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Sense organs
- 1. SENSE ORGANS Senses
- 2. The Five SenseOrgans • The sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. The human sense organs contain receptors that relay information through sensory neurons to the appropriate places within the nervous system. • Each sense organ contains different receptors.
- 3. Center for SensoryInformation
- 4. - • General receptorsare found throughout the body because they are present in skin, visceral organs, muscles, and joints. • Special receptors include chemical receptors found in the mouth and nose, photoreceptors (light receptors) found in the eyes, and mechanoreceptors found in the ears.
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- 8. Parts of theEye The eye is a slightly asymmetrical globe, about an inch in diameter. The front part of the eye includes: • The iris (the pigmented part) • The cornea (a clear dome over the iris) • The pupil (the black circular opening in the iris that lets light in) • The sclera (the white part) • The conjunctiva (an invisible, clear layer of tissue covering the front of the eye, except the cornea)
- 9. Parts of theEye • Sclera: a tough white layer of connective tissue that covers all of the eyeball except the cornea. – Conjunctiva: external cover of the sclera — keeps the eye moist. • Cornea: transparent covering of the front of the eye. – Allows for the passage of light into the eye and functions as a fixed lens.
- 10. • Choroid: thin,pigmented layer lining the interior surface of the sclera. – Prevents light rays from scattering and distorting the image. – Anteriorly it forms the iris. • The iris regulates the size of the pupil. • Retina: lines the interior surface of the choroid. – Contains photoreceptors. • Except at the optic disk (where the optic nerve attaches).
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- 17. - • Embedded inthe retina are millions of light sensitive cells, which come in two main varieties: rods and cones. • Rods are good for monochrome vision in poor light, while cones are used for color and for the detection of fine detail. Cones are packed into a part of the retina directly behind the retina called the fovea. • When light strikes either the rods or the cones of the retina, it's converted into an electric signal that is relayed to the brain via the optic nerve. The brain then translates the electrical signals into the images we see.
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- 19. Structure and Functionof the Human Eye
- 20. Vertebrates have single-lenseyes Fig. 49.9 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
- 21. Focusing Light • Thelens and ciliary body divide the eye into two cavities. – The anterior cavity is filled with aqueous humor produced by the ciliary body. – The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor. – The lens, the aqueous humor, and the vitreous humor all play a role in focusing light onto the retina.
- 22. Focusing Light • Accommodationis the focusing of light in the retina. • Mammals focus by changing the shape of the lens. • The lens is flattened for distant objects. • The lens is rounded for near objects.
- 23. Vision • Rhodopsin (retinal+ opsin) is the visual pigment of rods. • The absorption of light by rhodopsin initiates a signal-transduction pathway • Receptor potential is hyperpolization . Fig. 49.13
- 24. • Color receptionis more complex than the rhodopsin mechanism. – Three types of cone cells each with unique photopsin (green cones, red cones, blue cones) • Brain’s analysis of color depends on relative responses of each type of cone. – Colorblindness is due to a deficiency, or absence, of one or more photopsins. • Inherited as an X-linked trait.
- 25. Vision • Rods andCones synapse with nuerons called bipolar cells • Bipolar cells synapse with galgion cells of optic nerve
- 26. The Ear • Theear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part of the ear serves a specific purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The outer ear serves to collect and channel sound to the middle ear. The middle ear serves to transform the energy of a sound wave into the internal vibrations of the bone structure of the middle ear and ultimately transform these vibrations into a compressional wave in the inner ear. The inner ear serves to transform the energy of a compressional wave within the inner ear fluid into nerve impulses that can be transmitted to the brain. The three parts of the ear are shown below.
- 28. • The outerear consists of an earflap and an approximately 2-cm long ear canal. The earflap provides protection for the middle ear in order to prevent damage to the eardrum. The outer ear also channels sound waves that reach the ear through the ear canal to the eardrum of the middle ear. Because of the length of the ear canal, it is capable of amplifying sounds with frequencies of approximately 3000 Hz. As sound travels through the outer ear, the sound is still in the form of a pressure wave with an alternating pattern of high and low pressure regions. It is not until the sound reaches the eardrum at the interface of the outer and the middle ear that the energy of the mechanical wave becomes converted into vibrations of the inner bone structure of the ear.
- 29. • The middleear is an air-filled cavity that consists of an eardrum and three tiny, interconnected bones - the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The eardrum is a very durable and tightly stretched membrane that vibrates as the incoming pressure waves reach it. As shown below, a compression forces the eardrum inward and a rarefaction forces the eardrum outward, thus vibrating the eardrum at the same frequency of the sound wave.
- 30. • Being connectedto the hammer, the movements of the eardrum will set the hammer, anvil, and stirrup into motion at the same frequency of the sound wave. The stirrup is connected to the inner ear; and thus the vibrations of the stirrup are transmitted to the fluid of the inner ear and create a compression wave within the fluid. The three tiny bones of the middle ear act as levers to amplify the vibrations of the sound wave. Due to a mechanical advantage, the displacements of the stirrup are greater than that of the hammer.
