Professional Chicago Style Literature Review Sample

CHICAGO STYLE
LITERATURE
REVIEW SAMPLE

C H I C A G O S T Y L E L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W S A M P L E
In the past thirty years, mentoring plays a significant role in a number of areas, the interest in this subject
grows in the form of a large number of scientific researches and confirmed welfare that is provided by mentoring
for an organization, a mentor and a mentored person. Since scientific and professional literature offers a number of
mentorship definitions, and they differ in their description depending on the area (organizational / business,
medical, academic), this chapter needs to be dedicated to a special chapter. However, one of the more
comprehensive definitions of mentoring is described as supporting a process in which a more competent and
experienced person teaches, welcomes, supports and protects, encourages, counsels and serves as a model for a less
experienced person with a view to her professional and / or personal development. Mentoring relationships can be
formal or informal, long-term or short-term, planned or spontaneous. Informal relations develop "naturally",
involving mentors and mentors who are most often focused on achieving long-term goals, while formal
relationships are usually arranged and managed by an organization or educational institution. The duration of
informal and formal relationships varies, so they can be short in the form of a meeting; others may last for six
months or a year throughout the decade.
Numerous positive experiences and student successes are often associated with the mentor's role and role of
mentor. Mentoring is an effective way for students to realize useful and functional links with faculty or its
employees. If properly done, the mentorship can be crucial in achieving the success and progress of a student in the
academic environment. Quality mentoring and a good mentor are an inevitable component of a later successful
career. Despite the long history of mentoring, there is a lack of a generally accepted definition of mentorship and
theory in describing the roles and functions involved in mentoring experience and the perception of these
experiences by students. In the 1990-2007 mentorship literature review Crisp and Cruz state that the definition of
mentoring is more than ambiguous given the existence of more than 50 different definitions. Some researchers used
the term mentorship in describing specific activities developed by mentors, while another group of researchers
defined mentorship in terms processes.
IMPORTANCE OF MENTORING RELATIONSHIPS 1
Kram K. E. Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships at work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1985)
Allen D. T., Eby T. L., O'Brien E. K., Lentz E. “The state of mentoring research: A qualitative review of current research methods and
future research implications”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73 (3) (2007)
Anderson E. M., Shannon A. L. “Toward a conceptualization of mentoring” Journal of Teacher Education, 39 (1), (1988): 40
Luna G., Cullen D. L. Empowering the faculty: Mentoring redirected and renewed. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports, 3 (1995)
Campbell A. T., Campbell E. D. “Faculty/student mentor program: Effects on academic performance and retention” Research in
Higher Education, 38 (6), (1997)
Crisp G., Cruz I. “Mentoring college students: a critical review of the literature between 1990 and 2007” Research in Higher
Education, (2009)
Waldeck H. J., Orrego O. V., Plax G. T., Kearney P. “Graduate students/faculty mentoring relationship: Whi gets mentored, how it
happens, and to what end” Communication Quarterly, 45 (3), (1997)
Crisp G., Cruz I. “Mentoring college students: a critical review of the literature between 1990 and 2007”. Research in Higher
Education, 50 (6), (2009)
Freeman K. “No Services Needed?: The Case for Mentoring High-Achieving African American Students” Peabody Journal of
Education, 74 (2), (1999)
Roberts A. “Mentoring Revisited: A phenomenological reading of the literature” Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 8
(2), (2000)
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In the theoretical and empirical context, the academics use different definitions of mentoring in the absence of a
single, consistent, operationalized definition. Roberts describe mentorship from a business perspective as a
formalized process in which a wiser and more experienced person supports, monitors and encourages the reflection
of a less experienced member to improve his career and personal development. From a psychological perspective,
Levinson described mentoring as a psychological progress mentored by the mentor's moral and emotional support.
