Since 1900 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Magnitude Year Chile1906 List of major historic earthquakes
- 8. Where do earthquakesoccur? Source: wikipedia
- 13. Tectonic hazards: Criticalissues Seismic risk maps are not available for most of the regions All earthquakes do not occur along plate boundaries Precise prediction of earthquake (date and location of earthquake ) not possible even today. Vulnerability to earthquakes has increased dramatically More damages due to earthquake is occurring because of increasing urbanization
- 14. Factors determining thedestructiveness of a Size of quake Distance from epicenter Depth of quake Duration of shaking The local geology Meteorological conditions Construction practice Building code enforcement quake? Earthquake damage in downtown Port-au-Prince (Source: wikimedia)
- 15. 15 Major EarthquakeHazards Ground Motion: Shaking of structures results in damage or total collapse Liquefaction: Happens in loose saturated cohesionless soils in which the firm soil is converted into a fluid state which has no shear strength and thus structures found on these soils fail due to loss of bearing capacity of the ground Landslides: Vibrations during earthquake trigger large slope failures Fire, Dust and Pollution : Indirect effect of earthquakes (large scale damage triggered by EQ to gas pipe line and power lines) Tsunamis: large waves created by the instantaneous displacement of the sea floor during submarine earthquakes
- 16. Earthquake Destruction: GroundShaking Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves. High frequency body waves shake low buildings more. Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more. Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface material. Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do. Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on the construction styles and materials -Wood is more more flexible, holds up well -Earthen materials, unreinforced concrete are very vulnerable to shaking.
- 17. Different Types ofWaves Arrival of Seismic waves at site
- 19. 19 Earthquake Destruction:Ground Shaking Collapse of Buildings Image of Bachau in Kutch region of Gujarat after earthquake
- 20. 20 Earthquake Destruction:Ground Shaking Building design: Buildings that are not designed for earthquake loads suffer more Image of a collapsed building in Ahmedabad during Bhuj earthquake
- 21. 21 Earthquake Destruction:Ground Shaking Causes failure of lifelines Source: google images
- 22. 22 Earthquake Destruction:Landslides La Conchita, California- landslide and debris flow in1995 Source: wikipedia
- 23. Alaska Earthquake 1964:Major landslide
- 25. 25 Annual LandslideCosts Global: US$ 10-20 Billion 0 1 2 3 4 Norway New Zealand Sweden Canada Spain Ex USSR China India USA Italy Japan Country Annual Landslide Cost (1990 US$ Billion) Source: wikipedia
- 26. 26 Earthquake Destruction:Liquefaction Buildings founded on saturated cohesionless soils are vulnerable – Nigata, JAPAN 1964 Source: http://www.ce.washington.edu
- 29. 29 Earthquake Destruction:Liquefaction Flow failures of structures are caused by loss of strength of underlying soil Nishinomia Bridge 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan
- 30. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Sand Boil: Ground water rushing to the surface due to liquefaction Sand boils in Gujarat earthquake
- 31. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Source: wikipedia Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Canterbury earthquake, New Zealand.
- 32. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Lateral Spreading: Liquefaction related phenomenon Source: wikipedia Fissures caused by lateral spreading during Haiti earthquake
- 33. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Lateral spreading in the soil beneath embankment causes the embankment to be pulled apart, producing the large crack down the center of the road. Cracked Highway, Alaska earthquake, 1964 Source: google images
- 34. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining walls,which can cause them to tilt or slide. Source: google images
- 35. Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction Increased water pressure causes collapse of dams Source: wikipedia
- 36. 36 Earthquake Destruction:Liquefaction τ = c + σn tanø τ = c’+ (σn –u)tanø’ During an earthquake, static pore pressure `u’ may increase by an amount udyn τ = c’+ [(σn – (u + udyn)]tanø’ Let us consider a situation when u + udyn= σn, then τ = c’ In cohesionless soil, c’= 0, hence τ = 0
- 37. Earthquake Destruction: Fire Earthquakes sometimes cause fire due to broken gas lines, contributing to the loss of life and economy. The destruction of lifelines and utilities make impossible for firefighters to reach fires started and make the situation worse eg. 1989 Loma Prieta 1906 San Francisco 2011 Japan Source: International Business Times
- 38. 38 Earthquake Destruction:Fire Northridge, 1994 Source: wikimedia
- 51. What is atsunami? soo-NAH-mee or Harbor Wave is a Japanese word: tsu means harbor & nami means wave Definition: a ‘gravity wave’ in the sea (or other body of water) produced by sudden displacement of the seafloor and the water column above it Damaging tsunami waves propagate much further than damaging earthquake waves Tsunami can cause simultaneous catastrophic losses on opposite sides of ocean basins
- 52. Earthquake Destruction: Tsunami Tsunami Movement: ~600 mph in deep water ~250 mph in medium depth water ~35 mph in shallow water Source: USGS public domain
- 53. 53 Atleast 1500 (possibly ~3000) active volcanoes Around 50 erupt annually Over 82,000 people killed in 20th century Two eruptions killed over 20,000 500 million people threatened Perhaps 150 volcanoes monitored Earthquake Destruction: Volcanoes Etna (Sicily) Source: wikipedia
- 54.
