Sociology Class Lecture all for sociology notes class

SOCIOLOGY
Made by ZOHAIB SHOUKAT

MADE BY: ZOHAIB SHOUKAT
Sociology
 World of People
 Systematic study of society, and social interaction.
 Word Sociology is derived from
Latin word Socius (Companion)
Greek word Logus (study of),
 meaning “The study of companionship”
 1838 – term by Auguste Comte

 Study of society
 patterns of social relationships
 social interaction
 culture that surrounds everyday life.
 Uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical
analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order and
social change.
 Society is v.big (2 Nations) but also v.small (2 Persons)

 Scientific study of society – August Comte
 Study of Social action – Max Weber
 Study of collective behavior – Park and Burgess
 Study of social facts through social institution – Emile Durkheim

Importance of Sociology
 Understand human diversity
 Explain crime and deviance
 Understand complex world
 Develops rational thinking
 Develop underdeveloped world

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Way of looking at the world
 Relationship between individual and the broader societal patterns
 Perspectives –frameworks that generate theories to explain social
world , structure and relationship
 Facilitates to explain phenomenon
 E.g rise in crime ……….unemployment……

PETER BERGER defines 3 goals of perspectives
1) Looking for general in the particular
- by placing it in wider social context
- looking individual abusing – pattern –from broken families
- What you sing/listen – influence
- Marriage
2) Looking for the strange pattern in the familiar environment
- raise hands in math class but not on dinner table
- looks things as strange and unfamiliar to understand how they work
3) Looking for Social Influence in Individual Life
- in decision making
-choosing university, partner
- Durkheim- suicide (seems personal)

Social location , Marginalization, Power & Inequality
 Social Location – race, social class, gender, religion
 Person choices are influenced by Social Location
 Marginalization – Social location contribute to marginalization of
social group
 If marginalized – position outside the Centers of Power

TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
1) MACRO LEVEL – broad structural aspects
-looking at the big (broad scope)
- Transition from feudalism to capitalism
- Race and education relation
-Healthcare Racism
2) MICRO LEVEL – how individual construct
- interactions between individual
- Doctor talk to different races ?

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
 3 main sociological perspectives
1) Structural Functionalism
2) Social Conflict
3) Symbolic Interactionism

1) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
 Doctrine of organism
 Human body
 A framework for building theory that sees society as stable system of different interrelated parts –
solidarity and stability
 Khuldun, August Comte, Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parson
 Change in one – effect other
 Family function – socialize children –if failed – crime
 FUNCTIONS
a) Manifest Functions – intended, deliberate recognized outcomes
b) Latent Function – unintended, involuntary outcomes
Dysfunction – outcome that can create disorder
- Bad in dealing with change – sees bad things as positive e.g. Poverty (always people who want work)

2) SOCIAL CONFLICT
 Consider society to be composed of various parts –in state of conflict and
competition
 Society composed of binary components –rich poor, black white, male
female
 One category benefitting
 Sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
 Unequal distribution
 Work of Karl Marx – because of industrialization 2 classes emerge
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat (CLASS CONFLICT THEORY)
 RACIAL AND GENDER CONFLICT
 Macro- looks at how society defines sources of inequality and conflict

3) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
 It looks at the whole world we create when we assign meaning to interactions and
objects
 Society as product of everyday interactions
 Raw Facts - Waving hands, Hand shake
 Dog – foe/friend
 Max Weber
 Sees human as active beings – constantly shaping their social world through
interaction
 Conditions and situations – considered as real
 E.g: just assume text boring, appear boring
 Power of symbols
 Cricket match ?

SOCIABILITY OR SOCIALITY OF MAN
 Whether reality is shaped for humans by society or
 Are humans shaping reality themselves
 Society composed of interacting individuals
 Members – connect in different associations

THEORY OF SOCIABILITY BY GEORGE SIMMEL
 Society – web of interacting individuals (certain
drivers/purposes)
 Satisfy interests
 Argued – material of life cannot be viewed as social unless they
encourage association.
 Events and phenomena are difficult for individuals to deal with
 Individual follow patterns on it which gain a life of their own

THEORY OF SELF DEVELOPMENT
 GEORGE HERBERT MEAD- FATHER OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOURISM
 Development of human personality - social experience
 Self is product of social experience
 “Personality is composed of Self Awareness and Self Image”
Macionis
 Cannot develop in isolation
 Involve in exchange system of symbols
 Symbols- carries particular mean recognized by people who share
culture

C.H. Cooley – Society – mirror- see our image
Mead – Differentiated I and Me
I – Active part –initiates an action
Me- Passive part – Influenced by Society

Mead – Development of Self
 4 Stages
1) Imitation
2) Play
3) Game
4) Understanding

INTERACTION IS NECESSARY FOR
HUMANS
 ARISTOTLE
a) Kasper Houser: 1925 – 17 years – Forest of Germany – couldn’t
communicate + cant walk properly
b) Anna : American –detained in a room at age of 6 months – lacked
social interaction for 5 years – unable to walk, talk and
unresponsive
c) Genie: Californian Girl – tied at age of 2 by father – discovered
1976 – 13 years – mental age

CULTURE
 “ set of values, beliefs, Behaviors, and material objects that
together constitutes a people’s way of life” Macionis
 A totality of learned, socially transmitted behavior” R.T.Schoefer
 E.B.Taylor – English Anthropologist coined term “Culture”
 Babies are born “Culturally Blank Slates”

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1) Culture is Learnt –
-Eating + Sleeping – Learning Agents – Process - Enculturation
2) Culture is Variable
- Society own culture – Cultural Relativism
3) Culture is Social
- through social interaction
- Simmel – web of interacting individuals
4) Culture is Shared
-similar beliefs, values and norms
5) Culture is Transmissive
- from one generation to another generation - Language
6) Culture is Dynamic
-values have changed over times – Evolve and change – Tech
7) Culture is Adaptive
- adopt to changing physical and social conditions

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
1) Defines Situation
- culture –tool- provide symbol to access the intention of actors institution
-if cat crosses way –postpone joruney
2) Providing Behavioral Patterns
-learn to make societies more predictable
-understand multiple roles in multiple situation
- Gender roles (Eastern / Western)
3) Transferring Knowledge
- Bridge that links a society to its past - Future
4) Moulds Personality
- Greek work Persona means “Mask”
-shaped by society and cultural forces
-e.g Donkey Meal (Act, Think, Feel)
- Female’s Personality (Eastern/Western)

TYPES OF CULTURE
1) Material Culture
-Touchable, concrete, physical aspects
-Food Clothing, architecture, tools, devices, vehicles, artifacts
2) Non Material Culture
- untouchables, abstract, non-physical
-norms, customs, values, language