In the context of higher education, the lack of a consistent definition of mentorship. Existing definitions are
described in the description or overwhelmed such as Murray where mentoring is described as a relationship
between a more experienced and less experienced person whose object is the learning or development of specific
competences or, on the other hand, being excessively specific, Blackwell mentions the mentorship as a process in
which a superior individual with special achievements and exceptional teaching, counseling and guidance skills
facilitates the mentorship of intellectual and / or professional development. Although there is a great deal of
disagreement about what mentoring is and what are its characteristics, Jacobi identified three fields in which
researchers agree on mentorship. First, the mentor relationship is oriented towards the development and
achievements of the individual and the implications of several forms of support, which can include professional and
business advancement, psychological support and mentoring as mentors. Also, the researchers agreed that the
mentorship is personal and mutual. Namely, the last component is subject to change due to the omnipresence of
technology that enables and facilitates communication and certain mentoring activities that can be carried out
without necessarily physical encounter. One of the most commonly offered and comprehensive definitions is given
by O'Neill and Wrightsman: Mentoring exists when a person serves as a source, sponsor and transitional figure for
another person (most often but not necessarily younger) that becomes part of the same profession. Effective
mentors to mentored students convey their knowledge, advise them, encourage and support the process of acquiring
competences and professional identity. The mentor awaits a less experienced person in the profession and presents
the values, the skills to the success that the mentor will acquire in the future.
To meet student needs and improve their academic development, several strategies have been developed such
as counseling, training and mentoring. These strategies are used independently of each other or are combined
without the full understanding of their use and goals. The developmental model of counseling is not based solely on
the learning process and educational experience, but is also striving for joining academic interests with their
personal and professional ambitions.
Ibid.
Levinson J. D. “The mid-life transition: A period in adult psychosocial development” Psychiatry, 40 (2), (1977)
Anderson E. M., Shannon A. L. “Toward a conceptualization of mentoring” Journal of Teacher Education, 39 (1), (1988): 40
Murray M. Beyond the myths and magic of mentoring. (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2001)
Allen D. T., Eby L. T. The Blackwell Handbook of Mentoring: a multiple perspectives approach. (Malden: Blackwell Publising, 2007)
Jacobi M. “Mentoring and undergraduate academic success: a literature review” Review of Educational Research, 61 (4), (1991)
O'Neil. O. M. J., Wrightsman S. L. The Mentoring Relationship in Psychology Training Programs. In U S. Walfish & A. K. Hess (Ed.),
Succeeding in Graduate School: The Career Guide for Psychology Students (New York: Routledge, 2001)
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Counseling models vary depending on the institutions. Smaller institutions are kept on traditional, decentralized
faculty advisory models, while larger institutions, inability to provide counseling to each student, are based on
centralized, professional advisory models. However, most institutions are based on the combination of one and the
other model. In the context of higher education, psychological and career counseling is the most common
developmental model for satisfying student needs. The psychological concept of counseling involves dealing with
anxiety, depression and other life stressors and the professional support that the university provides to students and
goes beyond the expertise of mentors and other staff at the faculty. Career counseling is based on strategies used
such as educational panels, events that will expand the social network of students, provide information, connect
students to the labor market, provide self-assessment tools and career counseling with the expert. Interventions,
such as role-playing and therapy-oriented solutions are also often used by the counseling profession. Academic
training is geared towards improving student skills such as setting goals, time management, and learning skills. It
has been proven that the training has a positive impact on the academic achievement of a student. Successful
academic training relies on building relationships, listening skills and asking questions from coaches. Unlike
mentoring, the focus is on a specific problem in coaching, whereby the trainer helps the student in solving or
overcoming it. In the role of a trainer, every person who has enough knowledge and experience on the methods
used in the coaches can be found, while in the case of mentoring, a person who is more professional or experienced
than a student.
In the context of higher education, supervision is often similar to mentoring and coaching, while an element of
supervising the student during an activity is still attached. Thus, supervision also implies dialogue, mutual support
and the development of specific competences. Mentoring is often a combination of all these strategies. However,
the boundary between mentoring and other similar relationships is often unclear and insufficiently highlighted. This
is also potentially favored by the fact that the notion of mentorship is unclearly defined. Miller has identified
mentoring relationships with friendship, counseling, academic training and tutoring concepts. Nevertheless, it is
important to emphasize that all of these roles have a common overall goal of building a relationship with a student,
listening to their needs and problems, and encouraging them to develop skills that will help them solve and learn
how to take responsibility, plan and decide on further direction of its actions.
