Principles of Language Assessment
- 1. PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT Dr.VMS Brown’s Model
- 2. COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT 1. Practicality, 2. Reliability, 3. Validity, 4. Authenticity and 5. Washback
- 3. 1. PRACTICALITY  An effective test is practical. This means that it  Is not excessively expensive,  Stays within appropriate time constraints,  Is relatively easy to administer, and  Has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific and time-efficient.
- 4. PRACTICALITY  A test that is prohibitively expensive is impractical. A test of language proficiency that takes a student five hours to complete is impractical-it consumes more time (and money) than necessary to accomplish its objective. A test that requires individual one-on-one proctoring is impractical for a group of several hundred test- takers and only a handful of examiners. A test that takes a few minutes for a student to take and several hours for an examiner too evaluate is impractical for most classroom situations. 
- 5. 2. RELIABILITY  A reliable test is consistent and dependable. If you give the same test to the same student or matched students on two different occasions, the test should yield similar result. The issue of reliability of a test may best be addressed by considering a number of factors that may contribute to the unreliability of a test. Consider the following possibilities (adapted from Mousavi, 2002, p. 804): fluctuations in the student, in scoring, in test administration, and in the test itself.
- 6. 2.1 STUDENT-RELATED RELIABILITY  The most common learner-related issue in reliability is caused by temporary illness, fatigue, a “bad day,” anxiety, and other physical or psychological factors, which may make an “observed” score deviate from one’s “true” score. Also included in this category are such factors as a test-taker’s “test-wiseness” or strategies for efficient test taking (Mousavi, 2002, p. 804).
- 7. 2.2 RATER RELIABILITY  Human error, subjectivity, and bias may enter into the scoring process. Inter-rater reliability occurs when two or more scores yield inconsistent score of the same test, possibly for lack of attention to scoring criteria, inexperience, inattention, or even preconceived biases. In the story above about the placement test, the initial scoring plan for the dictations was found to be unreliable-that is, the two scorers were not applying the same standards.
- 8. 2.3 TEST ADMINISTRATION RELIABILITY  Unreliability may also result from the conditions in which the test is administered. I once witnessed the administration of a test of aural comprehension in which a tape recorder played items for comprehension, but because of street noise outside the building, students sitting next to windows could not hear the tape accurately. This was a clear case of unreliability caused by the conditions of the test administration. Other sources of unreliability are found in photocopying variations, the amount of light in different parts of the room, variations in temperature, and even the condition of desks and chairs.
- 9. 2.4 TEST RELIABILITY  Sometimes the nature of the test itself can cause measurement errors. If a test is too long, test-takers may become fatigued by the time they reach the later items and hastily respond incorrectly. Timed tests may discriminate against students who do not perform well on a test with a time limit. We all know people (and you may be include in this category1) who “know” the course material perfectly but who are adversely affected by the presence of a clock ticking away. Poorly written test items (that are ambiguous or that have more than on correct answer) may be a further source of test unreliability.
- 10. 3. VALIDITY  By far the most complex criterion of an effective test-and arguably the most important principle-is validity, “the extent to which inferences made from assessment result are appropriate, meaningful, and useful in terms of the purpose of the assessment” (Ground, 1998, p. 226). A valid test of reading ability actually measures reading ability-not 20/20 vision, nor previous knowledge in a subject, nor some other variable of questionable relevance. To measure writing ability, one might ask students to write as many words as they can in 15 minutes, then simply count the words for the final score. Such a test would be easy to administer (practical), and the scoring quite dependable (reliable). But it would not constitute a valid test of writing ability without some consideration of comprehensibility, rhetorical discourse elements, and the organization of ideas, among other factors.
- 11. 3.1 CONTENT-RELATE EVIDENCE  If a test actually samples the subject matter about which conclusion are to be drawn, and if it requires the test-takers to perform the behavior that is being measured, it can claim content- related evidence of validity, often popularly referred to as content validity (e.g., Mousavi, 2002; Hughes, 2003). You can usually identify content-related evidence observationally if you can clearly define the achievement that you are measuring.