- 55. Geo-morphological Changes •Geo-morphologicalchanges are often caused by an earthquake: e.g., movements--either vertical or horizontal--along geological fault traces; the raising, lowering, and tilting of the ground surface with related effects on the flow of groundwater; •An earthquake produces a permanent displacement across the fault. •Once a fault has been produced, it is a weakness within the rock, and is the likely location for future earthquakes. •After many earthquakes, the total displacement on a large fault may build up to many kilometers, and the length of the fault may propagate for hundreds of kilometers.
- 56. Mitigation Options •Avoidingthe hazard •Building Earthquake resistant structures •Ground Improvement 56
- 57. Mitigation Options: Avoidinghazard Where the potential for failure is beyond the acceptable level and not preventable by practical means, the locations of seismic threat can be avoided and the structures should be relocated sufficiently far away from the threat. 57
- 58. Mitigation Options: EarthquakeResistant Structures Seismic demand should be less than the Computed capacity ‘Seismic demand’ is the effect of the earthquake on the structure. ‘Computed capacity’ is the structure’s ability to resist that effect without failure. Methods to increase capacity/ Decrease demand: •Special Construction materials •Special Foundation Techniques •Special Construction Techniques 58
- 59. Building Earthquake resistantstructures Affect of Architectural Features on Building during EQ Behaviour of Brick Masonary Houses during EQ Effect of Earth Quake on RC Building
- 60. Affect of ArchitecturalFeatures on Bld during EQ Size of the Building • Horizontal Movement is very large in tall building(Ht /Base) • Damaging effects are many in long buildings • Horizontal seismic force becomes excessive in case of building with large plan area (force to be carried by column/wall)
- 61. Horizontal layout ofthe building • Bld.With simple geometry in plan performs well during EQ • Bld.With U,V,H & +shape sustains significant damage • L-Shaped Building- Can be converted in simple plan into 2 rectangular block using separation joint at the junction • column/wall carries equally distributed load in case of simple plan
- 62. Vertical layout ofbuildings • EQ force travels through the shortest path along the height of the building (Developed at different floor level of the bld.) • Any discontinuity in this load transfer path results in poor performance of the bld • Bld. With vertical set backs causes a sudden jump in earthquake force at the level of discontinuity • Bld. With fewer column/wall in a particular storey or with unusually tall storey tend to damage or collapse Contd………
- 63. Vertical layout ofbuildings • Building with open ground story tends to damage during EQ (2001 –Bhuj EQ-Ahmedabad) • Unequal height of the column along the slope caused ill effects like twisting and damage is more in shorter column • Building with hanging and floating column have discontinuities in load transfer path • Building with RCC Walls that stops at an upper level gets severely damaged
- 64. Affect of ArchitecturalFeatures on Bld during EQ Suggestions • Architectural features detrimental to EQ response of building should be avoided. If not, they must be minimised • In case irregular features included in building, higher level of engineering efforts is required in structural design • Decision made at the planning stage on building configuration are very important • Building with simple architectural feature will always behave better during EQ
- 65. Behaviour of BrickMasonary Houses during EQ Behaviour of Wall • All walls if joined properly to the adjacent wall ensures good seismic performance • Walls loaded in weak direction take advantage of the good lateral resistance offered in their strong direction • Walls need to be tied to the roof and foundation to reserve their overall integrity
- 66. Simple Structural Configurationrequired for Masonary Building Box Action in Masonary Bld. • Separate block can oscillate independently and even hammer each other (If too close during EQ) • Adequate gap required betn such blocks • Gap not necessary if horizontal projections in Bld are small • An integrally connected inclined stair case slab acts like a cross brace betn floors • It transfers large horizontal forces at the roof and the lower level (Area of Potential Damage)
- 67. Horizontal and VerticalBand necessary in Masonary Building Contd………
- 68. Effect of EarthQuake on RC Building Strength Hierarchy • Building to remain safe during EQ :-- --Column should be stronger than Beam --Foundation should be stronger than Column --Connection between beams & Column and Columns & Foundation should not fail
- 69.
