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Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson
Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J.
Watson Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Tony J. Watson
ISBN(s): 9780203928479, 0203928474
Edition: 5
File Details: PDF, 3.87 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson
Sociology,Work and Industry
This popular text explains and justifies the use of sociological imagi-
nation to understand the nature of institutions of work, occupations,
organisations, management and employment and how they are
changing in the twenty-first century.
With outstanding breadth of coverage it provides an authoritative
overview of both traditional and emergent themes in the sociological
study of work; explains the basic logic of sociological analysis of work
and work-related institutions; and provides an appreciation of
different theoretical traditions. It fully considers:
• the direction and implications of trends in technological change,
globalisation, labour markets, work organisation, managerial
practices and employment relations;
• the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing
patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing
experiences of individuals and families;
• the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own
contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work
institutions.
New features include an easy-to-read, fully signposted layout, key
issue questions, snapshot case studies, chapter summaries and a
companion website which contains useful resources (for students and
teachers). All of these elements – and much more – provide you with
a text unrivalled in the field.
Tony J. Watson is Professor of Organisational Behaviour in the
Nottingham University Business School, University of Nottingham.
Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson
Sociology,Work
and Industry
Fifth edition
Tony J.Watson
First edition published 1980
Second edition published 1987
by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd
Reprinted 1988, 1991, 1993 and 1995
Third edition 1995
Fourth edition published 2003 by Routledge
Reprinted 2004, 2005, 2006
Fifth edition 2008 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1980, 1987, 1995, 2003, 2008 Tony J. Watson
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Watson, Tony J.
Sociology, work and industry/Tony J. Watson. — 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Industrial sociology. I. Title.
HD6955.W38 2008
306.3—dc22 2007041893
ISBN10: 0-415-43554-4 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0-415-43555-2 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0-203-92847-4 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-43554-3 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-43555-0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-92847-9 (ebk)
iv
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
ISBN 0-203-92847-4 Master e-book ISBN
List of figures, tables and snapshots xi
Introduction xv
1 Studying work and society 1
People, work and society 1
Thinking about work sociologically 4
Choices, constraints and opportunities in work and society 4
Work and the sociological imagination 7
Sociology, critique and democratic debate about work 9
Sociology and the emergence of industrial societies 10
The continuing challenge 12
Sociology and the informing of democratic choices about
work 13
Sociology and the future of work 14
Researching and theorising work patterns and experiences 16
Sociology as science 16
Theory, work and society 17
A range of research methods 18
Methodological assumptions 20
Coping with the variety of orientation in the sociology of work
and industry 24
2 The sociological analysis of work and industry 29
Six strands of thought in the sociology of work 29
The managerial-psychologistic strand 31
Scientific management 31
Psychological humanism 33
Discussion 36
The Durkheim-systems strand 37
Emile Durkheim 38
Human relations and the Hawthorne studies 40
v
Contents
Contents
Systems thinking in industrial sociology 44
Corporate cultures 45
Discussion 46
The interactionist strand 47
The Chicago school and symbolic interactionism 48
Organisations as negotiated orders 49
Ethnomethodology 50
Discussion 52
The Weber-interpretivist strand 53
Max Weber 53
Orientations to work 56
Institutional theories of organisation and the social construction
of reality 57
Discussion 59
The Marxian strand 60
Marx and Engels 60
Marxian industrial sociology and labour process analysis 62