- 12. 3.2 CRITERION-RELATED EVIDENCE  A second of evidence of the validity of a test may be found in what is called criterion-related evidence, also referred to as criterion-related validity, or the extent to which the “criterion” of the test has actually been reached. You will recall that in Chapter I it was noted that most classroom-based assessment with teacher- designed tests fits the concept of criterion-referenced assessment. In such tests, specified classroom objectives are measured, and implied predetermined levels of performance are expected to be reached (80 percent is considered a minimal passing grade). 
- 13. 3.4 CONSTRUCT-RELATED EVIDENCE  A third kind of evidence that can support validity, but one that does not play as large a role classroom teachers, is construct-related validity, commonly referred to as construct validity. A construct is any theory, hypothesis, or model that attempts to explain observed phenomena in our universe of perceptions. Constructs may or may not be directly or empirically measured-their verification often requires inferential data.
- 14. 3.5 CONSEQUENTIAL VALIDITY  As well as the above three widely accepted forms of evidence that may be introduced to support the validity of an assessment, two other categories may be of some interest and utility in your own quest for validating classroom test. Messick (1989), Grounlund (1998), McNamara (2000), and Brindley (2001), among others, underscore the potential importance of the consequences of using an assessment. Consequential validity encompasses all the consequences of a test, including such considerations as its accuracy in measuring intended criteria, its impact on the preparation of test-takers, its effect on the learner, and the (intended and unintended) social consequences of a test’s interpretation and use.
- 15. 3.6 FACE VALIDITY  An important facet of consequential validity is the extent to which “students view the assessment as fair, relevant, and useful for improving learning” (Gronlund, 1998, p. 210), or what is popularly known as face validity. “Face validity refers to the degree to which a test looks right, and appears to measure the knowledge or abilities it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment of the examines who take it, the administrative personnel who decode on its use, and other psychometrically unsophisticated observers” (Mousavi, 2002, p. 244).
- 16. 4. AUTHENTICITY  An fourth major principle of language testing is authenticity, a concept that is a little slippery to define, especially within the art and science of evaluating and designing tests. Bachman and Palmer (1996, p. 23) define authenticity as “the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a target language task,” and then suggest an agenda for identifying those target language tasks and for transforming them into valid test items.
- 17. 5. WASHBACK  A facet of consequential validity, discussed above, is “the effect of testing on teaching and learning” (Hughes, 2003, p. 1), otherwise known among language-testing specialists as washback. In large-scale assessment, wasback generally refers to the effects the test have on instruction in terms of how students prepare for the test. “Cram” courses and “teaching to the test” are examples of such washback. Another form of washback that occurs more in classroom assessment is the information that “washes back” to students in the form of useful diagnoses of strengths and weaknesses. Washback also includes the effects of an assessment on teaching and learning prior to the assessment itself, that is, on preparation for the assessment.
- 18. 5.1 WASHBACK/BACKWASH  The term wasback is commonly used in applied linguistics. it is rarely found in dictionaries.  However, the word backwash can be found in certain dictionaries and it is defined as “an effect that is not the direct result of something” by Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.  In dealing with principles of language assessment, these two words somehow can be interchangeable.  Washback (Brown, 2004) or Backwash (Heaton, 1990) refers to the influence of testing on teaching and learning.  The influence itself can be positive or negative (Cheng et al. (Eds.), 2008:7-11)
- 19. 5.2 POSITIVE WASHBACK  Positive washback has beneficial influence on teaching and learning. It means teachers and students have a positive attitude toward the examination or test, and work willingly and collaboratively towards its objective (Cheng & Curtis, 2008:10).  A good test should have a good effect.
- 20. 5.3 NEGATIVE WASHBACK  Negative washback does not give any beneficial influence on teaching and learning (Cheng and Curtis, 2008:9).  Tests which have negative washback is considered to have negative influence on teaching and learning.
- 21. Thank You