Settimius Severus (English)
- 1. LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS PERTINAX “Don’t be in disagreement, enrich the soldiers, despise anyone else.”
- 2. ORIGINS Lucius Septimius Severus was born in Leptis Magna, ancient and flourishing city, located about 130 km east of the city of Oea (modern Tripoli, Libya), on April 11, 146 from a family belonging the equestrian order. His father, Publius Septimius Geta, was from a wealthy family of Leptis Magna of Punic and Berber origins. His mother, Fulvia Pia, belonged to the gens Fulvia, an illustrious family from Tusculum. He arrived in Rome at the age of 18, in 162, and, with the help of his uncle Gaius Septimius Severus, was admitted to the senatorial order. He climbed the Empire administrative hierarchy, serving as military tribune, quaestor (170-171), proconsular ambassador in Africa (174), tribune of the plebs (176), propraetor in Spain (178), governor of Gallia Lugdunensis (187) and Sicily (189). Around 169 he was elected senator by Marcus Aurelius. Leptis Magna
- 3. RISE TO POWER Septimius Severus is considered the initiator of the notion of “dominion”: the emperor isn’t a private governor who acted on behalf of the Senate, but a “dominus”, who draws strength from “military investiture of the legions”. He was the initiator of a new cult centered on the figure of the emperor and set the stage for a “sacred monarchy”, borrowed from the Hellenistic East. He adopted the title of “Dominus ac Deus”, which replaced that of Princeps, which implied sharing the power with the Senate.
- 4. RISE TO POWER In 190 he had the consulate and in 191 he held, on behalf of Commodus, the governorship of Upper Pannonia. After the assassination of Commodus, the Senate appoint Pertinax, who was also supported by the Praetorian Guard at the beginning; but when they killed him, Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by the troops in Carnuntum, which was the seat of government and of the military command in Pannonia. Severus hurried down to Italy to punish the Praetorian Guard and take possession of Rome without opposition. The Senate reacted proposing senator Didio Giuliano, while the legions of Syria proclaimed Pescennius Niger and those of Britain chose Clodius Albinus. Septimius Severus got rid of the three rivals between 194 and 197 after a bloody war. Commodus
- 5. MANAGEMENT OF POWER After becoming emperor, Septimius Severus proceeded to a systematic annihilation of the political opposition. He took power in the Senate and reorganized the army, facilitating lower ranks of provincial origin, who were granted donations and career opportunities. Septimius Severus, because he had risen to power with the help of the military, returned the senatorial hostility: he ordered the execution of 29 senators, accused of corruption and conspiracy against him and replaced them with more loyal men, especially Africans and Syrians. He also extended the powers of the highest degrees of the army, even by giving them public offices which were usually prerogative of the senators. Upon arriving to Rome, he began the purge of the Praetorian Guard, who, after two centuries of Italical domination, was reorganized to include people who were loyal to him. The Praetorians responsible for the death of Pertinace were dismissed with large areas of land and were replaced with 15,000 soldiers, mostly coming from the legions of Germany. From then on, the access to the Praetorian Guard, once geographical and cultural privilege, was reserved to the most pugnacious soldiers. The emperor also allowed the use of local languages in official documents, which contributed to the formation of a provincial ruling class. He also did important public works, such as the Temple of Hercules. He completed the thermae started by Domitian and restored the portico of Octavia, the Pantheon and the temples of Saturn and of Vespasian.