- 70.
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
- 74. How do BeamColumn Joins in RC bld Resist EQ EQ behaviour of Joints Three stage procedure for providing horizontal ties in the joints
- 75. Soft Storey Beamand column in the open ground storey are required to be designed for 2.5 times the forces obtained from bare frame analysis
- 76. Special Construction Materials These materials absorb a part of seismic energy and thereby reduces the effect of earthquake on structure. These materials are strategically used to modify the force–deformation response of structural components and/or enhance their energy dissipation potential. Some of the special materials: Rubber, lead, copper, brass, aluminum, stainless steel, fibre-reinforced plastics and shape-memory alloys 76
- 77. Mitigation Options: SpecialConstruction Techniques Special construction techniques are adapted to reduce the seismic demand on the superstructure by sharing the earthquake loads through non-conventional structural elements. Some of these Techniques Include: •Base Isolation Systems •Energy Dissipation Systems •Active Control Systems 77
- 78. Base Isolation Systems In base-isolated systems, the superstructure is isolated from the foundation by certain devices, which reduce the ground motion transmitted to the structure. These devices help decouple the superstructure from damaging earthquake components and absorb seismic energy by adding significant damping . 78
- 79. Passive Energy DissipationSystems Various Energy Dissipating Devices (EDD) are used to dissipate the seismic energy. These devices are like ‘add-ons’ to conventional fixed-base system, to share the seismic demand along with primary structural members. 79
- 80. Active Control Systems They control the seismic response through appropriate adjustments within the structure, as the seismic excitation changes. In other words, active control systems introduce elements of dynamism and adaptability into the structure, thereby augmenting the capability to resist exceptional earthquake loads. A majority of these techniques involve adjusting lateral strength, stiffness and dynamic properties of the structure during the earthquake to reduce the structural response 80
- 81. Mitigation Options: GroundImprovement Earthquake damage is greater in poorer soil areas, and significant life and property losses are often associated with soil-related failures. Buildings and lifelines located in earthquake-prone regions, especially structures founded upon loose saturated sands, reclaimed or otherwise created lands, and deep deposits of soft clays, are vulnerable to a variety of earthquake-induced ground damage such as liquefaction, landslides, settlement, and ground cracking. Recent experiences show that engineering techniques for ground improvement can mitigate earthquake related damage and reduce losses. 81
- 82. Mitigation Options: GroundImprovement Fundamental approaches of Ground Improvement to mitigate earthquake damages are either to increase capacity of soil or to decrease the earthquake demand on the soil using several techniques. Increasing Capacity Decreasing Demand Soil Densification Providing drains for rapid dissipation of pore pressures Grouting Soil Reinforcement 82
- 83. Ground Improvement: SoilDensification Soil densification techniques: •Compaction •Vibro-replacement (Vibroflotation & Stone Columns) •Blasting •Grouting •Compaction Piles 83
- 84. Field Compaction Differenttypes of rollers (clockwise from right): Smooth-wheel roller Vibratory roller • Pneumatic rubber tired roller Sheepsfoot roller 84
- 85. Dynamic Compaction -pounding the ground by a heavy weight Suitable for granular soils and landfilles Pounder (Tamper) Crater created by the impact (to be backfilled) Source: http://www.geoforum.com 85
- 86. Dynamic Compaction Pounder(Tamper) Mass = 5-30 tonne Drop = 10-30 m 86 Source: http://www.geoforum.com
- 87. Dynamic Compaction 87 Source: http://www.geoforum.com
- 88. Ground Densification: Vibro-Compaction Vibro-Compaction also knows as VibroFlotation is used to densify clean, cohesionless soils. The action of the vibrator, usually accompanied by water jetting, reduces the inter-granular forces between the soil particles, allowing them to move into a denser configuration, typically achieving a relative density of 70 to 85 percent. Compaction is achieved above and below the water table. 88 Source: http://www.geoforum.com
- 89. vibrator makes ahole in the weak ground hole backfilled ..and compacted Densely compacted stone column Vibroflotation 89 Source: http://www.geoforum.com
- 90. Vibroflotation 90 Source:http://www.geoforum.com
- 91.