Discussion 64
The poststructuralist strand and postmodernism 66
Postmodernism 66
Poststructuralist labour process thinking, Foucault, discourse
and human subjectivity 67
Discussion 69
Towards a language-sensitive but not language-centred
sociology of work and organisation 70
3 Work, society and globalisation 74
The nature of modern societies 74
The emergence of industrial capitalism 77
From feudalism to capitalism 77
Protestantism and the spirit of capitalism 79
Social groups and the rise of industrialism 82
Industrialisation and the changing division of labour 84
Technology, science and social change 87
Industrial capitalism: change and transition 90
Post-industrialism and the information society 90
Post-Fordism 92
Flexible specialisation 94
Postmodernity 95
McDonaldisation and the blurring of the manufacturing–
service distinction 96
Globalisation in perspective 99
CONTENTS
vi
4 Work organisations 107
The organisational principle of work structuring 107
The nature of work organisations 109
Official and unofficial aspects of organisations 112
Organisational structures and cultures 115
Official structure and culture: basic organisational design principles 119
Bureaucracy 120
Classical administrative principles 123
Taylorism and Fordism 123
The limits of bureaucracy and the paradox of consequences 125
The virtues of bureaucracy, virtual organisations and the fantasy
of the post-bureaucratic organisation 128
Contingency and choice in the shaping of organisational
structures and cultures 131
Micropolitics, careers and unofficial management practices 134
Vertical aspects of micropolitics 136
Horizontal aspects of micropolitics 139
Unofficial practices and bureaucratic dysfunctions 141
Ambiguity and decision processes 143
5 The changing organisation and control of
work 147
Work restructuring and the logic of corporate management 147
The logic of corporate management 149
Choice and circumstance in the shaping of employment or ‘human
resourcing’ practices 152
Labour processes and employment practice options 153
HRM and the choice between ‘high commitment’ and ‘low
commitment’ human resourcing strategies 155
The pursuit of flexibility and direct and indirect managerial
control options 159
The pursuit of flexibility and new work control practices 161
Teamworking and control 162
Lean production and process re-engineering 165
Change and continuity in HR strategies and work practices 167
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) and control 168
Culture management and worker subjectivity 172
6 Occupations, inequality and varieties of work 176
The occupational principle of work structuring 176
Occupational structure, class, status and inequality 180
Locating an occupation in the class structure 183
Ownership, control and the class location of managers 185
Status and the ‘first line manager’ 187
CONTENTS
vii
Status and dirty work 189
Labour market segmentation and non-standard employment 190
Part-time and temporary work 191
Home and teleworking 192
Work outside employment 194
Self-employment 194
Paid work in the informal economy 196
Domestic work 197
Voluntary work 200
Gender and inequality 201
Changing historical patterns 201
Contemporary patterns 202
Explaining patterns 207
Ethnicity and inequality 210
Occupational socialisation and recruitment 211
Occupational careers 214
Occupational identity, culture and ideology 215
Occupational communities 218
Professionalisation and occupational strategies 219
7 Work experiences, identities and meanings 226
Work, meaning and culture 226
Entering work 230
Choice and opportunity structures 230
Class, family and educational influences 232
Work and satisfaction 233
Technology, work experience and alienation 236
Work orientations: variations, dynamics and the negotiation
of implicit contracts 239
Dynamic work orientations and changing worker priorities 241
Dynamic work orientations and the negotiation of implicit
contracts 244
Patterns of work orientation and experience within the
organisational hierarchy 247
Women’s preferences, choices and work orientations 248
Identity, discourse and work experience 251
Identity, discourse and identity work 251
Portfolio and ‘boundaryless’ careers or ‘one dead end job
after another’ 256
Managerial orientations and experiences 259
Anxiety, emotion and sexuality at work 261
Angst in the human condition generally and in managerial
work specifically 261
The rise of the stress discourse 262
Emotions and feelings 262
CONTENTS
viii
Emotional labour, emotion management and aesthetic
