Q2-Earth-and-LIfe-Science-Module-2023-2024.pdf

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CDLB – EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES 2023-2024
Level: SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Semester: FIRST
Subject Group: CORE SUBJECT Quarter: SECOND
Course Description:
This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the understanding of
Earth Science and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth through geologic time. It
discusses the Earth’s structure, composition, and processes. Issues, concerns, and
problems pertaining to natural hazards are also included. It also deals with the basic
principles and processes in the study of biology. It covers life processes and interactions at
the cellular, organism, population, and ecosystem levels.
Course Requirements:
Below are the list of activities that must be completed and submitted.
WEEK
ACTIVITIES Date of Completion
Raw
Score
Final
Score
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Enabling Assessment Activity No. 5 –
Sequence of Event
30
10
Performance Check 5 – Unifying
Themes of Life
50
11
Plant and Animal Reproduction
50
12
Performance Check 6 – Designer
Genes (GMO)
30
13
Organ System Diseases
30
14
Performance Check 7 – Evolution of
Man
30
15
Environmental Resistance
50
16 50
TOTAL
Grading System (Earth and Life Science)
QUARTER 2
Performance Check 30%
Enabling Assessment Activity 30%
Long Test 15%
Culminating Task 25%
FIRST QUARTERLY GRADE TOTAL 100%
EARTH AND LIFE
SCIENCE
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: Define life
LEARNING MATERIALS: Module, pen, paper, old biology books, internet (if applicable)
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Living organisms
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Able to differentiate the characteristics of living to non-living
organisms
TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 HRS
CONSULTATION: For inquiries and clarifications regarding the lesson, you may contact
your teacher thru his/her FB Messenger
RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Environmental Awareness, Critical and Analytical Thinking
Students will be able to apply
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills in explaining how life emerged
b. Environmental awareness on the evidences that supports life
OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON
This lesson is all about life and living organisms; its characteristics that differs them form
non-living organisms as well as the evidences that can support the emergence of life
STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
CHUNK 1: CONCEPT OF LIFE
● Life on Earth began more than 3 billion years ago, evolving from the most basic of
microbes into an array of complexity over time.
● Every aspect of life from the smallest submicroscopic living particle to the largest and
most imposing of plant and animal species is included.
● All living things are made of cells. Some organisms are unicellular and some are
multicellular.
Unicellular organisms consist of only a single cell that carries out all life processes. Ex.
(in clockwise) Bacteria, Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena
Multicellular organisms are composed of many cells which perform specialized and
specific function.
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Characteristics & Features of Life
A living entity, regardless of its structure, size, or behavior, is an organism that possesses
characteristics that most biologists have agreed upon.
These are locomotion, irritability, metabolism, growth, reproduction, cellular organization,
adjustment, integration, and coordination.
● Irritability is the ability of living things to react to the factors of the environment
such as life, temperature, pressure, tension, chemicals, and gravity. This is the
reason why living things react, or respond to their environment.
● Locomotion refers to the ability of organisms to move. Organisms have structure
such as the cilia, flagella, pseudopodia, and muscles which help them move. There is
in these organisms, a living substance called protoplasm which shows an intracellular
movement called cyclosis.
A living organism has
the following
characteristics.
Features of Life
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● Metabolism refers to the sum total of the chemical reactions taking place. The
building up reaction called anabolism is shown up by respiration.
● Growth is the increase in size and number of cells. The growth in living this is called
intussusception. Growth in all animals begins when the zygote starts to develop
and all the successive cell divisions take place then the cells become differentiated.
● Reproduction is the ability of living things to produce new individuals closely
resembling them.
● Cellular organization refers to the parts and functions of the cells in an organism.
An organism may have one or more cells that is the basic unit of life. Some
organisms are composed of only one cell yet function as other complex organisms
do. The living matter in a cell is the protoplasm which consists of a cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and nucleus.
● Adjustment, Integration, and Coordination refer to the ability of a living organism
to live in harmony with other organisms in the environment. It can make adjustments
which call for adapting itself in a given situation. By the process of integration,
an organism can act harmoniously with and relate itself to the environment.
CHUNK 2: ORIGIN OF LIFE
“Where did the first life come from?”
There are many theories to consider about the origin of life. The evolutionists, particularly
Charles Darwin, talked more about the process of evolution to explain how life
developed. According to him, there was growth from simple to complex form.
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. Special Creation Theory
● Many people believed that everything in this world was created by a Supreme Being.
This emphasizes the source of all creation is God and with Him, nothing is
impossible.
2. Spontaneous Generation Theory
● During the ancient times, people used only their naked eyes to see things. They
believed that life originated as a spontaneous event. It is a hypothetical process by
which living organisms developed from nonliving matter, also, the archaic theory that
utilized this process to explain the origin of life.
● The idea of Spontaneous Generation Theory states that living organisms can
originate from inanimate object such as dust creates fleas, maggots from rotting
meat, and bread or wheat left in a dark corner produces mice.
● However, there are several experiments made by different scientists to disprove the
theory.
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A. Francesco Redi experiment (1668)
 The idea of Spontaneous Generation Theory states that living organisms can
originate from inanimate object such as dust creates fleas, maggots from rotting meat
 Redi concluded that meat could not transform into flies, only flies could produce flies.
The theory of spontaneous generation could not be supported and was therefore
incorrect.
B. Loius Pasture (1859)
● Pasteur was able to conclude that cells were not generated spontaneously but were
actually entering the broth from the surrounding air. Microorganisms, carried by dust
particles, fell into the straight-necked flask. However, the swan neck trapped the
particles, preventing cells from entering the broth.
3. Biogenetic Theory
● The Biogenetic Theory states that life produced life, that each animal and plant
produced its own kind.
● “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. This is a phrase made by Ernst Haeckel, a
German biologist and philosopher which means that the development of an organism
(ontogeny) expresses all the intermediate forms of its ancestors throughout evolution
(phylogeny).
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4. Abiogenetic Synthesis Theory
● Most biologist’s theory that life began in the primordial seas. Water formed as vapor
liquefied and the seas appeared. Sunlight, acting on water where carbon dioxide and
ammonia were present, formed more complex compounds suitable for the nourishment
of living things. There was progressive development from nonliving things. Colloidal
substances led to the formulation of viruses.
● According to Alexander Oparin, a Russian biochemist, “the first organisms were
probably formed out of organic chemicals and processes that were much simpler than
those that exist today. Out of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulfur, molecules were formed from which complex compound developed. Then
proteins, carbohydrates, and other compounds developed into coacervates converting
the sea into a sort of ‘hot soup’, where cells formed.” It is believed that the first living
cells were not able to make their own organic food.
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OTHER THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
⮚ Beneath the Ice –
Some evidence indicates
that around 3 billion years
ago, Earth’s oceans were
covered with ice. This ice
may have been hundreds of
meters thick, mainly due to
the sun being less fierce
than it is nowadays. This
theory contends that the ice
may have protected the
compounds, allowing them
to interact and, thereby,
creating life.
