PSY101 Week 2 Learning
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This document provides an overview of learning concepts from a psychology course. It defines learning and describes the key types of learning - classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning is based on consequences influencing behavior - reinforcement increases a behavior while punishment decreases it. Examples are given of classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov and Watson, as well as B.F. Skinner's research on operant conditioning using positive and negative reinforcement in operant chambers.
![Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the
CR]
After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished:
•following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a
spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack
of further conditioning).
•if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR
becomes extinct again.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/week2learning-211117092408/85/PSY101-Week-2-Learning-18-320.jpg)
PSY101 Week 2 Learning
- 1. PSY101 Week 2 Learning Dr. Russell Rodrigo
- 2. Outline § Definitions § Classical conditioning § Operant conditioning What do we mean by “learning”? Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
- 3. 1. when we learn to predict events we already like or don’t like by noticing other events or sensations that happen first. 2. when our actions have consequences. 3. when we watch what other people do. 1. when two stimuli (events or sensations) tend to occur together or in sequence. 2. when actions become associated with pleasant or aversive results. 3. when two pieces of information are linked. How does learning happen other than through language/words? We learn from experience: We learn by association:
- 4. Types of Learning Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction Operant conditioning: changing behavior choices in response to consequences Cognitive learning: acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience
- 5. How it works: after repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence, we associate those stimuli with each other. Result: our natural response to one stimulus now can be triggered by the new, predictive stimulus. Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning Here, our response to thunder becomes associated with lightning. Stimulus 1: See lightning Stimulus 2: Hear thunder After Repetition Stimulus: See lightning Response: Cover ears to avoid sound
- 6. § Child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences. § Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were followed by desirable results (cookie). § Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert). Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning
- 7. Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors and information mentally, rather than by direct experience. Cognitive learning occurs: 1. by observing events and the behavior of others. 2. by using language to acquire information about events experienced by others.
- 8. Behaviorism § The term behaviorism was used by John B. Watson (1878-1958), a proponent of classical conditioning, as well as by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a leader in research about operant conditioning. § Both scientists believed the mental life was much less important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science. § Both foresaw applications in controlling human behavior: Skinner conceived of utopian communities. Watson went into advertising.
- 9. Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery While studying salivation in dogs, Ivan Pavlov found that salivation from eating food was eventually triggered by what should have been neutral stimuli such as: § just seeing the food. § seeing the dish. § seeing the person who brought the food. § just hearing that person’s footsteps.
- 10. Before Conditioning No response Neutral stimulus (NS) Neutral stimulus: a stimulus which does not trigger a response
- 11. Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates Unconditioned stimulus (US): yummy dog food Before Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus and response: a stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning
- 12. Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates Neutral stimulus (NS) Unconditioned stimulus (US) During Conditioning The bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented with the food (U.S.).
- 13. Conditioned response: dog salivates After Conditioning Conditioned (formerly neutral) stimulus The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone (neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus). Did you follow the changes? The UR and the CR are the same response, triggered by different events. The difference is whether conditioning was necessary for the response to happen. The NS and the CS are the same stimulus. The difference is whether the stimulus triggers the conditioned response.
- 14. Breakout Room: Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR in the following: Your romantic partner always uses the same shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes you feel happy. The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks. The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear. You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated. Your romantic partner always uses the same shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes you feel happy. The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks. The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear. You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.
- 15. § If the dog becomes conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, can the dog be conditioned to salivate when a light flashes…by associating it with the BELL instead of with food? § Yes! The conditioned response can be transferred from the US to a CS, then from there to another CS. § This is higher-order conditioning: turning a NS into a CS by associating it with another CS. àA man who was conditioned to associate joy with coffee, could then learn to associate joy with a restaurant if he was served coffee there every time he walked in to the restaurant. Higher-Order Conditioning
- 16. 16 Acquisition What gets “acquired”? à The association between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US). How can we tell that acquisition has occurred? à The UR now gets triggered by a CS (drooling now gets triggered by a bell). Timing For the association to be acquired, the neutral stimulus (NS) needs to repeatedly appear before the unconditioned stimulus (US)…about a half-second before, in most cases. The bell must come right before the food. Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning/conditioning.
- 17. Acquisition and Extinction § The strength of a CR grows with conditioning. § Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response. If the US (food) stops appearing with the CS (bell), the CR decreases.
- 18. Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the CR] After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished: •following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning). •if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR becomes extinct again.
- 19. Generalization and Discrimination Please notice the narrow, psychological definition . Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool when rubbed; they then also drooled when scratched. Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool at bells of a certain pitch; slightly different pitches did not trigger drooling. Generalization refers to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli. MORE stuff makes you drool. Discrimination refers to the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization. LESS stuff makes you drool.
- 20. Insights about conditioning in general • It occurs in all creatures. • It is related to biological drives and responses. Insights about science • Learning can be studied objectively, by quantifying actions and isolating elements of behavior. Insights from specific applications • Substance abuse involves conditioned triggers, and these triggers (certain places, events) can be avoided or associated with new responses. Ivan Pavlov’s Legacy
- 21. Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life 1. Advertisements 2. School 3. Home
- 24. John B. Watson and Classical Conditioning: Playing with Fear § In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was not afraid of rats. § John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clanged a steel bar every time a rat was presented to Albert. § Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear to other soft and furry things. § Watson prided himself in his ability to shape people’s emotions. He later went into advertising.