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
1) NORMS
 Expectations with respect to behavior that should be followed
 Either
 Prescriptive
 Proscriptive
 Proscriptive norm in one culture can be Prescriptive in other
- Homosexual Marriages

TYPES OF NORMS
A) Folkways – Not significant (rarely serious consequences)
- everyday interaction
- repetition and routine
-Slapping man
B) Mores – Highly significant (strict)
-considered moral and ethical behavior
- breakdown serious response from society
-e.g religious doctrine of mores that govern social behavior (prohibitions on
cohabitating with a romantic partner before marriage)
- discrimination and oppression, like racism and sexism another example
C) Taboos – Strong negative norm
-violating it results in extreme disgust
-violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in that society
-some Muslim cultures, eating pork is taboo because the pig is considered unclear

2) VALUES
 Culturally defined standards – decide what is desirable, good and
beautiful
 Serve as broad guidelines of social living
 Key Values of Pakistan Society
a) Caste and Superiority (judge by caste- his social position)
b) Hospitality (Khyber Pakhtunkhawa)
c) Materialism (amount of wealth / worth)
d) Simplicity (who spends simple life)
Can be contradictory- people who prefer making wealth avoid simplicity

3)BELIEFS
 Specific ideas and thoughts that people hold to be true”
Macionis
 Always speak truth
 Work hard - successful

4) Sanctions
 Rewards or punishments used to establish social control- enforce
the norms in a society
 Attempt by society to regulate peoples thoughts and behaviors
 Either Formal or Informal
 Formal – through rules and Laws
 Positive Formal – Giving promotion to honest
 Negative Formal – Sending Govt. employee to jail for corruption
 Informal – Without rules and laws by a group, community, society.
 Positive informal – Appreciating
 Negative Informal – Attaching a stigma

5) CUSTOMS
 Regular or patterned way of behaving and appearing (Ancient
Nature)
 Considered characteristic of life
 Muslims pay Salam
 Bathing in River Ganga reduces sins

SOCIALIZATION
 Process of learning but what to learn varies culture to culture
 E.g. Funeral in Pak VS Kalash Valley
 Socialize to internalize cultural norms and values
 Need a culture for survival

TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
A) Primary Socialization
- Infant’s – Personality
-Family – important
B) Secondary Socialization
-informal and institutional settings – Peer Groups
C) Adult Socialization
-Social roles one acquires after adolescence -after marriage
D) Anticipatory Socialization
- learning expectations attached to particular groups (for membership)
-Business student
E) Re- Socialization
- Discard previous , favor new
- Rehabilitation centres

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
 Agents, groups or institutes – play their role in internalizing
process of norms and values
1) Family –
2) Peer Groups
3) Religious –
4) Schools –
5) Mass Media – Strongest – Catalyst

IMPORTANT CULTURAL CONCEPTS
 SUBCULTURE
 In harmony with mainstream
 Malangs / Kalash
 COUNTER-CULTURE
 Opposing mainstream
 Red Light Areas/Militants

ETHNOCENTRISM
 Evaluate someone’s culture by using one’s own yardstick
 Own –Superior
 In-group solidarity, patriotism, nationalism
 Contrary – All conflicts
 Hijab Controversy

XENOCENTRISM
 Contrary to ethnocentrism
 Strong preference – foreign
 English Lang
 Foreign Graduates
 Imported

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 Every society – own traits , symbols, meanings
 Understood – social context
 Child Labour

MULTICULTURALISM
 Stresses appreciation, protection, and institutionalization of
cultural diversity

CULTURAL LAG
 Some cultural elements change quickly than others
 Disrupt cultural system
 Tech changes
 In-Vitro Fertilization

HIGH AND POPULAR CULTURE
 HIGH – elite
 Shape certain patterns
 Maintain identity
 POPULAR –
 Widespread
 Replicate high

IDEAL AND REAL CULTURE
 IDEAL
 Standards
 Dowry / clean environment
 REAL
 Follow

ACCOMODATION
 The adjustment of the hostile individual or group – Nimkoff
 Necessary – maintain social order - survival
 GILLIN – Forms of Accomodation
1) Coercion
2) Compromise
3) Arbitration
4) Conversion
5) Sublimation

ASSIMILATION
 Individuals /groups once dissimilar become similar and identified in
their interest and outlook
 Long term:
 Factors –
 exogamy,
 tolerance,
 multiculturalism,
 migration,
 education

ACCULTURATION
 Members of one culture adopt the pattern of another culture
 Bajrangi Bhaijaan

SOCIETY
 Group of people who share culture and a territory.
 A place with a designated border where people live, interact and
share a culture (Macionis)
 Have social structure – stable patterns – govern – social
institutions

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY
1) Society is Sui generis – independent existence – interaction
2) Human Groups – comprise many social groups
3) Satisfying – social order
4) Dynamics – adopt to new needs (adjust structure and institution)
5) Interdependent – Integrated whole
6) Common Interests – mostly
7) Social Interaction – status and roles
8) Social Institutions -fulfill human needs
9) Technology – more change
10) Culture – ways to behave
11) Geographical boundary – separate
12) Code of conduct

Theories on relationship between Men and Society
 1. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
 Society emerged as a result of insecurity of man – due to lack of
guiding authority – protection
 A) Thomas Hobbes
 Human – barbaric – easily result in bellum omnium contra omnes
 Prevention – social contract
 -under control of sovereign authority
 Efforts – against own nature

B) John Locke
 Contrary to Hobbes
 Nature- serene, compassionate, sociable
 Absense of organized system –Justice and Laws – issues arises
 Form Society – rights , liberties, self-defence
C) Jean Jacques Rousseau
 Men – simple, independent, courageous
 Living a pure life
 Population growth – polluted
 Solution for protection – led to civil society

2) ORGANISM THEORY
 Drawing analogy of human body
 Ibn-e-Khuldun – born, grows, mature, declines, and die
 Khuldun cyclic theory of Socio-Political Change
 Durkheim – views society as integrated whole – different parts
– stability

 Spencer – Similarities and Differences
 Similarities
1) Growth and development
2) Diseases
3) Smaller units
4) Changes in structure and function
 Differences
1) Society – no physical structure
2) Society – relatively independent
3) Consciousness – diffused in society ----- Human –
brain(concentrated)

SOCIO-CULTURAL EVOLUTION
 Changes – technology
 Changes in tech – changes in basic org. of society
 Tech- develops material culture –open avenues for non-material
changes as well