⮚ RNA World
It is a hypothetical phase of
the evolutionary history of
life on Earth, in which self-
replicating Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) molecules
proliferated before the
evolution of DNA and
proteins.
Like DNA, RNA can store
and replicate genetic
information; like enzymes,
it can catalyze chemical
reactions that are critical
for life (Ribozyme).
⮚ Clay Breeding
Ground
Research at the
University of
Glasgow, Scotland,
suggested that clay
may have served as
an area of
concentrated
chemical activity,
providing a breeding
ground for DNA and
other components.
Mineral crystals in
clay could have
arranged organic
molecules into
organized patterns.
Eventually, organic
molecules organized
themselves.
⮚ Panspermia (Cosmozoic
Theory)
This is the proposal that life
on Earth began from rocks
and other debris from
impacts, in the form of
highly resistant spores
(cosmozoa) such as
meteorite.
⮚ Electricity
It has been proven that
electricity can produce
simple sugars and amino
acids from simple elements
in the atmosphere. This
leads to theory that
lightning may have been
responsible for the origins
of life, primarily by striking
through rich volcanic
clouds.
⮚ Simple Metabolism and
Reactions
In contrast to the RNA
theory, this suggests that
the primordial soup simply
continued to react with
itself over time., producing
more and more complex
molecules, yielding life.
⮚ Submarine
Hydrothermal Vents
deep-sea vents,
contain vast and
diverse ecosystems.
Studies suggest that
life may have
originated from within
these vents, a theory
that cannot be
ignored.
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WEEK 9 ANSWER SHEET (Please submit only the answers. Do not return the entire module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST NAME MIDDLE INITIAL
ENGAGEMENT Score: _____/20
Enabling Assessment Activity No. 5: Sequence of Events
Below are some key events happened in the past. Create a timeline that will show the
sequence of events of the history of life. Use the information below as your guide. You may
just use the keywords as part of your timeline.
Ediacaran Biota: Early multicellular organisms, known as the Ediacaran biota,
appear in the fossil record.
Oxygenation of the Atmosphere: Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increase due to
photosynthesis, paving the way for the development of more complex life forms.
Permian Extinction: A mass extinction event occurs, wiping out approximately 90%
of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species.
Cambrian Explosion: A rapid diversification of life occurs, leading to the emergence
of various complex animal forms during the Cambrian period.
Hominin Evolution: Modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolve in Africa and begin to
migrate across the globe.
First Photosynthetic Organisms: Cyanobacteria evolve the ability to perform
photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a byproduct.
Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction: The extinction event caused by an asteroid
impact leads to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, opening ecological niches for
the rise of mammals.
Colonization of Land: Plants, insects, and other organisms begin to colonize land,
adapting to terrestrial environments.
Multicellular Life: Complex cells called eukaryotes evolve, containing membrane-
bound organelles such as a nucleus.
First Dinosaurs: Dinosaurs rise to dominance, evolving into a wide variety of
species and occupying various ecological niches.
RUA of a Student’s Learning Score: _____/10
It was stated that researchers faced challenges looking for fossils of the earliest-life forms;
these fossils served as evidence of the origin of life. Based on your knowledge of tectonic
plates, explain why few samples of early rocks remain. How are we able to utilize it? You
may write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________
SIGNATURE OVER PRINTED NAME OF PARENT/GUARDIAN
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: Is virus considered a living organism? Justify your answer
OF LIFE
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Origin of life
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Able to justify why a certain organism is living
• Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
• Describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) in
the study of life show the connections among living things and how they interact with each
other and with their environment
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills in explaining how unifying themes connect one
organism to another
b. Environmental awareness on how the concept of life evolved
This lesson is all about unifying themes and characteristics of living organism including its
interaction to the environment; and how life evolved from a simple organic matter to a more
complex one.
CHUNK 1: THEMES OF LIFE
Unifying themes on the Concept of Life
• basic ideas that apply to all organisms
• connects many things in the exploration of life
1. Biological System
• SYSTEM
- has properties/ functions based on the arrangement and interactions of its parts
- together, the parts of our body enable us to move
Examples:
⮚ Organ System
contraction of muscles attached to bones causes movement blood vessels then supply
these parts with oxygen and food
⮚ Ecosystem
–organisms in the ecosystem require a steady supply of certain chemicals to live
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Interaction of organisms with each other and with the nonliving environment put the
system in ecosystem. The biological systems theme applies to all levels of life from
the biosphere all the way down to the molecules in cells.
An ecosystem such as forest is also a biological system. Like your body, an
ecosystem has properties that depend on how its parts interacted.
An organism in the ecosystem requires a steady supply of certain chemicals to live.
The Biological systems theme applies to all levels of life, from the biosphere all the way
down to the interactions of molecules in cells.
2. Cellular Basis of Life
• All organisms are made of cells
• Levels of organization:
a. cell
b. tissue
c. organ
d. system
e. organism
Most multicellular organisms have cells that are specialized for different functions
Examples:
Muscle cells Contract and enable us to move Nerve cells Transmit impulses that
control our muscles
3. Structure and Function
● The relationship between structure and function is apparent in the entire organism
and the physiological systems that serve them
● The structure determines function, function reflects structure
– Technically, they are inseparable
Example:
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• The structure of the bird’s bones contributes to the bird’s ability to fly
Inside the bones, an open, honeycomb- like structure provides great strength with little
weight
Birds have long extensions of nerve cells that control their flight muscles
These fibers make it possible for the bird’s brain to coordinate flying movements
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
“Like begets like”
a. The offspring inherits units of information called genes from their parents
i. Genes:
• Responsible for family resemblance
• Made up of information-rich molecules called DNA
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• Each cell in the body contains a copy of all DNA that were inherited from our mother
and father
– When a cell divides, it copies its DNA and passes this genetic information on to
each of the two cells it produces
• In humans, an egg cell from the
mother fuses with a sperm cell
from the father
– This results in a fertilized cell
containing a combination of
DNA from both parents
– The inherited DNA directs the
transformation of the fertilized
egg into a person with his/her
own eye color, facial features
and other characteristics
• *The inherited information in the
form of DNA enables organisms
to produce their own kind
Environmental Interactions
• No organism is completely
isolated from its surroundings
• As part of an ecosystem, each
organism interacts continuously with its environment
– The plants obtain water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air
and energy from sunlight
• The transfer of chemicals between organisms and their environments is a key
process in any ecosystem
– Breathing air, drinking water, eating food and getting rid of wastes are chemical
exchanges with the environment
• There is a constant sensing and responding to changes in the environment
Examples:
The specialized leaf of the Venus flytrap senses the light footsteps of a soon-to-be-
digested fly. The plant responses by rapidly folding the leaf together.
The sun may cause organism to squint.