- 92. Ground Densification: Blasting • Generally used to improve density of silty sands-sandy gravels (non-cohesive soils) • Makes use of dynamic/undrained loading conditions to cause liquefaction-induced settlement • Sudden dynamic loading breaks cohesion and any cementation • Shockwave temporarily liquefies soil layer • Settlement occurs as excess pore water pressure approaches zero. • Typical vertical strain between 2% and 10% 92
- 93. Ground Densification: Blasting Aftermath of blasting For densifying granular soils 93
- 94. Soil Densification: Grouting Grouting is is a technique whereby a slow-flowing water/sand/cement mix is injected under pressure into a granular soil. The grout forms a bulb that displaces and hence densifies, the surrounding soil. Compaction grouting is a good option if the foundation of an existing building requires improvement, since it is possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to reach beneath the building. Jet grouting involves the injection of low viscosity liquid grout into the pore spaces of granular soils. This creates hardened soils to replace loose liquefiable soils. 94
- 95. Soil Densification: CompactionGrouting Compaction Grouting uses displacement to improve ground conditions. A highly viscous aggregate grout is pumped in stages, forming grout bulbs, which displace and densify the surrounding soils. Used for loose soils, liquefiable Soils and collapsible Soils 95
- 96. Soil Densification: CementGrouting Cement Grouting, also known as Slurry Grouting, is the intrusion of microfine cement slurry (fine portland cement mixed with a dispersant and larger quantities of water) into fine sand and finely cracked rock under pressure 96
- 97. Jet Grouting Groutis pumped through the rod and exits the horizontal nozzle(s) at high velocity [approximately 200m/sec]. This energy breaks down the soil matrix and replaces it with a mixture of grout slurry and in-situ soil (soilcrete). Jet grouting is most effective in cohesionless soils. 97
- 98.
- 99. Ground Densification: Deepsoil mixing Source: http://www.geoforum.com Deep Mixing Method is the mechanical blending of the in situ soil with cementitious materials using a hollow stem auger and paddle arrangement. These materials could be Cement or Fly ash or Ground Blast Furnace Slag or Lime or Additives or Combination of these. Soil mixing has the ability to strengthen soft and wet cohesive soils in a very short time period to permit many types of construction projects. 99
- 100. Ground Improvement: VerticalDrains The installation of prefabricated vertical drains provides shortened drainage paths for the water to exit the soil. Drainage remediation methods mitigate liquefaction hazards by enhancing the rate of excess pore pressure dissipation. The most common methods of drainage remediation are through the use of gravel, sand or wick drains. Drains are suitable for silts or clays. 100 Source: http://www.geoforum.com
- 101. Ground Improvement: VerticalDrains Primary consolidation settlement will already be achieved during the construction period by using vertical drains 101
- 102.
- 103. Earthquake Drains SM Earthquake Drains are prefabricated in the field to project specifications. The drain is fitted with a sacrificial endplate. The completed drains are fed into the installation mandrel and driven to treatment depth. When the mandrel is withdrawn, the endplate anchors in the soil leaving the drain in-place. 103
- 104. Earthquake Drains •Dissipates excess pore pressures as they generate during a seismic event • Can be used to retrofit existing structures • approximately one third the cost of traditional stone columns • installation times approximately one third to one half of that for stone columns. 104
- 105. Earthquake drains FINS:Transmit vibratory motion to the soil for densification STEEL CASING: Protects drain from driving stresses PREFABRICATED DRAIN Figure 2.1: Cross section of casing and prefabricated drain 105
- 106.