LENSKI – TYPES OF SOCIETIES
1) HUNTING AND GATHERING
 12000 years ago
 Simple tech – arrows, spears and digging sticks
 Hunt animal, catch fishes, collect herbs, plants, fruits
 Social Stratification & inequality –less likely
 No surplus
 Integration – high (survival & protection)

2) HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL SOCIETY
 10,000 years ago
 Simple tools for raising crops
 Used tools - hoe
 Reason of shift – population / environment
 Pastoral developed in dry mountains areas – domestic animals
for food
 Concept of surplus made ways – rise of population - clans
 Develop – other crafts started
 Permanent settlement – accumulation – inequality
 Families – more food –powerful - warfare

3) AGRARIAN SOCIETY
 5000 YEARS
 Discovery of agriculture – surplus
 Dawn – human civilization
 Innovations *Irrigation *Wheel *crafts
 Use of Plough – cultivate large areas
 Population increased
 Wheel – transportation
 Inequality increased
 New mode of production – strength – lower status women

4) INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 Industries – alternate source of energy
 Machines – for production
 Industrial Revolution
 Shaped basic org. of societies
 Work patterns changed – Specialization
 New Techniques of scientific management
 New ideologies – Capitalism, Socialism, Nationalism
 Inequality – increased

5) POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 Production of information using computer technology
 Data- more essential
 Information based skills required
 Service work – banking, financial services, education,
healthcare

COMMUNITY
 A social group “we feeling” and living in a given area
 Includes
 Grouping
 Area
 Division of labor
 Common culture/social life
 Unity and belonging
 Act collectively

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITY
1) Common Culture –can differ from mainstream
2) Conscious of Belongingness
3) Organized Group – solidarity – get mobilized easily (threat)
4) Mutual cooperation – interdependency

TYPES OF COMMUNITY
 RURAL
 URBAN

1) RURAL COMMUNITY
 WRT integration, cooperation and low specialization – preferred
over urban
 Highly integrated
 Face to face interaction

CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL
 Low populationintegration
 Hospitality
 Homogeneity
 Subsistence economy – agriculture –same tasks
 Clean environment
 Family pattern –joint (Pop low, avg household-high)
 Economic Standing –almost same
 Education-low
 Religious affiliation – almost same
 Division of labor – not complex
 Lack modern facilities
 Social change - traditionalism

2) URBAN COMMUNITY
 surplus Food, Transportation, abundant water supply
 First communities – occupied river valleys
 Cities developed around – valleys of Nile, Euphrates

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN
 Specialization – high division of labor
 Social org. –centered
 Formal institutions
 Subsistence economy – Manufacturing and services
 Rationality and Tech
 Segregation – people with same status –particular areas
 Heterogeneity- degree of anonymity
 Social distance – socially isolated
 Regimentation – discipline & importance of time
 Family Patterns - high cost of living (High pop, low avg)
 Education –high
 Social change –less resistant
 Consumption –high –social status

RURAL – URBAN CONVERGENCE
 In form of town
 Town – bridge the gap

URBANISM
 Way of life followed by people living in urban areas
 CHARACTERISTICS
 A) Anonymity B)Individualism C) Rapid social change
 D) Organic Solidarity E) Conspicuous(consumption)
 F)Heterogeneity

FUTURE OF CITIES OF PAK
 Population growth – Urbanization growth rate 3.1%
 UNDP – by 2030 – half pop will become urban
 Abrupt
 FACTORS
 *Governance *Rising Urban Poverty *Rising Population
 *Issues of service delivery *Pollution *Housing
 *Crime

SOCIAL INTERACTION
 The general process whereby two or more persons are in
meaningful contact as a result of which their behavior is
modified, however, slightly.
 Occurs between people who hold status

STATUS
 Any position that a person occupies
 ASCRIBED STATUS
 ACHIEVED STATUS

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
 Structured ranking - unequal economic rewards and power
 Differential distribution
 Status quo – inequality is maintained

CASTE AND CLASS SYSTEM

1) CASTE SYSTEM
 Prevents people from achieving higher status or social position
 Incurred at birth
 Consider natural
 INDIAN CASTSE SYSTEM
1) Brahamans – priests – superiors - administer
2) Kshatriya - warriors
3) Vesha – business - agricultre
4) Shudra – crafts
5) Dalits – petty jobs

 ENDOGAMY – prevail inequalities
 CASTE SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN
1) Ashraaf
2) Ajlaaf
3) Arzaal
 Ethnocentrism – reason of conflict among caste
 Now reducing – education, economic prosperity, mass media

2) CLASS SYSTEM
 Based – primary on economic position
 Less rigid
 Central concept – social class (similar status)
 SIX-FOLD CLASSIFICATION BY WARNER
1) Upper-Upper -few
2) Lower –Upper – not completely established
3) Upper-Middle – entrepreneurs, civil leaders, academicians, scientists (Intellectual
backbone)
4) Lower-Middle – White collar, small land owner (highly motivated to change)
5) Upper-Lower – blue collar, semi-skilled
6) Lower-Lower

FEUDAL SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN
 Posses acres of land
 Powerful
 Resources -influence over executive and judicial of their areas
 Feudal lords –way to parliament
 Bangladesh abolished in 1971 – Pak failed
 Haunts development and prosperity

Reason behind strong feudalism
1) Historical roots – (Muslim league dominated)
2) Land Reforms – Ayub &Bhutto 1959, 1972, 1977
3) Political Power – 1952 80% of legislature – democracy ?
a) Personal Militias
b) Debt bondage

Effects of Feudalism
 Obstacles
 No industry
 Education
 Health
 Freedom

SOCIAL MOBILITY
 Movement from one social class to another
 CLOSED SOCIETIES –Low degree
 OPEN SOCIETIES – greater degree
 Free to move - both upward and downward , a change in social
position

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
A) Territorial Mobility
B) Horizontal Mobility – no change in social status
C) Vertical Mobility – upward / downward –hierarchy
D) Intergenerational Mobility – contemporary vs preceding generation -Upward/
downward
E) Intra-generational Mobility – during life span – upward/downward
F) Occupational Mobility – change occupation/profession , Horizontal/Vertical, Inter/intra

DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
 TYPES
1) STRUCTURAL FACTORS
 Factors which determine the relative proportion of high status positions to be filled and
ease of getting them
a) Occupational Structure – agriculture vs industrial (high specialization)
b) Differential Fertility
c) Dual Economy – some sectors high/low salaries
d) Mobility Aid/ Barriers – Aid (Scholarship) Barrier (Private schools)
2) INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
e) Mobility oriented behavior
f) Culture of poverty