The bark of an approaching dog causes you to turn your head quickly
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5. Energy and Life
• Moving, growing, reproducing and other activities of life require energy
• Energy is obtained from chemical reactions
– Sugars, fats and other “fuel-like” molecules in the food produce energy
6. Regulation
● The ability of mammals and birds to regulate body temperature is another example of
homeostasis or “steady-state”
● Different mechanisms enable organisms to regulate their internal environment
despite changes in their external environment
7. Evolution and Diversity
● The study of evolution explains changes in organisms over long periods of time
– Adaptation allows life forms to acquire new characteristics in response to their
environment through the process of natural selection
● The study of evolution is helping health professionals understand how disease-
causing bacteria become resistant to antibiotic drugs
● Environmental issues such as water and air pollution are changing how people think
about their relationship with the biosphere
● The population then evolves with its need for survival
Examples: Some animals make their coats lightened to facilitate hiding from predators
● Great diversity exists among the three domains of living things:
Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya
● Evolution explains this diversity
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
● Worked on the idea of evolution by natural selection
8. Modern Biology
● it involves asking questions about nature and then using observations or
experiments to find possible answers to those questions
● By fitting a radio transmitter onto an Atlantic turtle, researchers can monitor its
movement. This can help researchers determine how large a nature preserve must
be to support a population
● New findings about the DNA affect medicine and agriculture
● Research on the nervous system is improving the treatment of certain mental
illnesses
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● The result of stem cell research, animal cloning, environmental issues, genetically
modified crops or new ways to treat diseases show the impact of biology
9. Science, Technology and Society
● Technology applies scientific knowledge in new ways
In 2013, Australia developers created a prototype for a bionic eye.
It sends an image to a microchip in the brain, allowing the user to “see” the image
● Through science, humans learn about the solution to various problems
● The scientific method is able to give direction and pace for every inquiry
● Technology produced machinery to lengthen the life of perishable goods.
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Performance Check No. 5: Unifying Themes of Life
Fill out the table. A pair of different animals was already given and what aspect of these
animal’s life should be compared and contrast. Explain what makes them similar to one
another and what makes them differ using the pre-determined aspect.
Organisms Aspect of Life Similarities
(3 pts.)
Differences
(3 pts.)
Example:
Eagle
Turkey
Flight
Both of the animals
have feathers and
wings
Eagles can fly, while
turkeys cannot
Fish
Tadpole
Breathing
Chicken
Duck
Locomotion
Tiger
Cow
Food consumption
Turtle
Chicken
Reproduction
Bat
Dolphins
Navigation
Covid-19 is one of the current problems that the world is experiencing. It is an infectious
disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome which affects different people in
different ways. Justify how Biology can be used to solve the problem on Covid-19. You may
write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: Explain how science and technology is an essential
component of living organism?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Reproduction
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Basic knowledge of plant and animal reproduction
Describe the different ways of how representative animals and plants reproduce
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills in explaining how reproduction occurs among
living organisms
b. Environmental awareness on how to conceive life
This lesson is all about plant and animal reproduction; the process and types of reproduction
they undergo as well as some complications while reproducing their own kinds.
CHUNK 1: PLANT REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION is one of the characteristics of life.
It is a biological process in which new individual organisms are produced, may it be sexual
or asexual. Sexual reproduction involves the union of gametes (egg cell and sperm cell)
through fertilization. Meanwhile, asexual reproduction involves the creation of cloned
offspring from a parent organism.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In plants, flowers play a major role in sexual reproduction as it houses the structures for this
process. Below is the picture of a flower and the structures involved directly/indirectly in
sexual reproduction.
Main flower organs:
Stamen and Carpel (Reproductive) and
Petals and Sepals (Sterile).
These organs are held by a structure called a
receptacle.
• Stamen is male reproductive organ, which
produces the pollen, which contains the
sperm cell.
• Carpel or the female reproductive organ
has the following structures: stigma, style
and ovary.
• Stigma is the sticky end of the carpel where
pollen is trapped during the process of
pollination.

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• Style is a slender neck where the sperm
cell from the pollen can travel to the base
of the carpel called the ovary.
• Ovary contains the ovules (female
gametes), which when is fertilized by the
sperm becomes the seeds of a fruit.
• Sometimes, a flower has only one carpel,
or has more than one carpel, which is
fused, it is called a pistil.
 Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma.
 Ways in which pollination occurs:
❖ Self-pollination - wherein the pollen is transferred to the stigma of a plant’s own
flower
❖ Cross-pollination wherein pollen from a different plant is delivered to a stigma of
a flower of a different plant. Compared to self-pollination, cross-pollination can
increase genetic diversity of plants as genes from two different individuals are
shared by the offspring.
 Pollination is needed in order for fertilization to occur.
 Methods on how pollen is transferred from one anther to one stigma:
❖ biotic means (80%) and
❖ abiotic methods of pollination, wind (98%) and
❖ water (2%) are the main agents.
Biotic Pollinators
◦ Bees- rely on nectars from
flowers for they food, as such
they pollinate flowers with
delicate, sweet fragrance.
◦ Moths and butterflies –detect
odors and pollinate flowers
with sweet fragrance.
◦ Bats – are attracted to sweet
smelling lightly colored flowers
which stand out at night.
◦ Flies – are attracted to red,
fleshy flowers with a rank odor
reminiscent of decaying meat.
◦ Birds usually attracted to
bright flowers such as red and
yellow. Also, their nectar has
high sugar content which is
needed by birds.
There are other biotic agents of pollination, which aids in the delivery of pollen to a flower’s
carpel. This organism, as shown above, is adapted to the various characteristics of flowers
that require pollination.
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After the process of pollination,
the process of fertilization might
occur, which can result in the
development of a seed which
houses the embryo of a future
plant.
On the left is the process of
gametophyte production,
pollination, double fertilization
and seed development.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In plants, as some organs grow indeterminately due to tissues that can actively divide
(meristem- actively dividing cells) and revert to non-specialized structures (parenchyma
tissues). This indeterminate growth can lead to a form of reproduction called asexual
reproduction, as these organs can separate from the parent plant with the ability to grow and
develop.
Fragmentation, the most common method of asexual
reproduction, can occur through growth from a stem, leaf,
root and other plant organ which gained the ability
comparable to parent plant
Sweet basil propagated from cuttings.
Apomixis occurs when
diploid cells in the ovule
creates an embryo, this can
later result in the formation of
a seed
Malberry Citrus
Below are different types of vegetative propagation:
Stolon/Runner: stems that
grow horizontally above the
ground
Example: strawberry
Tubers: swollen roots
Example: potato
Plantlets: Leaves
Example: catacataca
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Bulbs: such as onion (each
skin is a leaf)
Example: Onion
Rhizomes – underground
stems
Example: ginger
Corms - vertical, swollen
underground plant stem
Example: taro
Artificial propagation
Grafting Layering Micropropagation
(Tissue Culture)
Cutting
CHUNK 1: ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Like plants, animals need to reproduce in order to increase the chance of the perpetuation of
their species. But unlike plants, there is an assumption that animals reproduced only through
the process of fertilization, or the fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell. Actually, like plants,
some animals also used asexual or sexual or both methods of sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria and archaea) and in
many eukaryotic, single-celled and multi-celled organisms. There are several ways that
animals reproduce asexually, the details of which vary among individual species.