labour 264
Sexuality and the workplace 266
Work and non-working lives 268
Work, leisure and work–life balance 268
Unemployment 271
8 Conflict, resistance and misbehaviour in work 275
Conflict and cooperation at work 275
Analysing conflict at work 279
Frames of reference 279
Unitary thinking 279
Pluralist analyses 280
Radical perspectives 281
Contradictions and conflicts 282
Effort bargains, fragile implicit contracts and the inevitability
of grievances 287
The mobilisation of interests 290
Coalitions and interests 290
Trade unions and collective bargaining 291
Changing patterns of employer–union relations 293
Shop stewards and workplace representation 296
Job control strategies and ‘making out’ 297
Adjustment, resistance and organisational mischief 299
Accommodation, subjectivity and values 301
Withdrawal, instrumentalism and the management of
boredom 302
Humour at work 305
Bullying and sexual harassment 308
Cheating, fiddling and breaking things 309
Rule manipulation 312
Service work and defence of self 313
Concept guide and glossary 316
Bibliography 335
Author index 379
Subject index 386
CONTENTS
ix
Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson
Figures
1.1 Individuals make society and society makes individuals 6
2.1 The capitalist mode of production 61
4.1 Official and unofficial aspects of organisations in their societal
context 116
4.2 Contingencies and managerial choices in shaping organisational
structures and cultures 134
5.1 Choices and constraints in the shaping of organisational human
resourcing practices 157
7.1 Factors influencing the individual’s approach to work 231
7.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic work satisfactions: a continuum 235
7.3 Blauner’s ‘inverted U curve’ relating alienation and technology 238
7.4 The individual’s perceived implicit contract at the centre of their
work orientation 244
7.5 Two ideal types of relationship between individual and employing
organisation (seen as two ends of various continuums related to
the hierarchical structure of organisation) 248
8.1 The implicit contract between employer and employee in its
societal and economic context 290
Tables
1.1 Realist and interpretivist social science methodologies 22
1.2 How the six strands of thought to be considered in Chapter 2
bring different emphases to the six focal areas of the sociology
of work and industry covered in Chapters 3 to 8 26
2.1 Six strands of thought in the sociology of work and industry 30
3.1 Tönnies’ notion of a transition from community to association 78
5.1 Two ideal type human resourcing strategies 156
5.2 Direct and indirect approaches in the pursuit of managerial control 159
5.3 Direct and indirect work design principles 160
7.1 Human identity, self-identity, social-identities and identity work 252
xi
Figures, tables
and snapshots
Figures, tables
and snapshots
Snapshots
1.1 Two people arriving at work: a simple case of thinking
sociologically 5
1.2 The personal troubles of Mathieu and Valerie 8
1.3 Designing a study of call centres: making use of a variety of
techniques 19
1.4 Three proposed studies of the relationship between people’s age
and experience of work 23
2.1 ‘The hierarchy of needs theory doesn’t stack up, does it?’ 35
2.2 Her mind turned to Suicide: social solidarity and anomie in two
organisational departments 39
2.3 Of rate busters and sociology tutorials 42
2.4 Connecting sex work, in particular, to service work generally 50
2.5 Putting ethnomethodology and ‘negotiated order’ to work on a
factory yard 51
2.6 John’s changing orientation to work 57
2.7 Jean learns a sociological lesson – the hard way 65
2.8 The life of Janet: discourses as constraining and enabling 72
3.1 The Lunar Society of Birmingham 83
3.2 Violin-making in Poterton 86
3.3 ‘The computer won’t let me do my job’ 89
3.4 Max and Samantha debate globalisation 100
4.1 Herding cats at Barkermills? 111
4.2 Mutual influences of official and unofficial practices at Barkermills 115
4.3 Official and unofficial structures at Begley’s Foods 117
4.4 Official and unofficial culture at Begley’s Foods 117
4.5 Some cultural features of Begley’s Foods 119
4.6 The rationalisation and bureaucratisation of the Merryton Echo 122
4.7 Melkins’ own ‘bureaucratic personality’ and the broken cricket bat 127
4.8 Marketing at Melkins: a means to business success or an end in
itself? 128
4.9 Hitting the targets and endangering Melkins’ future 128
4.10 Contingencies, underwear and the fight for survival 135