SOCIAL CONTROL
 Human should be regulated – act accordingly to the pattern
 Rewards / punishments
 Techniques and strategies - Prevent deviant behavior

MECHANISM OF SOCIAL CONTROL
1) KARL MANNEHEIM – considered 2 mechanism
a)Direct Social Control (by primary groups)
b) Indirect Social Control (by secondary groups tradition/customs)
2) LUMLEY- 2 Mechanism
a) Physical Forced Method
b) Human Symbol Method
3) KIMBALL YOUNG
a) Positive Social Control
b) Negative Social Control

FORMAL AND INFORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
 FORMAL MEANS
a) Education
b) Law
 INFORMAL MEANS
a) Norms
b) Values
c) Beliefs

AGENTS OF SOCIAL CONTROL
 Family
 State
 Education
 Neighborhood – stigma - mores

ANOMIE
 1897 – Durkhiem
 State of normlessness
 Where there are contradictory set of norms and values
 Rapid transition of societies -Specialization, division of labor
 Increase dysfuction traits – impersonality, disengagement –
Anomic Condition
 One manifestation – Suicide

ALIENATION
 Feelings that characterize losing control over one’s social world
 Marx defined it in relation with capitalist society
 A sense of powerlessness, isolation and meaninglessness
experienced by human when they are confronted with social
institutions and conditions that they cannot control and consider
oppressive.
 Psychological -Estrangement from certain aspects of his social
existence.
 Results in loss of integration

SOCIAL INTEGRATION
 Society – different institutions – harmony – proper functioning
 Process of creating single unit by joining different parts
 Assimilation – Homogeneity mixture- no separate identity
 Integration – Heterogeneity - pluralistic
 Pakistan issue – lack of social integration

MEANS OF SOCIAL INTEGRATION IN PAKISTAN
 Emphasize share identity
 Limit ethnic politics
 Limit linguistic poltics
 Interfaith harmony
 End sectarianism
 Provide economic opportunities
 Provision of human rights
 Curriculum changes
 Take religious scholars on board

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE
AND
SOCIAL POLICY

SOCIAL CHANGE
 Transformation of culture and social institutions over time (Macionis)
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
a) Continuous – contemporary fast
b) Intentional and Unintentional (Govt policy vs effect)
c) Divisive – controversial (one consider benefit /other do not)
d) Significant – some consider significant others do not (Phones)
Manto – our society allow brothel but not cycle

PROCESS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGES
a) Invention – internet –dynamics of communication changes
b) Discovery – understanding new dimensions (Neutral vs Sex
determining hormones)
c) Diffusion – mixing of cultural traits (migration)
d) Social Conflict – races/class/women
e) Idealism – changes in ideas of people regarding any social
pattern

INHIBITIONS TO SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE IN PAKISTAN
a) Cultural inertia
b) Isolation
c) Traditionalism – ancestor ways replicated
d) Education –low
e) Rigid social structure – highly regulated society
f) Ethnocentrism
g) Propaganda
h) Poverty and Culture of Poverty
i) Endogamy and Caste
j) Pressure Groups
k) Compatibility of change with existing patterns (Birth control – anti-islam)

PUBLIC OPINION
 Consists of the views of the members of a public on a certain
issues

FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION
 To achieve any social and political goal by organizing the masses
 Brings participation
 FACTORS
a) Social Environment – thinking an issue as lamentable –other thinks same
b) Mass Media
c) Opinion Leaders
d) Education Institutions –hidden curriculum
e) Government and State – Use propaganda tools – promote ideologies (APS
Peshawar)

OPINION LEADER
 Either politician, journalists, academician, religious scholar, star,
sportsman, social worker
 Has ability to influence and shape public opinion

CHARACTERISTICS OF OPINION LEADER
a) Considered Credible
b) Expert
c) Sincere
d) Innovative
e) Sociable
f) Knowledgeable
g) Communication
h) Compassion

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
 Are the major spheres of social life organized to meet human
needs (Macionis)

PROCESS OF INSTITUTIONALIZATION
 Institution – can be planned and unplanned
 Mostly unplanned – necessity of man
 Some problems – got solutions – repeated ways – created as standards
 E.g Hunt and Gathering Societies
 E.g – Women who works in Pak – criticized
 Pak- Live in partners – no social acceptance
 CONFLICT THEORY – laws are institutionalized – serve interests of
elite/powerful.
 Roles institutionalized – limit one choice
 E.g Judge –limit interaction

FAMILY
 A set of people related to blood, marriage, or adoption who share primary
responsibility for reproduction and caring of members of society.
 FUNCTIONS
a) Socialization
b) Sexual Activity
c) Protection
d) Providing Support
e) Social Control
f) Social placement

RELIGION
 Involving beliefs and practices based upon conception of sacred.
 Types of Religions
a) Monotheists
b) Polytheists
c) Primitive (believe in the spirits and elements of nature)

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
 Gives meaning and purpose
 Social control
 Social Solidarity
a) Strengthen relationship
b) Comfort
c) Removes frustration
d) Compassionate

EDUCATION
 Formal transfer of knowledge, skills and values from one person
or group to another.
 FUNCATIONS
a) Socialization
b) Cultural innovation
c) Social Integration
d) Social placement
e) Social capital

POLITICS
 Institute that distributes power, set a society’s goal and makes
decision.
 FUNCTIONS
a) Social order
b) Integration
c) Institutionalization – through laws

ECONOMY
 Institute through which goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed.
 CONCEPTS
a) Primary Sector – draws raw material
b) Secondary Sector – transforms
c) Tertiary Sector – services
d) Global Economy – cross national borders
e) Capitalism
f) Socialism
g) Monopoly
h) Oligopoly

METHODS IN SOCIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH

 Sociological investigations
 Study issues and problems
 Using observations, experimentations, data collection and analysis
 “A method of inquiry which provides knowledge and information
that is based on direct methodoical observation and is verifiable”

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
 Theoretical – generating , testify, retest
 Empirical – measurable observation
 Nomothetic – finding general principle
 Idiographic – understanding individual cases
 Probabilistic - expectations
 Causal – cause and effect

TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Answer – What is happening
Describes the reality (not explain)
% people voting
2. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Theory development
Explain some new social phenomenon
Intra-parties elections study – study dynamics
3. RELATIONAL RESEARCH
Study relationship btw 2 or more variables – change together
Relationship btw caste and voting
Limitations – World is not laboratory
4. CAUSAL RESEARCH
Cause and Effect relations – Dependent –independent Variables
Cause precede Effect