Fission or binary fission, where a parent cell
divides, resulting in two identical cells, each
having the potential to grow to the size of
the original cell.
Examples: Amoeba, Leishmania, and also
in bacteria
Budding results from the outgrowth of a
part of the body leading to a separation of
the “bud” from the original organism and
the formation of two individuals, one
smaller than the other.
Examples: hydras and corals.
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Fragmentation is the breaking of an
individual into parts followed by
regeneration
Example: starfish
Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual
reproduction in which an egg develops into
an individual without being fertilized.
Sexual reproduction is the process of joining the haploid gametes (sex cells) to form a
diploid cell called a zygote, which eventually becomes an embryo and later on develop into
an organism. The female gamete is an egg cell, is usually non-motile, to ensure survival of
the embryo by storing energy. The male gamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to search
for the egg cell for fertilization.
Hermaphroditism occurs in animals
in which one individual has both male
and female reproductive systems.
Invertebrates such as earthworms,
slugs, tapeworms, and snails are
often hermaphroditic. Hermaphrodites
may self-fertilize, but typically they will
mate with another of their species,
fertilizing each other and both
producing offspring. Self-fertilization is
more common in animals that have
limited mobility or are not motile, such
as barnacles and clams.
Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm and an egg is a process called fertilization. This can
occur either inside (internal fertilization) or outside (external fertilization) the body of the
female. Humans provide an example of the former, whereas frog reproduction is an example
of the latter.
External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic
environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water. After the sperm reaches
the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external
fertilization happens during the process of
spawning where one or several females release
their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the
same area, at the same time. The spawning may
be triggered by environmental signals, such as
water temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly
all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs
and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and
echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea
cucumbers). Frogs, corals, mayflies, and
mosquitoes also spawn.
During sexual reproduction in toads, the male
grasps the female from behind and externally
fertilizes the eggs as they are deposited. (credit:
Bernie Kohl)
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Internal fertilization occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic animals
also use this method. Internal fertilization may occur by the male directly depositing sperm in
the female during mating. It may also occur by the male depositing sperm in the
environment, usually in a protective structure, which a female picks up to deposit the sperm
in her reproductive tract.
There are three ways that offspring are produced following internal fertilization.
In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s
body and develop there, receiving nourishment from the
yolk that is a part of the egg. This occurs in some bony fish,
some reptiles, a few cartilaginous fish, some amphibians, a
few mammals, and all birds.
Most non-avian reptiles and insects produce leathery eggs,
while birds and some turtles produce eggs with high
concentrations of calcium carbonate in the shell, making
them hard. Chicken eggs are an example of a hard shell.
The eggs of the egg-laying mammals such as the platypus
and echidna are leathery.
In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female,
and the embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk.
The eggs are retained in the female’s body until they hatch
inside of her, or she lays the eggs right before they hatch.
Ex. bony fish (like the platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus,
some sharks, lizards, some snakes (garter
snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some
invertebrate animals (Madagascar hissing
cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa).
In viviparity, the young are born alive. They obtain their
nourishment from the female and are born in varying states
of maturity. This occurs in most mammals, some
cartilaginous fish, and a few reptiles.
How Sexual reproduction in Animals takes place?
It occurs in following steps:
• Sperms or male gametes are produced by
male parent and sperm contains long tail
i.e. flagellum for movement.
• Ova, eggs or female gametes are produced
by female parent which is a bigger cell than
the sperm having a lot of cytoplasm.
• The sperm enters in to the ovum or egg
and fuses to form a new cell called ‘zygote’.
This process is known as fertilization. So,
the zygote is fertilized ovum.
• The zygote then divides again and again to
form a large number of cells, ultimately
grows and develops to form a new baby.
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Enabling Assessment Activity No. 6: Plant and Animal Reproduction
Write down one example each in every vegetative propagation and artificial propagation
technique (aside from the examples mentioned in the module and class discussion). Write
your answer in the space given.
Vegetative Propagation Plant Examples
1. Stolon
2. Tubers
3. Plantlets
4. Bulbs
5. Rhizomes
6. Corms
Artificial Propagation
7. Grafting
8. Layering
9. Micropropagation
10. Cutting
Classify the following animals as oviparity, ovoviparity, or viviparity. Write your answer in the
space given.
Animals Classification
1. Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate)
2. Human (Homo sapiens)
3. Frogs (Ran pipens)
4. Sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus)
5. Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi)
6. Ray (Manta birostris)
7. Clownfish (Amphiprion ephippium)
8. Salmon (Salmo salar)
9. Guppies (Poecilia reticulata)
10. Cattle (Bos taurus)
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of one propagation technique and explore how
environmental factors and human intervention can impact successful plant propagation. You
may write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: What is the difference between internal fertilization and
external fertilization?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Genetics
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Basic knowledge in breeding
Describe the process of genetic engineering
Evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills on the benefits and risks of GMOs
b. Environmental awareness on genetic engineering improves the quality of an
organism
This lesson is all about the basics in genetic engineering including how genetically modified
organism are created, their benefits and possible risks to human.
CHUNK 1: GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is the process in which genetic material is transferred from one
organism to another. Artificial selection is the most traditional form of genetic engineering,
wherein specificity of synthesis of target DNA sequence is less than current genetic
engineering technology. It has application on the pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural,
medical and other industries.
Genetic engineering is accomplished in three basic steps. These are:
(1) The isolation of DNA fragments from a donor organism;
(2) The insertion of an isolated donor DNA fragment into a vector genome and
(3) The growth of a recombinant vector in an appropriate host.
Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs).
Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are
• increased crop yields
• reduced costs for food or drug production
• reduced need for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality
• resistance to pests and disease
• greater food security, and
• medical benefits to the world's growing population
CHUNK 2: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs:
• Potential health risks to humans; toxicity, allergenicity and genetic hazards.
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• Ecological risks: Selection of resistance, Disruption of the food web, Resistance to
antibiotics
Examples of GMOs Resulting from Agricultural Biotechnology
Approved Commercial Products Herbicide tolerance Soybean
Insect resistance Corn
Altered fatty acid composition Canola
Virus resistance Plum
Products still in Development Vitamin enrichment Rice
Vaccines Tobacco
Oral vaccines Maize
Faster maturation Coho salmon
The Philippines was the first in Asia to approve commercial cultivation of a GM crop for
animal feed and food in 2002 when it allowed GM corn planting. It has also allowed GM crop
imports for more than a decade. Around 70 percent of its corn output is GM.
Image Source: IRRI
Golden rice (left) - genetically engineered to combat vitamin A deficiency has received
approval from regulators in the Philippines.
Some Research Institutes in the Philippines: IRRI, IPB, UPLB BIOTECH
After meticulous experimentations and testing, government approval is sought before a
GMO may be released to the public.