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- 32. - • Furthermore, sincethe pressure wave striking the large area of the eardrum is concentrated into the smaller area of the stirrup, the force of the vibrating stirrup is nearly 15 times larger than that of the eardrum. This feature enhances our ability of hear the faintest of sounds. The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that is connected by the Eustachian tube to the mouth. This connection allows for the equalization of pressure within the air-filled cavities of the ear. When this tube becomes clogged during a cold, the ear cavity is unable to equalize its pressure; this will often lead to earaches and other pains.
- 33. • The innerear consists of a cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the auditory nerve. The cochlea and the semicircular canals are filled with a water-like fluid. The fluid and nerve cells of the semicircular canals provide no role in the task of hearing; they merely serve as accelerometers for detecting accelerated movements and assisting in the task of maintaining balance. The cochlea is a snail-shaped organ that would stretch to approximately 3 cm. In addition to being filled with fluid, the inner surface of the cochlea is lined with over 20 000 hair-like nerve cells that perform one of the most critical roles in our ability to hear. These nerve cells differ in length by minuscule amounts; they also have different degrees of resiliency to the fluid that passes over them.
- 34. • As acompressional wave moves from the interface between the hammer of the middle ear and the oval window of the inner ear through the cochlea, the small hair-like nerve cells will be set in motion. Each hair cell has a natural sensitivity to a particular frequency of vibration. When the frequency of the compressional wave matches the natural frequency of the nerve cell, that nerve cell will resonate with a larger amplitude of vibration. This increased vibrational amplitude induces the cell to release an electrical impulse that passes along the auditory nerve towards the brain. In a process that is not clearly understood, the brain is capable of interpreting the qualities of the sound upon reception of these electric nerve impulses.
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- 36. The Tongue • Thereceptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated chiefly in the tongue, but they are also located in the roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to detect four basic tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. The tongue also can detect a sensation called "umami" from taste receptors sensitive to amino acids. Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to sweet tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are sensitive to bitter tastes. The taste buds on top and on the side of the tongue are sensitive to salty and sour tastes.
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- 38. - • At thebase of each taste bud there is a nerve that sends the sensations to the brain. The sense of taste functions in coordination with the sense of smell. The number of taste buds varies substantially from individual to individual, but greater numbers increase sensitivity. Women, in general, have a greater number of taste buds than men. As in the case of color blindness, some people are insensitive to some tastes.
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- 41. The Nose The noseis the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with mucous membranes that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells themselves consist of vapors of various substances. The smell receptors interact with the molecules of these vapors and transmit the sensations to the brain. The nose also has a structure called the vomeronasal organ whose function has not been determined, but which is suspected of being sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle. The smell receptors are sensitive to seven types of sensations that can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint, ether, acrid, or putrid. The sense of smell is sometimes temporarily lost when a person has a cold. Dogs have a sense of smell that is many times more sensitive than man's.
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- 44. How It AllWorks • Like the sense of taste, it's a chemical sense. They are called chemical senses because they detect chemicals in the environment, with the difference being that smell works at dramatically larger distances than that of taste. The process of smelling goes more or less like this: 1. Vaporized odor molecules (chemicals) floating in the air reach the nostrils and dissolve in the mucus (which is on the roof of each nostril). 2. Underneath the mucus, in the olfactory epithelium, specialized receptor cells called olfactory receptor neurons detect the odor. These neurons are capable of detecting thousands of different odors.
- 46. • 3. Theolfactory receptor neurons transmit the information to the olfactory bulbs, which are located at the back of the nose. 4. The olfactory bulbs has sensory receptors that are actually part of the brain which send messages directly to: * The most primitive brain centers where they influence emotions and memories (limbic system structures), and * "Higher" centers where they modify conscious thought (neo-cortex). 5. These brain centers perceive odors and access memories to remind us about people, places, or events associated with these olfactory sensations.
- 47. The Integumentary System(Skin) • The integument as an organ: The integument as an organ, and is an alternative name for skin. The integumentary system includes the skin and the skin derivatives hair, nails, and glands. The integument is the body’s largest organ and accounts for 15% of body weight.
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- 49. The derivatives ofthe integument • Hair: functions include protection & sensing light touch. Hair is composed of columns of dead, keratinized cells bound together by extracellular proteins. Hair has two main sections: The shaft- superficial portion that extends out of the skin and the root- portion that penetrates into the dermis. Surrounding the root of the hair is the hair follicle. At the base of the hair follicle is an onion-shaped structure called the bulb Papilla of the hair and the matrix within the bulb produce new hair. • Nails: participate in the grasp & handling of small things. Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard, keratinized epidermal cells.
- 50. Nails • The nailconsists of: • nail root: -the portion of the nail under the skin, • nail body: -the visible pink portion of the nail, the white crescent at the base of the nail is the lunula, the hyponychium secures the nail to the finger, the cuticle or eponychium is a narrow band around the proximal edge of the nail and • free edge: -the white end that may extend past the finger.