TIME IN SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
 CROSS SECTIONAL
Single point in time
 LONGITUDINAL
Various points in time (min 2)
REPEATED MEASURES (twice or few)
TIME SERIES STUDY (at least 20 waves of measurement)

REASONING IN RESEARCH
1. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
 Start from General theory and reducing it to specific hypothesis
 Can be empirically tested
 E.G. Studying Cyber Criminals in Pakistan
Hirshi Control Theory ( less opportunities)
2. INDUCTIVE REASONING
 Starting from specific observation and moving to a general theory
 E.g. Visiting few universities – students abusing substances
 Decided to study this phenomenon
 - Female less likely to abuse
- Rural areas – less likely
- Scholars – less likely

QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Concerned with hypothesis testing, descriptive
and prediction
Concerned with theory building, exploration,
discovery, explanation
Deductive Inductive
Views reality as objective Views reality as subjective, socially constructed
Data is collected through precise instruments
such as close ended questions, scales
Data is collected through observations, in-depth
interviews, and open-ended questionnaire
Views human behavior as predictable, attempts
to study such behavior in controlled conditions
Views human behavior as dynamic, and thus
interested in studying the context in which such
behavior is occuring

STEPS IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
1. DEFINE YOUR TOPIC – hardest part
2. CONDUCTING LITERATURE REVIEW – summarize previous work
- helps researcher to refine his topic, formulate hypotheses, research
design
3. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
- testable empirical statement that suggests a relationship between 2 or
more variables
NULL - ALTERNATE hypothesis
VARIABLE – measureable trait
Dependent – Outcome variable – effect is observed
Independent Variable –can be manipulated to test effect

4. CHOOSING A RESEARCH DESIGN
- Methodical plan for conducting research
- Research Methods
- Operationalization (how you are going to research)
- Population and Sampling
5. DATA COLLECTION
6. DATA ANALYSIS
- compare stated hypothesis with what the collected data says
- Use various statistical tests
- Ensure Reliability (Consistent) and Validity (Measures what you
are interested)
7. CONCLUSION
8. SHARING

RESEARCH METHODS
 EXPERIMENTS
 SURVEYS
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 CASE STUDIES

1) EXPERIMENTS
 Artificially created situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables
 Establish cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
 By holding all other variables constant (Gold Standard)
 2 Groups
 A) Experimental – gets exposed to independent variables
 B) Control – receives a fake treatment
 E.g – interested in see how workplace environment can effect employee satisfaction
 Hypothesis: If workplace environment is less flexible, employees will be less satisfied
 Experiment G – Security cameras in room
 Control G – without cameras
 Study can be distorted because of Hawthorne Effect

2) SURVEYS
 Systematic questioning of people about their opinions, attitudes, or behavior
 Population (not easy) – select a sample (subpart)
 Probability Sampling – Random
 Non-Probability Sampling – Based on convenience
 Survey Types – Interviews, Questionnaires
 Open / Close ended questions
 A- study large population, rich data source, Data on many aspects
 D- expense , return rate , time consuming

3) OBSERVATION
 Investigators collect data through direct participation and/or
closely watching
 Either in laboratory or in fields
 Participant Observation
 Use to construct reality in their setting
 Limitation – Balance btw his observer & participation role
 People do not open up immediately

4) CASE STUDY
 A detailed record of a single event, person or social grouping
 Used when in-depth analysis of a real-life event or phenomenon is
required
 Rich source of qualitative data on an event or phenomenon
 A- most explorative, provide future dimensions, challenge
accepted theories
 D- cannot be generalized, difficult to replicate, element of
researcher bias

IBN –E- KHULDUN
(1332- 1406)

IBN-E-KHULDUN
 Driving force behind his Major script “The Prolegomenon”
 Book of lessons and Instructions – Kitab ul Ibrar
 Tells decline of human civilization and rise of western

AS FOUNDER
 Favored systematic approach towards studying any discipline
 Systematically – situation of world among all regions, races,
customs, sectarian belief – give way to future historians
 Coined term “ILM-UL-UMRAN” for his science

DISTINCTION BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN
COMMUNITIES
 First sociologist – clearly differentiated communities
 Rural – Badawa } prefer in term material and moral conditions
 Urban - Hadara

1)AL UMRAN AL BADAWI (rural social org)
 Exist outside centre
 Simple structure
 High level of Asabiyah
 Do no accumulate beyond – no surplus
 Divided Badawa into 3 types
Agricultural
Cattle Breeders
Camel Breeders

2) Al-Umran Al-Hadri
 Town , cities
 Well developed
 Develeopment continues till Al-Taraf

THEORY OF TRANSITION
 IKHTILAF-UL-AIYAL of Badawa and Hadara
 Badawa has potential to get transformed - economic well-being
 2 phases of development
1) Satisfaction of necessities
2) Beyound

CYCLIC THEORY OF SOCIO-POLITICAL CHANGE
 Organism theory
 No dynasty lasts more than 3 generations
 Cycle of change complete
 Growth, development and decay
 Every stage has particular socio-economic and demographic charac.
 Within 3 generations , state goes through 5 stages of mulk(Political power)
1) Az-Zafar - success
2) Al-Istibdad – control
3) Al-firaj wa diah - leisure
4) Al qunu wa mulalmah – peace / contentment
5) Al-Israf wa Tabdhir – wasting

THE CONCEPT OF ASABIYAH
 Social solidarity, social cohesion
 Hadara vs Badawa community

THEORY OF CONSUMPTION
 Consumption patterns
 His theory of transition – explained phenomenon
 Ahlul Hadarah (Dwellers of Urban Communities) – comfort/lux
 The Ahwal get transformed into Awaid – affluence poverty and
social classes

THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE
 Labor source of all values
 2 types
 PRIMARY LABOR
 ADDITIONAL LABOR

AUGUST COMTE
 FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY
 During French revolution and civil wars
 MAJOR WORKS
 A general view of Positivism
 The Positive Philosophy

AS FATHER OF SOCIOLOGY
 Coined term sociology 1838
 Believed – scientific study like natural sciences
 Use empirical data to discover laws
 Term ALTRUISM – theoretical foundation
 Defined sociology “the science of social phenomenon subjected to
natural and invariable laws”

FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS
 It is abstract science
 Concerned with objective analysis
 Synthetic approach – knowledge of all fields
 Predictive in nature – based on past and present events
 Maintaining Social Order- Social Reconstruction

POSITIVISM
 Notion of applying scientific method of natural sciences to study
society
 The Scientific Explanation of Social Phenomenon