According to the ISAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications),
there are about 120 events approved for alfalfa, canola, cotton, maize, potato, rice, soybean
and sugar beet collectively,
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Performance Check No. 6: Designer Gene (GMO)
Construct a genetically modified organism/trait in a fruit. (40 points)
1. Identify a special trait (e.g. large fruit size) ___________________________________
2. Identify a source organism (e.g. langka) ___________________________________
3. Identify a target organism (e.g. aratilis) _________________________________
4. Identify the modified trait (e.g. langka-sized aratilis) ____________________
5. Illustrate your proposed “designer genes”
Cite the different techniques in genetic engineering utilized in creating their desired
outcomes. You may write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: Would you recommend the consumption of GMO
products? Explain
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Genetics
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Basic knowledge in breeding
Describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in
representative animals
Analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ systems in
ensuring animal survival
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills on the benefits and risks of GMOs
b. Environmental awareness on the functional relationships of the different organ
systems for animal’s survival
This lesson is all about the basics concepts of organ and systems, and the different
functions of each organ and organ system necessary for animal’s survival.
A. NUTRITION
• Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking up the nutrients
from a food source.
• Organ System: Digestive System
• Food processing has four main stages: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption and
Elimination or Egestion.
Various Types
Monogastric (simple stomach)
Monogastric animals, such as swine, eat
rations high in concentrates.
Avian
A poultry animal does not teeth but has a
crop, a proventriculus, a gizzard, and a
cloaca.
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The ruminant digestive system has a large
stomach divided into four compartments
The ruminant digestive system is found
cattle, sheep, and goats. Ruminants eat
feed rations that are high in roughages. The
ruminant digestive system has a large
stomach divided into four compartments—
the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum, and
the abomasum.
A pseudo-ruminant is an animal that eats
large amounts of roughages but does not
have a four-compartment stomach. A
pseudo ruminant animal can utilize
roughages because of an enlarged cecum
and large enlarged cecum and large
intestine. s are rabbits, guinea pigs, and
hamsters.
B. GAS EXCHANGE
Various Modes of respiration in animals:
• In simple unicellular animals like Amoeba, respiration takes place by the simple diffusion of
gases through the cell membrane.
• The animals like earthworms which live in the soil use their skin to absorb oxygen from air
and remove carbon dioxide. So, the respiratory organ in the earthworm is the skin.
• The aquatic animals like fish, prawns and mussels have gills as the respiratory organs
which extract oxygen dissolved in water and take away carbon dioxide from the body.
• In the insects like grasshopper, cockroach, housefly and a mosquito, the tiny holes
called spiracles on their body and the air tubes called tracheae are the respiratory organs.
• The respiratory organs of the land animals such as man (humans), birds, lizard, dog and
frog etc. are the lungs. However, Frogs breathe both by lungs and skin.
Therefore, we can say that all the respiratory organs whether skin, gills, trachea or lungs
have three common features:
• All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
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• All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory
gases.
• All the respiratory organs like skin, lungs and gills have a rich blood supply for transporting
gases. But only in tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.
C. CIRCULATION
There are different ways in which animals transport substances across their body. Animals
with thin body rely on diffusion, which is the movement of substances from high
concentration to low concentration, in the transport of substances. Together with a fluid
medium, a thin structure allows diffusion to occur efficiently. Thus, organisms such as those
with gastrovascular cavity like cnidarians, flatworms use diffusion in moving substances
across and within their bodies.
D. HOMEOSTASIS
• Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium that is maintained in body tissues and organs.
It is dynamic because it is constantly adjusting to the changes that the systems
encounter. It is an equilibrium because body functions are kept within a normal
range, with some fluctuations around a set point. The kidneys are the main
osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems; they function to filter blood and
maintain the dissolved ion concentrations of body fluids.
Conformers vs Regulators
• Conformers - Animals which copy the environmental factors are said to be
conformers, there are osmoconformers(concentration conformers): Marine
invertebrates
thermoconformers (temperature conformers): marine vertebrates
• Regulators - Animals which maintain their body’s internal factors compared to the
environment
osmoregulators (concentration regulators): Ectotherms
thermoregulators (temperature regulators): Endotherms
The term cold-blooded is a misnomer, as ectotherms sometimes have higher body
temperature compared to “warm-blooded internal” organisms as they copy their
environment’s temperature or thermoregulators maintain their body’s temperature through
metabolism, as a result they have higher metabolism than thermoconformers. There are
different ways in which organisms have adapted to their environment in terms of
homeostasis, such as behavioral, physiological, migration and structural adaptations
E. WASTE REMOVAL
Waste removal follows the following processes,
1.) filtration, 2.) reabsorption, 3.) secretion, and 4.) excretion
Organ System: Excretory System
Different organisms have different excretory system, such as the protonephridia of
flatworms, metanephridia of annelids, Malpighian tubules of insects and the nephrons of
humans and mammals.
Waste removal follows the following processes,
1.) filtration, 2.) reabsorption, 3.) secretion, and 4.)
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F. IMMUNE SYSTEM
Innate and Adaptive immunity
• Innate immunity is the inherent ability of an organism to fight pathogens which bring
about certain diseases. Evolutionary adaptation has allowed organisms to fine tune
their innate immunity against possible pathogens, that is why we are able to activate
an immune response even if we have not acquired a certain disease before.
• In adaptive immunity, organisms are able to launch specific immune response which
can change and adapt to
• the disease-causing pathogen. This adaptive immunity is important, as it can modify
its immune response in defense against the changes which can occur in the
pathogen.
Active and Passive Immunity
• Specific immune response
can be a result of active
immunity which is a result to
exposure to a specific
pathogen. It can either be
natural or artificial, in the case
of vaccine, wherein pathogens
are weakened and exposed to
an individual.
• Meanwhile, passive immunity
is a specific immune response
transferred by the mother to a
child, which can develop as
the child matures.
G. HORMONES
• Hormones are substances which can cause a reaction to a cell, in Greek it literally
means to excite. It is secreted into extracellular fluid such in blood or lymph and
transported to target cells to elicit a specific response, which can be rapid or slow.
The growth and development of the body are examples of slow and long-term effect
of a hormone while circadian rhythm which is responsible for the sleep-and-wake
cycles respond to a more rapid response to a hormone.
• Hormones can either be water-soluble or fat-soluble which has implication on how
response mechanism in cells is activated. The characteristics of the cell membrane,
which is a selective membrane chooses the molecules which can go in and out of the
cells. The lipid bilayer of the cell, thus, prevent the free movement of water-soluble
hormones, while, fat-soluble hormones can easily pass through a cell membrane.
• Organ System: Endocrine system
H. NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The nervous system has evolved in increasing complexity throughout the different
groups of animals.
• The nervous system is further distinguished by the location of the neurons within the
system.
• The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord, while, the
peripheral nervous system is composed of corresponding structures outside of these
two organs of the nervous system.