- 107. Earthquake drains 107 Source: google images
- 108. Geosynthetic Reinforced SoilRetaining walls Seismic wave action in GRS Wall Geosynthetics allow for the movement of the earth to pass through the reinforced soil mass similar to a wave passing through a body of water. Once the wave passes, the water returns to its original state. As the wave of ground movement passes through the soil mass, the geosyntetic reinforcement flexes with the movement of the earth but returns to its prequake position 108
- 109. Performance of GRSwalls during earthquakes Kobe , Japan - MW6.9 The wall was completed in 1992 for a total length was about 300 m. It was deformed and moved only slightly during the devastating earthquake that occurred in Japan, while more than half of the wooden houses in front of the wall collapsed totally. This type of geogrid-reinforced soil retaining wall was broadly employed to reconstruct the damaged conventi onal type retaining walls after the earthquake since it performed so well. 109
- 110. Mechanically stabilized earthwall within a few meters of the primary fault rupture. Although subjected to differential settlement, it suffered only minor Turkey Earthquake of August 17, 1999 damage. 110
- 111. Koyna Bridge Abutment:GRS technique Employed Rehabilitation of Koyna Bridge abutment in Maharashtra, India, located on SH 78 in seismic Zone-IV was done using geosynthetic reinforced wall technique encapsulating the cracked return wall. The project was completed in the year1996 and its performance in seismic Zone-IV, which is vulnerable to frequent earthquake, is very satisfactory in spite of repeated after shocks, including recent ones 111
- 112. Forecasting Earthquakes: EarlierMethods Strange Animal Behavior Stress in the rocks causes tiny hairline fractures. Cracking of the rocks emits high pitched sounds and minute vibrations imperceptible to humans but noticeable by many animals. Unusual Weather Conditions and Clouds A few scientists claim to have observed clouds associated with a seismic event, sometimes more than 50 days in advance of the earthquake. Foreshocks Foreshocks are minor tremors of the earth that precede a larger earthquake originating at approximately the same location. Unusual increase in the frequency of these foreshocks are sign for an earthquake. Changes in water level porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain, causing fluctuations in ground water level 112
- 113. Forecasting Earthquakes: RecentDevelopments Changes in Seismic Velocities Earthquakes are often accompanied by temporal changes in seismic wave velocities in the region Radon Emission Emission of radon gas as a quake precursor is recently being explored by the geophysicists for developing a worldwide seismic early warning system The Van Method The method is based on the detection of "seismic electric signals" (SES) via a telemetric network of conductive metal rods inserted in the ground. Researchers have claimed to be able to predict earthquakes of magnitude larger than 5 using this method. Geodetic Measurements Laser geodimeter measures changes in distance across the fault between points. Changes in distances may indicate a precursor to an upcoming earthquake. 113
- 114. Prediction of Earthquakes Seismic hazard map of the San Francisco Bay Area, showing the probability of a major earthquake occurring by 2032 114 Source: USGS public domain
- 115. First Successful Prediction Earthquake prediction has taken a scientific turn in late 1970s. The first successful prediction was made in China in winter 1975 for the city of Haicheng (population about 1 million). Scientists observed changes in land elevation and ground water levels in that region over a period of time. A regional increase in foreshocks had triggered a low-level alert. Based on the reports from scientists, Chinese officials had ordered the evacuation of the city. On February 4, 1975, earthquake of magnitude 7.3 struck the region. Only very small fraction (2,041 people) died in this event. The number of fatalities and injuries would have exceeded 150,000 if no earthquake prediction and evacuation had been made. 115
- 116. Acknowledgements • Theauthor wishes to acknowledge all the various sources used during the preparation of this presentation which aided and enhanced the quality either in the form of information, graph data, figure, photo, or table. Any Question ………..? Thanks for your attention