EVOLUTIONARY VIEW OF SOCIETY (Law of Human
Progress)
 Each of our leading conceptions, each branch of knowledge, all
human intellectual development passes successfully through 3
different theoretical conditions:
 1) theological
 2) Metaphysical
 3) Positive

1) Theological Stage (Fictitious stage)
 Understanding every phenomenon through supernatural
 Everything – because of involvement of super-natural entities -
Fetishism
 Fetishism gave way to Polytheism
 Polytheism – created confusion in primitive people
 Leads to Monotheism (advent of logical thinking)
 Such thinking supported military society
 Dominated by priests, monarchs and military men
 God was considered as head of hierarchy – rulers as vicegerants

2) Metaphysical Stage
 Imagination is replaced by rationalism
 Shapes human thinking to search for order
 Some Standards
 Political Organization – led by state and lawyers
 Replaced concept of divine rights

3) Positive Stage (Scientific)
 Laws of universe are explored & discovered
 Metaphysical thinking was replaced by scientific way of thinking
 Look for scientific explanation
 State is replaced by whole human race
 Political organization – held by scientific moral guides

SCIENTIFIC METHODS TO STUDY SOCIETY
1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Comparison – past and present – change
4. Historical analysis – law of human progress

ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY (Organism)
 Organized around concept of social static and Social Dynamic
 1) SOCIAL STATICS
 Study of social order and stability - social structure, parts,
functions and relations
 2) SOCIAL DYNAMICS
 Study of progress and change
 Changes in social structure over time

ON RELIGION
 Something irrational
 Not able to pass through scientific verification
 Secular – replace – sacred
 Religious beliefs will be replaced

 France
 Sociology as separate academic discipline
 FAMOUS WORKS
 The division of labor in society
 Suicide
 The Elementary form of Religious Life

SOCIAL FACTS
 Social Facts – patterned behavior that characterize and make up
social groups
 Subject of sociology – Study of social facts
 Social facts –studied by 2 methods
 1) Determine cause of social fact
 2) Method involved explaining its function

HOMO DUPLEX MODEL OF HUMAN NATURE
 Social Order – important function for survival of society
 Consider human nature to be barbaric, selfish, egoistic &
destructive

SOLIDARITY AND DIVISION OF LABOR IN SOCIETY
 A) MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY
 Primitive societies based upon collective conscience and
sameness
 Social cohesion was key
 Shared values and bonds
 Division of labor – low
 B) ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
 Division of labor – high – destroyed mechanical solidarity
 Modern economy – differentiation and specialization

ORGANISM

ANOMIE
 Given in 1857
 State of normlessness
 Key to tackle – by presenting concept of small groups – acts as
mediator btw individual and external structures

THEORY OF SUICIDE
 1897
 Rather than studying suicide as individualized behavior - Deep in sources of
order and disorder that were responsible for it
 Theory of Suicide – based on sociological account
 Suicide – socially patterned – consider suicide rates as social fact
 MAIN VARIATIONS
 Religion
 Family Association - single vs married – child vs childless
 War – rate declines
 Economic Recession and Boom – rate rose

Social Connections
2 types
1) Social Integration – association and attachment
2) Social Regulation – Degree of control and Regulation

Types of Suicide
1) EGOISTIC SUICIDE
 Low integration
 Disengaged
2) ANOMIC SUICIDE
 Low Regulation
 Behavior should be regulated for stability and order
3) ALTRUISTIC SUICDE
 High Integration with one’s group and society
 Group interest supersedes
4) FATALISTIC SUICDE
 High Regulation
 Oppress rights

DEVIANCE AND CRIME
 Crime and deviance – functional
 Contribute to the strengthening of norms
 Functions
 Helps re-establish ethical borders
 Social integration
 Bring Social change

THEORY OF RELIGION
 Religion – Cohesive system of beliefs and rituals
 Anything can become sacred
 Eg Black Stone
 Things set apart as sacred called Totem

INTRODUCTION
 German
 Allama Iqbal – “Man with a book but not a Prophet”
 Major Works
 The Holy Family
 The Communist Manifesto
 Das Kapita (The Capital)

DIAELECTICAL MATERIALISM
 Changes due to material life
 History is a process of conflict between incompatible forces
 Conflict result in new stage of development
 Changes due to economic system

MATERIALISTIC INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY
 History began when human started producing their means of
sibsistence
 Production – not isolated phenomenon
 To study history – study development of material
 Economy – Foundation of society – rest is substructure

THE HISTORICAL PROGRESSION
1. PRIMITIVE COMMUNISM
- No contradictions found – communally owned
2. SLAVERY
-contradictions started
-slaves-privately owned – becomes mode of production (minimum revenue to stay alive)
3. FEUDALISM
-with agriculture (mode of production)
-land (Mean of production)
4. CAPITALISM
-Labor became main commodity – inequality at peak
5. SOCIALISM
- classless society
-no private property
-redistribute means among masses
6. COMMUNISM
- ideal
- no concept of state

ALIENATION
 Sense of powerlessness, isolation and meaninglessness
 Alienation starts in Capitalism
 Product of labor is appropriated by someone who has not actually produced it – CAPITALIST
 FOUR MANIFESTATION
a) Alienation from Product
b) Alienation from act of production
c) Alienation from human nature (not using)
d) Alienation from other workers (market enterprise)
- Alienation leads to dehumanization and depreciation of human being
- Solution – Socialism

THEORY OF SOCIAL CLASS
 Class is determined by social position that a person holds in
economic organization
 2 classes – domination and subordination
 TWO-CLASS MODEL – explain exploitative relations in capitalist
society
 Bourgeoisie and Proletariat

THEORY OF LABOUR AND SURPLUS VALUE
 Marx believed – Labor is value
 All commodities – labor time invested- determine its market value
 Raw material =50/=
 4 hours invested = 2500/=
 Marx – workers should be given 2000 (500/hr)
 Reality ???