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Below show the changes in the nervous system of organisms:
I. LOCOMOTION
• Movement or locomotion is a reaction of the contraction of a muscle against an
organic lever. All types of movement are a result of pulling action of the muscle,
wherein the push to a door is a result of different pulling action of different muscles
which result in a pushing action created by the arm.
• Organ Systems: Skeletal, Muscular and Integumentary
• There are different skeletal systems which the muscle can pull on, these are the
hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton and endoskeleton. Examples of a hydrostatic
skeleton are the body of a worm and the abdomen. a clam’s shell is an example of
an exoskeleton and the bones and cartilage in a human is an example of an
endoskeleton.
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Enabling Assessment Activity No. 7: Organ System Diseases
Identify one common human organ system some ways its symptoms and how to prevent or
cure the different diseases for each disease.
Organ System
Common Disease and
Symptoms
Prevention or Cure to the
Disease
Circulatory
Digestive
Respiratory
Endocrine
Immune
Muscular
Nervous
Urinary
Skeletal
Reproductive
The human organ system works with each other to allow humans to survive. What will
happen to the body if one organ system malfunctions? You may write a short essay, poem,
slogan or draw a poster about it (10 pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: What are the changes observed human population?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Evolution
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Basic knowledge in evolution
• Explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to change over
time showing patterns of descent with medication from common ancestors to produce
the organismal diversity observed today
• Describe how to present system of classification of organisms is based on
evolutionary relationships
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills on the patterns of modification
b. Environmental awareness on the diversity of organisms living today
This lesson is all about the basics of evolutionary relationship, its effects on the present
organism present on today, and evidences of evolution.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Charles Darwin

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Darwin’s focus on Adaptation
1. Adaptation- inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and
reproduction in specific environments. Observed in the Galapagos finches.
2. The difference in beak types and behaviors are adapted to the specific food in home
islands
3. Natural selection caused these adaptations to arise. Natural selection explains the
difference in survival of individual since some individuals of the same species have
inherited traits (adaptations) that allow the organism to survive and reproduce in a
particular environment.
4. Nature selects organisms with high fitness
5. Darwin thought of the idea of descent with modification, which was caused by natural
selection. Though at that time he was not quite confident of his idea, until Alfred
Wallace sent him his manuscript (worked in the Malayan Archipelago) that contains
Wallace’s hypothesis of natural selection identical to Darwin’s. And asked Darwin if
he can ask Lyell if it has merit for publication.
6. Lyell presented Wallace’s paper with Darwin’s unpublished essay to the Linnaean
Society of London.
The following year Darwin published his book: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection
The Origin of Species
1. Darwin’s observation on nature
2. The unity of life (descent of all organisms from ancestors)
3. Diversity of life (caused by descent with modification)
4. Match between organisms and their environment (from descent with modification by
natural
5. selection)
6. Darwin didn’t use the word evolution in his book (though the final word in the book is
EVOLVED), but instead he used the term “descent with modification”
7. Viewed life history as a tree as compared to Lamarck’s ladder view on species
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Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection
Artificial selection
1. process of selecting and breeding of
animals and plants over many generations
to achieve the modifications desired by
human beings.
2. Caused the production of individuals
used for crops, livestock, pets that resemble
wild ancestors
3. Instead of nature serving as the selecting
factor, humans select which organisms will
be used
for breeding depending on to the traits they
want to improve.
4. Can take effect faster than natural
selection, though follows the same principle
as natural selection
where favorable traits will be more frequent
in a population while less favorable traits
will diminish.
Natural Selection
1. Differential in rates of survival is
dependent on individual’s heritable traits
suited in the environment
2. An organism’s compatibility with its
surrounding is increased by natural
selection over time.
3. A change in environment (or movement
of individuals to new environment) may
cause a species to give rise to a new
species depending on the traits that will be
favored by the new environment.
Evidences of Evolution
When Charles Darwin first proposed the idea that all new species descend from an ancestor,
he performed an exhaustive amount of research to provide as much evidence as possible.
Today, the major pieces of evidence for this theory can be broken down into the fossil
record, embryology, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology.
Fossils
This is a series of skulls and front leg fossils of organisms believed to be ancestors of the
modern-day horse.
Similarities between each of the skulls that might lead to the conclusion that these are all
related species;
• the pointy bone on top of the muzzle of the horse
• the triangular shape of the head and the gap between front and rear teeth
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Biggest changes:
• Increase in the size of the skull
• reduction and loss of the side toes
Embryology
Organisms that are closely related may also have physical similarities before they are even
born! Take a look at the six different embryos below:
Can you hypothesize which embryo is from each of the following organisms?
These are embryos at their most advanced stage, shortly before birth.
Development
After Birth
Fish
fins
developed,
gills, tail and
scales
Salamander
Has gills, tail
and large
underbelly
Fish
Tortoise
Shell
developed,
limbs have
developed,
tail is thinner,
large belly,
long tail, beak
Chicken
Developed
beak, tail
shorter, wings
and legs
developed,
head quite
large
Human
Developed
limbs, defined
features in
face, neck,
ears, loss of
tail, tiny
fingers
present
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Comparative Anatomy
Shown below are images of the skeletal structure of the front limbs of 6 animals: human,
crocodile, whale, cat, bird, and bat. Each animal has a similar set of bones. Color code each
of the bones according to this key:
Molecular Biology
Cytochrome c is a protein found in mitochondria. It is used in the study of evolutionary
relationships because most animals have this protein. Cytochrome c is made of 104 amino
acids joined together. Below is a list of the amino acids in part of a cytochrome protein
molecule for 9 different animals. Any sequences exactly the same for all animals have been
skipped.
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CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
Organisms can be classified according to any number of criteria, including overall
similarities, colors, ecological functions, etc. However, it is generally agreed that the most
useful way for scientists to organize biological diversity is to group organisms according to
shared evolutionary history. This way the grouping not only results in an organized
classification, it also contains and conveys information about our understanding of the
evolutionary history of these groups.
Classification – a system of naming objects or entities by common characteristics. In a
biological sense, classification is the systematic grouping of organisms based on structural or
functional similarities or evolutionary history. A process of establishing, defining, and ranking
taxa within hierarchical series of groups.
Taxonomy – the classification of organisms into a system that indicates natural relationships
(evolutionary relationships); the theory and practice of describing, naming, and classifying
organisms.
Systematics – the systematic classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships
among them; taxonomy.
Phylogeny – the evolutionary history of a group or lineage.
Nomenclature – the system of scientific names applied to taxa (groups of organisms).
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Performance Check No. 7: Evolution of Man
Using the illustration below identify the characteristics, ways of living, and tools/equipment
used by each stage of evolution. Write the letter on the correct statement below. (2 pts each)
A B C D E F
Began to domesticate plants and
animals.
Used simple tools such as sticks
found in the surroundings.
Use hunting and gathering
resources way for survival.
Produce cave arts that depicts
animals or spiritual beings
Increased connectivity between
different parts of the world.
The first hominin to evolve a truly
human-like body shape.
