Price Discrimination
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The document discusses price discrimination, which is the practice of charging different prices to different consumers for the same product, and outlines its types: first, second, and third degree, along with the hurdle model. It emphasizes the conditions necessary for price discrimination to occur, such as market power and the ability to segment consumers, and examines its benefits for firms, including increased revenue and improved cash flow. Additionally, it addresses the ethical considerations and potential consumer exploitation associated with personalized pricing strategies in modern markets.
Price Discrimination
- 2. Price Discrimination EdExcel A2 Micro Topic 3.3.9 Students should be able to: • Explain and evaluate the potential costs and benefits of monopoly to both firms and consumers • Explain the conditions necessary for price discrimination to take place and give relevant examples • Diagrams should also be used to support the understanding of price discrimination
- 3. • Price discrimination is defined as a business charging different consumers different prices for the same product • Price variations do not fully reflect the marginal cost of supplying a product e.g. higher costs for parcels delivered over short and long-haul distances in the UK and overseas • There are several types of price discrimination 1. 1st degree discrimination 2. 2nd degree discrimination 3. 3rd degree discrimination 4. The Hurdle Model of price discrimination • Price discrimination is not the same as product differentiation where the quality / characteristics of the good/service vary by the type of customer What is Price Discrimination?
- 4. • Charging different prices for each individual unit purchased – i.e. people pay their own individual willingness to pay 1st degree • Prices varying by quantity sold e.g. bulk purchase discounts • Prices varying by time of purchase e.g. peak-time prices 2nd degree • Charging different prices to groups of consumers segmented by price elasticity of demand, income, age, sex 3rd degree Types of Price Discrimination
- 5. Main Aims of Price Discrimination Extra Total Revenue Higher Total Profit Improved Cash Flow Use Up Spare Capacity Marginal Profit Providing that extra units of a good or service can be sold for a price above the marginal cost of supply, price discrimination is an effective way to increase revenue and profits Multiple Prices Price discrimination takes us away from the standard assumption in theory of the firm that there is a single profit- maximising price for the same good or services
- 6. Hurdle Model of Price Discrimination • The hurdle model is associated with economist Professor Robert Frank • The hurdle method separates buyers with low willingness to pay from those happy to pay a premium price – often to be the first to use it • To take advantage of a lower price, the consumer must be prepared to overcome or jump over some kind of hurdle which acts as an inconvenience. For example: 1. They might have to delay a purchase until a product is remaindered, sold off at lower prices when a more advanced version is available e.g. second edition paperbacks, older DVDs 2. They may have to risk not getting the product at a time and place of their choosing e.g. relying on stand-by tickets for shows and airlines 3. They may get a deeper discount if the product is mildly damaged or once used e.g. dented household appliances - “seconds” 4. Discounts may require customers to collect & redeem coupons • Customers prepared to do this tend to be more price sensitive (Ped>1)
- 7. Hurdle Model of Price Discrimination Cheaper prices for nearly new products Discounts for people prepared to collect coupons Cheaper paperbacks published after the hardback release “Once used” or remainder stocks of computer games Discount ticket booths for stand-by / last- minute buyers Discounts solely for customers who visit the store on a given day
- 8. • Monopolists always have pricing power – price makers not takers Firms must have sufficient monopoly (market) power • I.e. consumers with different price elasticities of demand Identifying different market segments • Requires information / sufficient market intelligence Ability to separate different groups • No secondary markets where arbitrage can take place at intermediate prices e.g. limiting sales, age-restrictions, ID cards Ability to prevent re-sale (arbitrage) Conditions for Price Discrimination
- 9. Market haggling Mobile phone contracts / tariffs Taxi fares at peak times of the day Cinema ticket prices Hairdresser discounts Educational bursaries Price Discrimination in Action
- 10. Hyper-Targeting: Personalised Pricing B&Q testing electronic price tags Targeted deals for online customers Personalised loyalty cards /user profiles E-Commerce and the Rise of Personalised Pricing Now more than ever businesses have the potential to harness information contained in digital profiles of customers to offer bespoke, personalised prices for different goods and services. The costs of market and consumer segmentation are coming down. On some websites, different deals and prices appear as per the location, browsing history and operating system used by the potential buyer. Is this form of hyper-price targeting legal and/or ethical?