4.11 The narrowing ladder in the Ministry of Technology 137
4.12 The very model of a modern moral manager 138
4.13 Indulging the team 142
4.14 The union committee decision bin 144
5.1 Keeping the Liffatec show on the road? 152
5.2 HR strategy-making at Liffatec 158
5.3 Two types of flexibility in a telecommunications company 160
5.4 Coal and organisational choice: a classic study 163
5.5 Upgrading work in the Viewfields call centre 171
6.1 ‘She does something in the council offices’ 178
6.2 Henry’s complaint 182
FIGURES, TABLES AND SNAPSHOTS
xii
6.3 Tom remembers an old song 189
6.4 Home workers in our village 193
6.5 Self-employed people in our village 195
6.6 Domestic work in Christopher and Christine Fellows’ home 200
6.7 Pamela volunteers 201
6.8 Bedtime stories 204
6.9 Gendered roles and the microwave oven 205
6.10 Women and men of the !Kung 208
6.11 The occupation of soldiering 216
6.12 Discursive ingenuity and the professional institute 224
7.1 Wei Lei reflects on ‘working hard’ 229
7.2 Three medical students talk about parental pressure 232
7.3 The meat worker and the stone mason compare their jobs 237
7.4 Four cases of change in work orientation 243
7.5 Mary’s new job and new implicit contract 245
7.6 Clive goes for a ‘win–win’ in his supermarket store 247
7.7 Michael reflects on who he is 253
7.8 Humiliation and indignity at the bottom of the heap in the USA 258
7.9 Stress and hardship at the bottom of the heap in the UK 259
7.10 Kelly, Joan and the difficult customer 263
7.11 Emotion management in a special care baby unit 265
7.12 Caitlin’s aesthetic and emotional labour 267
7.13 Heidi, Will and Evan and three relationships between work and
leisure 269
8.1 Working for Asif 276
8.2 Thomas watches the control-commitment pendulum swing
back and forth 287
8.3 Frank starts a fire 301
8.4 Scrimshaw scrimshanks 304
8.5 Humour among sex workers 306
8.6 Hawks, donkeys, wolves and vultures 311
8.7 Three types and levels of sabotage 311
8.8 Customer labelling in the fish and chip shop 314
FIGURES, TABLES AND SNAPSHOTS
xiii
Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson
It might appear to be a truism to use the term ‘continuity and change’
when writing about work in contemporary societies and in peoples’ lives.
But, as other authors concerned with these issues recognise (Edgell 2006;
Williams 2007, to take just two examples) the expression is more than a
cliché. There are significant changes occurring across work organisations,
occupations and the global division of labour which affect the lives of
practically every living person, whether their main involvement with work
occurs in the office, the factory, the shop, the school, the home or wherever.
Yet many of the key features of contemporary work structures and processes
are those which took their distinctive shape within the industrialising and
modernising processes of past centuries. Sociology emerged as an intel-
lectual way of coming to terms with those changes and Sociology, Work and
Industry is based on the premise that the sociological discipline continues
to be a vital resource for anyone wishing to appreciate what is happening
to work, industrialised societies and people’s experience of work (or, indeed,
the lack of it).
Two further premises follow from this initial one. First, it is assumed that
we can appreciate neither the continuities nor the changes in work unless
we set in their historical context both the work-related social institutions
themselves and the sociological concepts, theories and research which have
been used to understand them. This means that an effective text must
present and explain what we might call the ‘classical’ ideas and research
studies of the sociology of work which emerged in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries as well as being fully ‘up to date’ with insightful and
productive new ways of thinking. Second, it is believed that for sociology
to fulfil its potential for informing our relationship to work it must avoid
going too far with its own division of labour and leaving us with separate
‘subjects’ like organisation theory, sociologies of occupations, professions
and work-experience, employment relations and so on. In such a deep and
broad endeavour as that of studying ‘work’, these tendencies are inevitable
xv
Introduction
Introduction
and they are often fruitful. But it is vital that we have at least one text
which crosses and integrates themes which run through these subjects.
This is where Sociology, Work and Industry fits into the division of labour.