- 51. Glands Glands: participate inregulating body temperature. There are three main types of glands associated with the integument: • Sebaceous - Oil glands. Located in the dermis, and secrete sebum. • Sudoriferous - Sweat glands. Divided into two main types: – Eccrine - Most common, main function is regulation of body temperature by evaporation, and – Apocrine - Responsible for “cold sweat” associated with stress. • Ceruminous – Lie in subcutaneous tissue below the dermis, secrete cerumen (ear wax) into ear canal or sebaceous glands.
- 52. Functions of theSkin • Thermoregulation - Evaporation of sweat & Regulation of blood flow to the dermis. Cutaneous sensation - Sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain, warmth or coolness. • Vitamin D production - UV sunlight & precursor molecule in skin make vitamin D. • Protection – The sin acts as a physical barrier. • Absorption & secretion – The skin is involved in the absorption of water-soluble molecules and excretion of water and sweat. • Wound healing - When a minor burn or abrasion occurs basal cells of the epidermis break away from the basement membrane and migrate across the wound. They migrate as a sheet, when the sides meet the growth stops and this is called ‘contact inhibition’. • In deep wound healing - A clot forms in the wound, blood flow increases and many cells move to the wound. The clot becomes a scab; granulation tissue fills the wound and intense growth of epithelial cells beneath the scab. The scab falls off and the skin returns to normal thickness.
- 53. Causes of Sweatingor Hyperhidrosis Some causes of sweating are: - Heat - Physical activity - Stress - Fever - Obesty - Pregnancy - Medications - Genetics - Water intake - Certain psychiatric disorders...
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- 55. The Two Layersof the Skin - Epidermis Epidermis – The Epidermis is the thinner more superficial layer of the skin. The epidermis is made up of 4 cell types: • (A) Keratinocytes – Produce keratin protein a fibrous protein that helps protect the epidermis • (B) Melanocytes - produces the brown pigment melanin • (C) Langerhan Cells – participate in immune response and • (D) Merkel cells - participates in the sense of touch.
- 56. - • There arefive distinct sub-layers of the Epidermis: • Stratum corneum: the outermost layer, made of 25-30 layers of dead flat keratinocytes. Lamellar granules provide water repellent action and are continuously shed & replaced. • Stratum lucidum: Only found in the fingertips, palms of hands, & soles of feet. This layer is made up of 3-5 layers of flat dead keratinocytes. • Stratum granulosum: made up of 3-5 layers of keratinocytes, site of keratin formation, keratohyalin gives the granular appearance. • Stratum spinosum: appears covered in thornlike spikes, provide strength & flexibility to the skin. • Stratum basale: The deepest layer, made up of a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells. Cells produced here are constantly divide & move up to apical surface.
- 57. The Two Layersof the Skin - Dermis Dermis is the deeper, thicker layer composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles. • The epidermis contains 3 cell types: – Adipocytes, – Macrophages and – Fibroblasts. • There are two main divisions of the dermal layer: – Papillary region - The superficial layer of the dermis, made up of loose areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers. – Dermal papillae - Fingerlike structures invade the epidermis, contain capillaries or Meissner corpuscles which respond to touch. • Reticular region of the Dermis – Made up of dense irregular connective & adipose tissue, contains sweat lands, sebaceous (oil) glands, & blood vessels. •
- 58. - • There aretwo main divisions of the dermal layer: – Papillary region - The superficial layer of the dermis, made up of loose areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers. – Dermal papillae - Fingerlike structures invade the epidermis, contain capillaries or Meissner corpuscles which respond to touch. • Reticular region of the Dermis – Made up of dense irregular connective & adipose tissue, contains sweat lands, sebaceous (oil) glands, & blood vessels.
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- 60. Sensory Receptors • Theskin contains numerous sensory receptors which receive information from the outside environment. The sensory receptors of the skin are concerned with at least five different senses: pain, heat, cold, touch, and pressure. The five are usually grouped together as the single sense of touch in the classification of the five senses of the whole human body. The sensory receptors vary greatly in terms of structure. For example, while pain receptors are simply unmyelinated terminal branches of neurons, touch receptors form neuronal fiber nets around the base of hairs and deep pressure receptors consist of nerve endings encapsulated by specialized connective tissues.
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- 62. - Receptors also varyin terms of abundance relative to each other. For example, there are far more pain receptors than cold receptors in the body. Finally, receptors vary in terms of the concentration of their distribution over the surface of the body, the fingertips having far more touch receptors than the skin of the back. Nerve fibers that are attached to different types of skin receptors either continue to discharge during a stimulus "slowly-adapting" or respond only when the stimulus starts and sometimes when a stimulus ends "rapidly-adapting". In other words, slowly-adapting nerve fibers send information about ongoing stimulation; rapidly- adapting nerve fibers send information related to changing stimuli. The Pacinian corpuscle receptor is a classic example of a rapidly- adapting type receptor. The Ruffini nerve ending is a slowly- adapting type receptor.
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