- 11. Nurofen and Price Gouging Allegations Nurofen was found guilty in December 2015 by an Australian court of misleading customers by selling the same painkillers at different prices. Labels on the packs of its analgesic drugs suggest they target types of pain such as migraines, period pain and sore backs. In fact, they all contain the same ingredient – ibuprofen lysine
- 12. Ticket Prices at Vue Cinema (Leeds)
- 13. Menu Prices at Jimmy Chung’s Jimmy Chung’s Edinburgh Lunch Monday - Thursday - (12.00 - 16.30) £6.49 per person (children under 11 years £3.99) Friday - Sunday - (12.00 -16.30) £6.99 per person (children under 11 years £4.49) Dinner Sunday - Thursday - (17.00 - 22.30) £10.49 per person (children under 11 years £4.99) Friday - Saturday - (17.00 - 23.00) £11.49 per person (children under 11 years £5.49) Prices may vary during Local/Public/ School holidays , Easter, and December period.
- 14. Differentiation and Price Discrimination
- 15. 2nd Degree Price Discrimination at Work
- 16. 3rd Degree Price Discrimination Analysis Price Output Price Output AR AR MRMR MC MC Elastic demand – consumers responsive to small price changes Inelastic demand – high willingness/ ability to pay 3rd degree price discrimination involves segmenting consumers into groups
- 17. 3rd Degree Price Discrimination Analysis Price Output Price Output AR AR MRMR MC MC Elastic demand – consumers responsive to small price changes Inelastic demand – high willingness/ ability to pay P1 Q1 Price sensitive consumers with lower willingness to pay are charged less
- 18. 3rd Degree Price Discrimination Analysis Price Output Price Output AR AR MRMR MC MC Elastic demand – consumers responsive to small price changes Inelastic demand – high willingness/ ability to pay P1 Q1 P2 Q2 When Ped<1 firms can raise their price and extract consumer surplus
- 19. Price Output Peak and Off Peak Demand and Pricing MR off peak AR off peak MC P off-peak Q1 At off-peak times, market demand is low and firms will have spare capacity
- 20. Price Output Peak and Off Peak Demand and Pricing MR off peak AR off peak MC P off-peak Q1 Q2 P peak At peak times, marginal cost may also be higher as capacity limits are reached MR peak AR peak
- 21. Seasonal Demand for Hotels in the USA The occupancy rate of hotels follows a season pattern reaching a peak during the summer months. At off-peak times, the occupancy rate can decline to less than 50% i.e. there is plenty of spare capacity 40.0% 45.0% 50.0% 55.0% 60.0% 65.0% 70.0% 75.0% 80.0% Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Occupancyrate(percent) 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
- 22. Uber and Price Discrimination Surge Pricing Peak Demand • Uber is a fast-growing taxi service app that now operates in more than 50 countries • In May 2015, Uber was valued at about 41 billion U.S. dollars by venture-capital firms • Uber engages in surge pricing – also known as dynamic pricing • When market demand out-strips available supply e.g. at peak times, then Uber raises the average fare on their app • The aim is to encourage more drivers to take to the roads to expand supply • The business is taking advantage of low price elasticity of demand at busy times • Some economists have criticised this policy especially during emergencies such as freak weather events and terrorist attacks
- 23. Welfare Case Against Price Targeting Exploitation of the consumer – the majority of consumer still pay more than the marginal cost Extraction of consumer surplus - turned into higher producer surplus / supernormal profit Possible use of discrimination as a limit pricing tactic i.e. a barrier to entry to rival firms Ultimately, if successful, it reinforces the monopoly power / dominance of existing firms
- 24. Arguments in Support of Price Targeting Potential for cross subsidy of activities that bring social benefits i.e. charging much lower prices for drugs in lower & middle-income countries Making better use of spare capacity – this can have environmental benefits – less waste etc. It brings new consumers into market – who would otherwise excluded by a ‘normal’ higher price Use of monopoly profit for research – this is a stimulus to innovation / dynamic efficiency gains