Had a rounder cranium housing a
larger brain and smaller teeth.
The species that was able to adapt
living in cold environments.
The species has a wide-ranging
and essentially omnivorous diet.
The first hominin to cook food and
use fire.
Mainly vegetarian but did include
some meat in their diet.
Control the growth and breeding of
certain plants and animals.
Heavily rely on technology in their
daily lives.
Had a diet that included fruit and
leaves only.
Buried their dead and occasionally
marked their graves with offerings.
Economies have shifted from
primarily agricultural to industrial
Tools including harpoons, bows
and arrows, and spear throwers
Lived in a predominantly grassland
environment.
The first of our ancestors to make
stone tools.
Lived in shelters and wore clothing
made up from animal skin.
How can mutations be both harmful and beneficial, and how do they influence the course of
natural selection? You may write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10
pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT: How do different organisms interact with one another?
PRE-REQUISITE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE: Ecosystem
PRE-REQUISITE SKILL: Basic knowledge in ecosystem
• Categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e.g., diseases,
availability of food, and predators) that affect population explosion
a. Critical and Analytical thinking skills on the biotic potential and environmental
resistance
b. Environmental awareness on the diseases, availability of food and predators that
affect population explosion
This lesson is all about the basics of interaction and interdepended, interaction between
biotic and abiotic factors of the environment.
What is the principle of the ecosystem?
Ecology: Study of the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors of the environment.
Example: FISH POND
Abiotic factors: water, soil, temperature, stones;
Biotic factors: populations of tilapia, guppies, Hydrilla, toads, etc.
ECOSYSTEMS
1. The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit that is studied in ecology
2. They involve important interactions between biotic and abiotic factors
3. An ecosystem can support itself and is stable (not much change) when three
conditions are met:
a. There must be a constant supply of energy (the sun is this source for all life on
earth)
b. There must be living organisms that can convert the energy into organic
compounds (plants--autotrophs--photosynthesis)
c. There must be a recycling of materials between organisms and the environment.
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Levels of Organization
1. Population - includes all the members of a
species in a given area. Example: All toads
(including tadpoles) in
a pond is a population.
2. Community - All populations in a given
area. Example: Toads, tilapia, guppies (fish),
water lilies, Hydrilla, and
other populations in the pond.
3. Ecosystem – composed of the living
(biotic) community and the nonliving (abiotic)
physical environment
functioning together is an ecosystem
4. Biosphere - is the portion of the earth in
which LIFE exists and is is made up of many
complex ecosystems. All ecosystems
together make up the biosphere.
Autotroph: (“auto” – self; “trophe” nutrition);
Are organisms synthesize their own food.
Photosynthetic autotrophs, which make food
using the energy in sunlight, include (a)
plants, (b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria
Heterotroph: (“hetero” – other; “trophe”
nutrition); cannot manufacture its own food
and instead obtains its food and energy by
taking in organic substances, usually plant or
animal matter.
Food Chain - shows the pathway of energy
from one organism to the next in a direct line
of organisms.
Food Web - shows the interactions and
interconnections among the different food
chains of a community. It shows
that most organisms eat, and are eaten, by
more than one species.
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Misconceptions
• All ecosystems depend on solar energy.
Ecosystems in the deep sea (like geothermal
vents and cold seeps) where light cannot
penetrate do not use solar energy.
• Respiration – also called metabolism is the
process where the cell makes ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) which is the form
of energy usually used in biological activities.
• Entropy – Example is changes in one’s
bedroom through time if there is no input of
energy (cleaning or fixing).
What are biotic potential and environmental resistance?
• The rate of population growth is dependent on BIOTIC POTENTIAL and
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE.
a. Biotic potential measures how well a species has adapted to survive (by defense
mechanisms, resistance to adverse conditions, migration, and seed dispersion)
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b. Environmental resistance is adverse biotic and abiotic factors that raise the
death rate of a population. Example: predators, parasites, unfavorable
temperature, and lack of water.
• The combination of the biotic and abiotic factors determines the CARRYING
CAPACITY of an ecosystem. Carrying capacity is the optimal maximum density of a
population can be supported by a defined space. If the population approaches or
exceeds the carrying capacity, competition for resources will set limits to the
population density. Population explosion is a result when all conditions favorable to
the population occurs for an extended period of time.
• DISTRIBUTION/DISPERSAL is the pattern of spacing among individuals of the
population. Three types:
a. CLUMPED dispersion - individuals aggregate in patches; may be influenced by
resource availability and behavior (efficiency in hunting, guarding the young).
b. UNIFORM dispersion - individuals are evenly distributed; May be influenced by
social interactions such as territoriality.
c. RANDOM dispersion - The location of one individual is independent of others
members of the population.
• POPULATION SIZE is the number of individuals in a population. For example, a
population of insects might consist of 100 individual insects, or many more. Population
size influences the chances of a species surviving or going extinct. Generally, very
small populations are at greatest risk of extinction. Population density is the average
number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume. For example, a
population of 100 insects that live in an area of 100 square meters has a density of 1
insect per square meter. If the same population lives in an area of only 1 square
meter, what is its density? Which population is more crowded? How might crowding
affect the health of a population?
• POPULATION GROWTH is due to a higher birth rate than death rate. New individuals
are recruited into the population through growth and immigration. The maturation of
newborn into the adult breeding population, is considered a more important basis of
the potential population growth.
ESTIMATING POPULATION DENSITY THROUGH GROWTH MODELS:
Carrying capacity, Exponential vs Logistic Models
Population growth models discusses the rate at which the density of a population increases
through time.
Exponential Growth Curve
• Is population increase under idealized conditions. The rate of reproduction is at its
maximum, called the intrinsic rate of increase. Cannot be sustained for long in any
population
• The J-shaped curve of exponential growth is a characteristic of some populations that
are rebounding.
• A more realistic population model incorporates the carrying capacity (represented by
k) of the environment.
Populations are not only affected by the availability of resources but also the presence of
natural enemies/predators, parasites and competition with other species. These mortality
factors can be classified into:
1. Density-dependent–mortality factor whose influence varies with the density of the
population; may reduce population densities and stabilize them at equilibrium levels.
Examples: parasitism, predation, competition. More individuals of the population
are killed when densities are high and less when densities are low. Predators kill
relatively few of prey species that is rare; they kill relatively more of the common
species.
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2. Density-independent – Mortality factor whose influence is not affected by changes in
the population size or density.
3. They are physical factors like storms, drought, fires, floods.
FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY
1. Number of Reproductive Events: Semelparity vs. Iteroparity
A. Semelparity – (“Semel” - Latin “once”): Organisms can produce all their offspring
in one reproductive event. Common in insects and some invertebrates, salmon,
bamboo grasses and agave plants. They reproduce only once and die. Agaves
live to several years before reproducing; Some are annual plants that develop
from seed, flower and drop their own seed within a year.