- 6. MILITARY REFORM Septimius Severus immediately promoted a series of reforms and changes to the previous military organization, confirming his intent of a ‘provincialisation’ of the militia. He increased the number of Roman legions to thirty-three, with the establishment of three units for the Parthian campaigns: the legio I, II and III Parthica. The army could count on 400,000 soldiers: which was still a small number when you consider that they had to oversee 9,000 kilometer border, and control and defend the 70 million inhabitants of the empire. The number of soldiers in the troops stationed in Rome and in its vicinity was increased to a total of 30,000 (instead of 10,500, as in the Augustan age). In addition, a “strategic reserve” was formed in the vicinity of Rome, in Castra Albana, where a legion was housed, the Parthica II. He increased the number of Roman legions to thirty-three, with the establishment of three units, in view of the Parthian campaigns: the legio I, II and III Parthica. The army could now count on 400,000 armed: a still small number when you consider that they had to oversee 9,000 kilometer border, control and defend the 70 million inhabitants of the empire. The number of soldiers in the troops stationed in Rome and its vicinity was taken to a total of 30,000 soldiers, against the 10,500 of the Augustan age. It was formed for the first time a "strategic reserve" in the vicinity of Rome, in Castra Albana, where an entire legion was housed, the Parthica II. a Castra Albana
- 7. He favored legionnaires in several ways, increasing their pay, giving them the right to marry during the service and to live with family outside the camp (canabae). This reform involved a "regionalization" of the legions, which became tied not only to the commander, but also to the territory. Septimius Severus also promoted the admission of the centurions’ children in the senatorial career. He also issued other concessions, aimed at improving the condition of the soldiers, including the institution of the military annona, improvement of the quality of food, the opportunity for graduates to come together in scholae (associations), recognizing some distinguishing attributes (the white robe for the centurions and the gold ring for principals). He strengthened the German border, because of the reorganization of the legion stationed in that territory and the enrollment of Roman soldiers. However, the greatest danger to the state came from within: gangs of bandits terrified the local population and the caravans of merchants, so that Severus was forced to organize imperial police forces to address the problem; but the oppressive system caused an increase in the phenomenon of banditry. MILITARY REFORM
- 8. ECONOMIC CRISIS To fund the massive expenses needed to maintain the army, he resorted to the expedient of halving the quantity of precious metal contained in the coins, thus differentiating their intrinsic value from their nominal value. This brought about a rising inflation and the hoarding of the coins made of precious metal.
- 9. FOREIGN POLICY Septimius Severus undertook two campaigns against the Parthians, constituting for the occasion three Roman legions with which he recovered the northern half of Mesopotamia. It became a Roman province in 198 and was headed by a prefect of equestrian rank. During this campaign, his soldiers sacked Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, and the survivors were sold as slaves. Upon his return, he decided to leave in the vicinity of Rome, in Albanum (today Albano Laziale), the second of three Parthian legions, where one can still see the remains of the camp (Castra Albana), the cisterns for the supply of water and the amphitheater dating back to the third century. Despite his action had introduced in Rome a military dictatorship, Septimius Severus was popular among Roman citizens, having stigmatized the moral degeneration of the reign of Commodus and growing corruption. When he returned after the victory over the Parthians, he erected a triumphal arch that is still standing and bears his name.
- 10. RELIGIOUS POLICY Septimius Severus was very attentive, also because of the influence of his wife Julia Domna (of Syrian origin), to the religious ferment from the eastern provinces: thus he introduced Eastern cults in Rome, such as the cult of Baal, an ancient Phoenician deity. Septimius Severus didn’t promulgate new measures against Christians; on the contrary, on many occasions he protected them from the popular fury. The Christians continued to live in a period of “bonam et largam pacem”, wrote Tertullian, despite some local episodes of persecution, like in Africa, where the dissent was actually more on political grounds. On the other hand, individual officials felt entitled by law to proceed with rigor against the Christians; and, abiding by the law, the emperor did not hinder some limited persecution that took place in Egypt, in Africa. The Christian martyrs were numerous in Alexandria, under the prefecture of Leto and his successor Sebaziano Aquila.
- 11. BRITAIN In the last few years of his reign, from 208 AD, Septimius Severus undertook a number of military actions in defense of the borders of Roman Britain from the strong and continued pressure of the Caledonian tribes, with plans for the reconstruction of the Hadrian’s Wall. He died in 211 on February 4 in Eburacum (York).
- 12. DEATH After his death in 211 in Eburacum (York), he was deified by the Senate and he was succeeded by his two quarrelsome sons, Caracalla and Geta. The latter died soon after, probably at the hands of Caracalla, which remained the only owner of the empire. Caracalla Geta