- 25. Before Conditioning NS: rat No fear UCS: steel bar hit with hammer Natural reflex: fear Little Albert Experiment
- 26. During Conditioning NS: rat UCS: steel bar hit with hammer Natural reflex: fear Little Albert Experiment
- 28. B.F. Skinner
- 29. How it works: An act of chosen behavior (a “response”) is followed by a reward or punitive feedback from the environment. Results: § Reinforced behavior is more likely to be tried again. § Punished behavior is less likely to be chosen in the future. Operant Conditioning Response: balancing a ball Consequence: receiving food Behavior strengthened Operant conditioning involves adjusting to the consequences of our behaviors, so we can easily learn to do more of what works, and less of what doesn’t work. Examples à §We may smile more at work after this repeatedly gets us bigger tips. §We learn how to ride a bike using the strategies that don’t make us crash.
- 30. Classical conditioning: Operant conditioning: Operant and Classical Conditioning are Different Forms of Associative Learning § involves respondent behavior, reflexive, automatic reactions such as fear or craving § these reactions to unconditioned stimuli (US) become associated with neutral (thenàconditioned) stimuli § involves operant behavior, chosen behaviors which “operate” on the environment § these behaviors become associated with consequences which punish (decrease) or reinforce (increase) the operant behavior There is a contrast in the process of conditioning. The experimental (neutral) stimulus repeatedly precedes the respondent behavior, and eventually triggers that behavior. The experimental (consequence) stimulus repeatedly follows the operant behavior, and eventually punishes or reinforces that behavior.
- 31. Breakout Room: Identify whether the examples that follow applies classical or operant conditioning 1. Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes. 2. Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year. 3. Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat belt.
- 32. 4. You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it. 5. An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart rate. 6. A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a food treat. 7. A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the quarter. His students’ attendance increases dramatically. 8. You check the coin return slot on a pay telephone and find a quarter. You find yourself checking other telephones over the next few days. 9. Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to put gloves on when it’s cold. 10. John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the white rat.
- 33. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Edward Thorndike placed cats in a puzzle box; they were rewarded with food (and freedom) when they solved the puzzle. Thorndike noted that the cats took less time to escape after repeated trials and rewards. The law of effect states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
- 34. B.F. Skinner: Behavioral Control B. F. Skinner saw potential for exploring and using Edward Thorndike’s principles much more broadly. He wondered: § how can we more carefully measure the effect of consequences on chosen behavior? § what else can creatures be taught to do by controlling consequences? § what happens when we change the timing of reinforcement? B.F. Skinner trained pigeons to play ping pong, and guide a video game missile.
- 35. B.F. Skinner: The Operant Chamber § B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled methods of studying conditioning. § The operant chamber, often called “the Skinner box,” allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in response to different rates of reinforcement. Recording device Bar or lever that an animal presses, randomly at first, later for reward Food/water dispenser to provide the reward
- 36. Reinforcement § Reinforcement refers to any feedback from the environment that makes a behavior more likely to recur. § Positive (adding) reinforcement: adding something desirable (e.g., warmth) § Negative (taking away) reinforcement: ending something unpleasant (e.g., the cold) For the meerkat, this warm light is desirable. This meerkat has just completed a task out in the cold
- 37. Four Types of Operant Learning Two strengthen behavior, and two weaken it.
- 39. Shaping Behavior Reinforcing Successive Approximations When a creature is not likely to randomly perform exactly the behavior you are trying to teach, you can reward any behavior that comes close to the desired behavior. Students could smile and nod more when the instructor moves left, until the instructor stays pinned to the left wall.
- 40. A cycle of mutual reinforcement 40 Children who have a temper tantrum when they are frustrated may get positively reinforced for this behavior when parents occasionally respond by giving in to a child’s demands. Result: stronger, more frequent tantrums Parents who occasionally give in to tantrums may get negatively reinforced when the child responds by ending the tantrum. Result: parents giving-in behavior is strengthened (giving in sooner and more often)
- 41. Discrimination § Discrimination refers to the ability to become more and more specific in what situations trigger a response. § Shaping can increase discrimination, if reinforcement only comes for certain discriminative stimuli. § For examples, dogs, rats, and even spiders can be trained to search for very specific smells, from drugs to explosives. § Pigeons, seals, and manatees have been trained to respond to specific shapes, colors, and categories. Bomb-finding rat Manatee that selects shapes
- 42. Why we might work for money § If we repeatedly introduce a neutral stimulus before a reinforcer, this stimulus acquires the power to be used as a reinforcer. § A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that meets a basic need or otherwise is intrinsically desirable, such as food, sex, fun, attention, or power. § A secondary/conditioned reinforcer is a stimulus, such as a rectangle of paper with numbers on it (money) which has become associated with a primary reinforcer (money buys food, builds power).
- 43. A Human Talent: Responding to Delayed Reinforcers § If you give a dog a treat ten minutes after they did a trick, you’ll be reinforcing whatever they did right before the treat (sniffing?). Dogs respond to immediate reinforcement. § Humans have the ability to link a consequence to a behavior even if they aren’t linked sequentially in time. The piece of paper (money) can be a delayed reinforcer, paid a month later, yet still reinforcing if we link it to our performance. § Delaying gratification, a skill related to impulse control, enables longer-term goal setting.
- 44. Sources • Myers, D., G. (2013). Psychology, 10th Edition. New York: Worth Publishers. • https://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/part/chapter-7- learning/