Approaches to mentoring according to theoretical orientation can be divided into three groups; humanistic,
craftsmanship and critical constructivist. Although these orientations are primarily geared towards mentoring a
beginner's teacher, they are tailored to the academic field, through the student-mentor relationship. According to
humanistic orientation, emotional and social support is mentored in the first plan. The mentor is a consultant who
helps mentor to recognize his / her own needs and build self-confidence and resolve internal conflicts. The
professional dimension of the relationship is in the second plan, i.e. the responsibility is largely on the student.
Miller A. Mentoring students & young people: A handbook of effective practice. (London: Kogan Page, 2002)
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Desirable mentoring competences are developed interpersonal and communication skills. Research results that
included a broader range of mentorships (final, postgraduate, doctoral dissertations, projects and other activities)
showed that psychosocial support is a better predictor of personal satisfaction than professional support. Thus, if
the relationship between the mentor and the student is closer, or if the psychosocial dimension is dominated, the
relationship will be more positive and more successful. The second orientation is focused on the development of
practical skills and the application of contextualized knowledge to achieve the expected outcomes. The basic
methods used in this orientation are modeling, demonstration, observation, and reflection of one's own
performance. The last orientation is based on the critics of constructivist theory, which is at the center of constantly
criticizing the existing practice and building new approaches based on their own experience and new knowledge.

Kram K. E. Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships at work. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1985.
Allen D. T., Eby T. L., O'Brien E. K., Lent E. “The state of mentoring research: A qualitative review of current
research methods and future research implications.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73 (3) (2008): 343 - 357.
Anderson E. M., Shannon A. L. “Toward a conceptualization of mentoring” Journal of Teacher Education, 39 (1),
(1988): 38 - 42.
Luna G., Cullen D. L. Empowering the faculty: Mentoring redirected and renewed. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education
Reports, 3, (1995): 1 - 87.
Campbell A. T., Campbell E. D. “Faculty/student mentor program: Effects on academic performance and
retention.” Research in Higher Education, 38 (6), (1997): 727 – 742.
Crisp G., Cruz I. “Mentoring college students: a critical review of the literature between 1990 and 2007”. Research
in Higher Education, 50 (6), (2009): 525 – 545.
Waldeck H. J., Orrego O. V., Plax G. T., Kearney P. “Graduate students/faculty mentoring relationship: Whi gets
mentored, how it happens, and to what end,” Communication Quarterly, 45 (3), (1997): 93 - 109.
Freeman K. “No Services Needed?: The Case for Mentoring High-Achieving African American Students.”
Peabody Journal of Education, 74 (2) (1999): 15 - 26.
Roberts A. “Mentoring Revisited: A phenomenological reading of the literature Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership
in Learning”, 8 (2), (2000): 145 - 170.
Levinson J. D. “The mid-life transition: A period in adult psychosocial development.” Psychiatry, 40 (2), (1977):
99 - 112.
Murray M. Beyond the myths and magic of mentoring (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2001).
Allen D. T., Eby L. T. The Blackwell Handbook of Mentoring: a multiple perspectives approach. (Malden:
Blackwell Publishing, 2007).
Jacobi M. “Mentoring and undergraduate academic success: a literature review.” Review of Educational Research,
61 (4), (1991): 505 – 532.
O'Neil. O. M. J., Wrightsman S. L. “The Mentoring Relationship in Psychology Training Programs.” In U S.
Walfish & A. K. Hess (Ed.), Succeeding in Graduate School: The Career Guide for Psychology Students (p. 111 -
123). (New York: Routledge, 2001)
Miller A. Mentoring students & young people: A handbook of effective practice. (London: Kogan Page, 2002)

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