B. Iteroparity – (“itero” L = to repeat); Pattern of repeated reproduction at intervals;
common in most vertebrates and perennial plants such as trees; number of
reproductive events and number of offspring per event vary among species.
i. Seasonal Iteroparity – Have distinct breeding seasons such as temperate animals and
forest trees.
ii. Continuous Iteroparity – individuals reproduce repeatedly and at any time of the year;
found in tropical species, parasites and many mammals.
2. Number of Offsprings per Reproductive Event
Organisms that live in stable environments tend to make few, "expensive" offsprings.
Organisms that live in unstable environments tend to make many, "cheap" offsprings.
TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
How are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems interlinked with one another? What are
some of the factors that connect these two ecosystems?
An ecosystem is the collection of several communities of living organisms interacting
with non-living things.
Types of Ecosystems:
There are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
➢ Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems found only in land; these include tropical
rainforests, deserts, grasslands, deciduous forests, tundra, and taiga.
➢ Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems found in bodies of water; these include lakes,
rivers, ponds, wetlands, oceans, and seas.
Factors That Link the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
Different habitats of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are intertwined by the flux of materials
within these ecosystems.
Interaction in Land-Sea Interface
The land-sea interface or coastal ecotone is a major ecosystem where a transition area
between the sea and the shoreline is found. It shows how factors in two ecosystems interact
and affect each other.
1. A food web is formed across the ecotone boundary
2. Marine subsidies such as decaying animal flesh, detritus (dead organic material),
food scraps, and waste products from animals (sea turtles and seagulls) enter the
terrestrial ecosystem by shoreline drifting.
3. Some mammals worldwide, such as racoons and black bears, intentionally feed on
exposed marine organisms such as crabs, mollusks, and fish.
4. Terrestrial subsidies such as nitrogen, organic carbon, and phosphorus enter the
aquatic ecosystems via rivers.
Emerging Aquatic Insects
Emergent aquatic insects are important food sources for riparian predators -
predators that reside within the riparian zone or the interface between land and a body of
44
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water such as a river. Most of the lifespan of these insects are underwater and emerge as
adults to breed and return back into the water to lay eggs.
One good example of a riparian predator that feed on aquatic insects is the spider. It
was studied that the spiders' biomass are higher and web densities increase near an edge of
a stream. When spiders are far from the stream edge, both biomass and web densities
decreased.
This illustration
depicts the
feeding
relationships of
different
organisms within
the terrestrial and
aquatic
ecosystems. For
instance, humans
that live in a
terrestrial
ecosystem can
get their food from
a lake where fish
and arthropods
reside.
Impacts of Anadromous Salmon on Both Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
Anadromous salmon is a type of salmon that allocate their lives between freshwater
and the ocean. It transports a large amount of nutrients to both aquatic and terrestrial
habitats.
Most of its biomass, about 95%, is marine-derived nutrients (MDN). The nutrients that
salmon provide to aquatic ecosystems are advantageous to marine organisms, such as other
kinds of fish and invertebrates, as well as to riparian zones.
The benefit of these migrating salmon extends up to terrestrial ecosystems. Terrestrial
ecosystems increase fish survival by providing shade, cover and even nutrients. In return,
these salmon return to these areas to reproduce and deposit nutrients. These nutrients enter
the trophic system, from an aquatic ecosystem to terrestrial ecosystem by directly consuming
the flesh and eggs or indirectly through dissolved nutrients.
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Key Points
✓ An ecosystem is the collection of several communities of living organisms interacting
with non-living things.
✓ There are two types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
✓ Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems found only in land; these include tropical
rainforests, deserts, grasslands, deciduous forests, tundra, and taiga.
✓ Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems found in bodies of water; these include lakes,
rivers, ponds, wetlands, oceans, and seas.
✓ The linkages between terrestrial-aquatic ecosystems have been established in various
ecosystems.
✓ The land-sea interface or coastal ecotone is a major ecosystem where a transition
area between the body of water and the shoreline is found. It shows how factors in
two ecosystems interact and affect each other.
✓ Emergent aquatic insects are important food sources for riparian predators -
predators that reside within the riparian zone or the interface between land and a
body of water such as a river.
✓ Anadromous salmon has an impact on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems by
transporting a huge amount of nutrients to both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
How human activities affect the natural ecosystem?
Human activities have greatly catalysed our progress as a species at the expense of these
ecosystems. Hence, it is also our responsibility to ensure that those activities sustain our
environment while progressing at the same time
The Illustration above shows the biotic potential and environmental resistance that affects
population growth.
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Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
Enabling Assessment Activity No. 8: Environmental Resistance
Using the illustrations below identify the all the items describe in each letter.
A. What are the abiotic factor
in the illustration?
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
4. ____________________
5. ____________________
B. What are the biotic factor
in the illustration?
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
4. ____________________
5. ____________________
C. Identify the environmental
resistance that may affect
the population in
ecosystem?
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
4. ____________________
5. ____________________
D. What is the effect of
environmental resistance on
a population? (5 pts)
______________________
______________________
______________________
The year 2020 had been a tough and difficult time for many countries around the world.
What environmental resistance affects the Philippines? What measures will you do to protect
the community? You may write a short essay, poem, slogan or draw a poster about it (10
pts)
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: _____________________
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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE - KOMUNIKASYON CULMINATING PERFORMANCE TASK
PAGSULAT NG KONSEPTONG PAPEL
• Isang kabuuang ideyang mula sa isang Gawain balangkas ng paksang buuuin.
• Isang pangunahing hakbang na ginagwa bago ang aktuwal napagsulat ng isang papel
ng pananaliksik.
• Tinitiyak nito ang pagkakaroon ng isang komprehensibong plano at awtput ng
pananaliksik ukol sa isang paksa.
• Ito ang nagsisilbing proposal para sa isang binabalak na pananaliksik.
• Sa pagsulat ng konseptong papel isang mabisang paraan ang paglalagay ng mga
susing salita hinggil sa paksa.
GOAL – Makabuo ng isang konseptong papel na may kinalaman sa penomenong
pangkapaligiran.
ROLE – Ikaw ay isang mananaliksik
AUDIENCE – Mga kinatawan ng DENR
SITUATION - Ikaw ay isang mananaliksik na mag-oobserba sa iyong paligid at magsasagawa
ng isang panayam sa iyong napiling komunidad kung anong kulturang Filipino o penomenang
pangkapaligiran (Paghahanda sa oras ng sakuna). Sa pamamagitang ng mga nakalap na
datos, ikaw ay bubuo ng isang maikling konseptong papel na pumapakasa sa penomenong
pangkapaligiran. Ang awput na ito ay isasagawa sa isang A4 paper, at iuulat sa harap ng
mga kinatawan ng DENR sa pamamagitan ng powerpoint presentation.
PRODUCT – Makabuo ng isang konseptong papel.
STANDARD - Rubrik sa pagmamarka sa Konseptong Papel.
PAMANTAYAN
Layunin 30%
Nilalaman (Earth and Life Science) 30%
Organisasyon 20%
Gramatika 10%
Maagap sa oras ng pagpasa 10%
KABUUAN 100%

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