VIEWS ON RELIGION
 Tool of exploitation – impedes social change
 Relieved the pain caused by exploitation and oppression thus
making people habitual of such system
 Religious does little to solve the problems rather it makes them
bearable by justifying the social order

 Marx Famous Slogan “ Workers of the world unite, you have
nothing to lose but your chains”
 Guiding force for many communist organization

INTRODUCTION
 ENGLAND
 English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and sociologist
 originated the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined
in Principles of Biology - Influenced national policies
 FAMOUS WORKS
 The study of Sociology
 Principles of Ethics
 The Man vs. The State

ORGANICISM
 Outlined various similarities and differences between organisms
and society
 Similarities – visible growth, disease, smaller units, structure &
Function, change, interdependence
 Differences – no physical structure, systems are independent,
consciousness diffused in society (not concentrated)

EVOLUTION AND SOCIAL DRAWINISM
 Concept of evolution
 The Evolutionary Theory by Darwin Species who best adapted to
change – survive
 Spencer applied this to society – called SOCIAL DRAWINISM
 Societies from simple to complex , from homogeneous to
heterogeneous
 Speculated – successful evolution required autonomy in all aspects
 Strengthened by thought of Adam Smith – success of market was
subjected to autonomy

 Spencer believed that it was natural for the strong to survive
at the cost of the weak

MILITANT VS INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 2 types of societies
 One simpler (militant) and one more complex and evolved
(Industrial)
 Militant societies supposedly evolved into industrial ones over
times and social evolution
 MILITANT SOCIETIES – structured around a social relationship of
hierarchy and obedience
 INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES – based on voluntary, contractually
assumed obligations

MILITANT VS INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 Militant societies tend to be dominated by regulated system
whereas industrial societies are characterized more highly
developed sustaining systems
 Militant – offensive and defensive warfare
 Industrial – concerned with production and wellbeing

 German sociologist, historian, jurist, and political economist who
is regarded as among the most important theorists of the
development of modern Western society
 FAMOUS WRITINGS
 Economy and society
 Sociology of Religion

ON SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL ACTION
 SOCIOLOGY “ A science which attempt the interpretive
understanding of social action, in order to arrive at an explanation
of its causes and effects”
 Emphasize Subjective meaning that individual attach to their
interaction

Concept of VERSTEHEN
 Concept of VERSTEHEN – German- means Understanding
 Understanding human action by studying the subjective meaning
that individual attach to their behavior and interaction
 Divided Verstehen into 2 types
 1) AKTULLES VERSTEHEN – understanding – Direct Observation
 2) ERKLARENDES VERSTEHEN – understanding inherent meaning
by looking at motives that directed action

Types of social action
1) Instrumental Rational Action – efficient method to achieve goal
(Max Profit)
2) Value Rational Action – choose rational way in relation to some
irrational value (Zakat Value, cannot be observed)
3) Traditional Action – customary action, irrational (People accept
son of prince is prince)
4) Effectual Action – involves emotional aspects and lacks
connection to any specific goal

ON RELIGION
 Unlike others
 Religion in many instances become agent of Social Change

BUREAUCRACY
 One of the best manifestation of rational organization
 Bureaucracy “ Hierarchical organizational designed rationally to
coordinate the work of many individuals in the pursuit of large
scale administrative tasks and organizational tasks”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy
1) Official Duties – clearly defined tasks
-complex tasks are broken down into specialized parts
2) Hierarchy
3) Rules and Regulations
4) Impersonality – no place for emotions and sentiments - guided
by formal Rules
5) Technical Expertise
6) Separation of Private & Personal

Weber’s Criticism on Bureaucracy
 IRON CAGE
 Limitation on Human Freedom, creativity, innovation, and
naturalness
 Impersonality – making humans as professionals with no soul
 Machines
 Potential to create alienation and dehumanization

POWER AND AUTHORITY
 POWER – involves achievement of desired goal despite opposition
 Short-lived
 Should be converted into authority
 Types of Authorities
1) Traditional Authority
- Pre-industrial – power on basis of established traditions and cultural patterns
- Pakistan –few families (caste sys)
- Patriarchy
2) Rational – Legal Authority
- Modern Rational Authority
- Power on basis of impersonal rules & regulations
- Authority issues order and other follows
3) Charismatic Authority
-individualistic in nature
Hitler, Quaid-e-Azam, Martin Luther King

RELIGION
 Distinction between Prophet and Priest
 Priest – part of elite justifying status quo
 Prophet – Lower or middle class , confronts the status quo
- Reformation
 When Priesthood becomes oppressive, a Prophet emerges

 American
 Influenced by work of Durkheim, Max Weber
 Sociological theory should revolve around external institutional
structure rather than internal personality motivations
 Famous Writing
 The Structure of Social Action
 Economy and Society

SOCIAL ORDER
 Searching for factors that maintained social order
 Only a shared and voluntary commitment to values could provide
foundation for social order
 Shared Identity – Commitment –provide foundation for social
order

FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES (AGIL SCHEME)
 Any social system must achieve 4 Functional prerequisites
 Problems to which a society must find a solution for its stability
 Possible through development of specific institutions (stable & Ordered)
 Adaption
- system maintain some level of control – fulfill needs
- ECONOMY to fulfill food and shelter
 Goal Attainment – society has a need to set few goals
- devise means to achieve them
- Institution POLITICS
 Integration – Way to adjust conflict for survival
-btw individuals or institutes
- Institution LAW/JUDICIARY
 Latency (Pattern Maintenance)
-for smooth functioning
-necessary Basic Pattern of values is maintained
- Institution FAMILY, EDUCATION, RELIGION

PATTERN VARIABLES AND EVOLUTION
 Evolutionary Doctrine
 From Simple form to Complex one
 Started from Economic Determinism - Economic change
∝
 Switched to Cultural Determinism – changes in values
 Evolve to complex form – modern values
 Identified 2 categories of Pattern Variables A & B
 A – values of simple societies
 B - values of complex societies

Introduction
 A social situation that affects or is thought to be affecting a significant
number of people.
 What society considers as problem can differ from one place to another
 E.g: Child Labor – Problem or Economic Resource
 Social Problem can cause another
 Lack of Political Stability – violence, economic distress, inflation,
corruption and inequality

 The systematic study of human population related to its size,
composition, growth and mobility – Demography

THEORIES
 MALTHUSIAN THEORY
- Increasing Pop ∝ Social disorganization and food shortage
- Population Increasing geometrically (constant rate) whereas food production
following arithmetic method (constant amount)
 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY
- Population growth depends on Technological Development
- increase during industrialization –more food, better tech
- However – increase in dual working families - soon decline
 BOSERUP THEORY
-Pop growth –positive
-made man more innovative

DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION GROWTH
 Decline in Mortality Rate
 High Fertility Rate
 Illiteracy and unawareness
 Polygyny (for male child)
 Early Marriages
 Consecutive Pregnancies (min gap 3 years)
 Cultural Beliefs
 Migration (Afg)

CONSEQUENCE OF POPULATION GROWTH
 Effects on Economy (consumption – imports)
 Low Standard of living (cheap highly skilled labor)
 Strain on Natural Resources (Agr Land? Homes)
 Environmental Degradation (sewage, industrial waste)
 Low availability of services (transport, health, education)
 Social Problems

REMEDIES
 Literacy ( -Ve outcome –multiple pregnancies, early marriages)
 Women participation in Workforce
 Taking Religious Scholars on Board
 Media Campaigns
 Encouraging Contraceptives
 Efficient Training of LHWs

INTRODUCTION
 Geographic movement of people across a specific border
 Migration – either increase /decrease population
 Migration – considered as agent of cultural evolution (bring own)
 Also raise social conflict

THEORIES
 RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
- Migrants (Rational beings) calculate cost & benefit
- for higher net return over time horizon
 THE NEW ECONOMICS THEORY
- to increase income and privilages
 LEE’S PUSH AND PULL MODEL
- Migration is affected by push factors at area of origion
- Pull factors at area of destination

DETERMINANTS
 Employment Opportunities
 Better Services (health, sanitation, education)
 Personal Growth
 Technological Changes (Agriculture revolutionized – machines –
people to move)
 Education
 High Fertility – no employment opp – young member migrate – for
sharing burden

DISADVANTAGES
 Increase in Crime Rate
 Housing issues ( owners increasing price – demand)
 Congestion (chances of epidemics & diseases)
 Environmental degradation
 Impersonality

REMEDIES
 Increasing Employment Opportunities
 By improving services infrastructure
 Shifting Industrial Sector near Rural Areas

INTRODUCTION
 Maintaining social order and establishing ways to achieve social
regulation - primary goals of society
 DEVIANT – People who do not follow established patterns or
challenge them

THEORIES
 CLASSICAL APPLICATION
- Maximize Pleasure & Avoid Pain
- Control ? Fear of punishment
 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
- DURKHIEM – Crime as functional
 SOCIAL CONFLICT
- laws are shaped by powerful
 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
- Deviance does not depend on actions, rather it depends upon reactions
- how people react to particular action

DETERMINANTS
 Low Education (less opp, choose illegitimate ways)
 Absence of Parental Regulation
 Poor Economic Condition
 Easy Access to sexually explicit content
 Peer influence
 Prison Environment
 Property Disputes

REMEDIES
 Depoliticizing police
 Provide employment opportunities
 Efficient judicial system
 Uniform application of law

INTRODUCTION
 Percentage of people who are currently not working but are
available to work and are in search of work

THEORIES
 MARXIST THEORY
- Arising out of capitalism
- Phases of extension raise employment rate
- Phases of crisis result in unemployment
 SOCIAL DARWINISM
- unemployed - not actually fit to survive
- arena of competition

DETERMINANTS
 Law and Order
 Political Victimization (industrial elites shifting their business)
 Population growth
 Education ( supply of graduates)
 Inflation (price – demand decreases)
 Energy Crisis
 Age of Retirement

REMEDIES
 Providing Benefits to small enterprises
 Ending Trust deficit with industrial sector
 Investment in Agricultural sector
 Intervention in Educational System ( stop saturating market)
 Decrease Population growth rate

INTRODUCTION
 Offering and selling of sexual services to someone in exchange of
money
 Symbol of moral collapse
 Known as world’s oldest occupation - strengthened during middle
ages in Europe – legalized and taxes were imposed on brothels
 Red Light – emerged from USA after Civil war – reconstruction
period

THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING
- consider it as functional – performs many latent functions
- income, substitute for unsatisfied, option for unmarried
- keeps divorce rate lower
 SOCIAL CONFLICT
- Result of social inequality
-mostly involves poor women
- Feminism consider patriarchy responsible – sees as sex object
 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
- focuses on meaning that society attached
- society attaches stigma – recluses them from mainstream

DETERMINANTS
 Monetary Issues
 Drug Addiction
 Forced Rape ( not accepted for marriage)
 Deceit by a Lover
 Kidnapping

INTRODUCTION
 Biggest hindrance in development of societies
 Bring challenges like deprivation, crime, suicide, drug abuse, and
illiteracy
 Social Phenomenon – certain groups/sections of society are
incapable to acquire even basis necessities of life

THEORIES
 SOCIAL DARWINISM
 OSCAR LEWI’S “CULTURE OF POVERTY”
 DAVIS AND MOORE THESIS
- Income differential between the rich and the poor is simply the
ability of rich people to efficiently secure the resources through
hard work and skill utilization

DETERMINANTS
 Poor Governance (low confidence of investors)
 Political Instability (changing policies) high spending on defense
 Illiteracy (less educated – low jobs)
 Lack of Transparency
 Corruption
 Increasing Imports
 Population
Growth

INTRODUCTION
 Any physical, emotional, and sexual abrasive act in addition to
neglectful attitude by parents, guardians or any other person
 Physical Abuse
 Verbal Abuse
 Emotional Abuse (strict supervision / locking child)
 Neglect
 Discrimination (Inferiority complex)
 Sexual Abuse

THEORIES
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
- children who face abuse or observe it are more likely to abuse others in future
- called Learned Aggression or Cycle of Violence
 ATTACHMENT THEORY
- weak and insecure attachment between parents and children
- feelings of incompetence, unworthiness, threat, rejection, fear
 INVESTMENT THEORY
- Parents –less likely to invest time and resources
-belief cost outweighs benefits
-most common for mentally/physical challenged children

KASUR SCANDAL
 2006-2015
 Hussain Khanwala Village of District Kasur
 300 + male and female –forced
 Clips sold – child pornographic websites
 Media reported –police, bureaucratic and political figures behind
 Formation of Joint Investigation Team – no significant outcome

INTRODUCTION
 About half of the population
 GGGI by WEF– 153/156 (iraq, afg, yemen)
 152 – economic part
 144 – education attainment
 153 – H &S
 98 – political empowerment

THEORIES
- TALCOTT PARSONS – Gender inequality –functional
- society divides role that were complementary
 SOCIAL CONFLICT
-Wealth and valuable resources are held by men which further
leads to subservient position of women
 FEMINISM
- SOT emphasizes equal rights and opportunities

TRADITIONS AFFECTING WOMEN IN PAKISTAN
 Economic dependence
 Stereotypes
 Honour Killing
 Marriage to Quran
 Illiteracy
 Walwar
 Child Marriage

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PAKISTAN
 Dowry
 Acid Throwing
 Domestic Violence

INTRODUCTION
 Education – fundamental human right and for socio-economic
progress

DETERMINANTS
 Corporal Punishment
 Cultural Factors
 Parental Illiteracy
 Poverty
 Accessibility
 Unemployment
 Promotion to next class
 Early age marriages

REMEDIES
 Increasing Scholarships
 Raising Awareness
 Strengthening Co-curriculum activities
 Ending corporal punishment
 Teacher Absenteeism

Sociology Class Lecture all for sociology notes class

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