The fact that the text is now appearing in a new edition, after four earlier
and successful versions, suggests that it is meeting a significant need. And
the fifth edition does more than simply update the research and thinking
that appeared in earlier versions of the book. It has been developed to
strengthen both its integrative purpose and its concern to relate sociological
thinking to the lives of its readers. Hence two of the new ‘devices’ of the
fifth edition. The ‘snapshot’ illustrative cases are designed to bring alive the
more abstract academic reflections of the main text (drawing on a variety
of sources, varying from the author’s own research work and personal
experiences to published studies of other researchers). The signpost or
‘linking’ system might, at first sight, look like little more than a fancy
form of cross-referencing. But it is much more than this. It allows us to
come to terms with the fact that many themes run across and through the
various chapters. And it also makes it possible for the reader or student to
enter the text at whichever point best suits them or their tutor. If the
focus of a module is, say, on work organisations or the management of
organisations, one could start with Chapter 4 or 5, allowing the signposts
to refer the reader back to relevant material from earlier chapters (on
‘rationalisation’ say) or forward to subsequent chapters (on worker
orientations, say).
A lot of work has gone into writing this book about work! But much of
that work has been a pleasure to undertake, as has the teaching and the
original research work which has been done alongside the preparation of
this edition. Reading, writing and doing sociology is an exciting and
rewarding activity. It is hoped that every reader of Sociology, Work and
Industry will, in their own way, find it rewarding to engage with. And it is
hoped that part of that reward will be an enhanced ability to come to terms
with, and to contribute to, the shaping of their work activities either in the
present or in the future.
INTRODUCTION
xvi
1
Studying work
and society
Studying work
and society
1
Key issues
• How can we most usefully differentiate ‘work’ from other human
activities and endeavours?
• What are the essential characteristics of a sociological way of thinking?
• How can we most helpfully think about ‘society’ and ‘societies’?
• What role has sociology played historically in understanding a changing
world and what role might it play in understanding both contemporary
issues and questions about the future of work?
• In what ways can sociology be understood to be a science?
• In what ways do sociologists use theories, adopt various research
methods and work with differing philosophical (or ‘methodological’)
assumptions?
• How can we cope with the variety of ways in which sociologists orient
themselves in their studies of work and work organisations?
People, work and society
Work is something in which everyone is involved in one way or another.
This applies to people across the whole world. And it has applied to the
human species across its whole history. People may work in their own small
field, growing food to keep themselves alive. They may work in an office
or a factory and, after a day working in an employer’s premises for a wage
or a salary, they may return to do their housework or to work in their garden.
Even those who do not themselves perform any of these labours are
nevertheless involved with work; as owners of land on which other people
work, as investors in industrial enterprises or as employers of servants. To
understand the way of life of people living in any kind of society we
therefore have to pay close attention to work activities and to the institu-
tions associated with those activities.
If we intend to study work activities and the institutions associated with
them systematically, we need to decide first just what we mean by ‘work’.
This is not a matter of producing a final and absolute definition of work.
Sociology, like all scientific and other forms of systematic study, proceeds
by deciding what is likely to be the most useful way of characterising the
topics being studied. Certain types of economic inquiry in a modern
industrialised society might best be conducted by defining work in terms
of task-based activities for which people are paid by an employer, client or
customer. However, this would exclude all those tasks that we refer to as
‘housework’ for example. This would be a serious omission given that, in
Brown’s (1997) words, ‘without the enormous volume and unremitting
cycle of domestic labour the formal economy of jobs and pay packets would
cease to function’.
It is argued by Pettinger et al. (2006) that feminists in the 1970s
crucially challenged traditional conceptual boundaries when they
‘questioned the taken-for-granted assumption that work undertaken in the
private sphere of the home was not “work”’. And Pettinger et al. (2006)
build on this new tradition to propose what they suggest might be a ‘new
sociology of work’. At the heart of this is Glucksmann’s notion of the ‘total
social organisation of labour’ (Glucksmann 1995, 2000). This involves
emphasising what Pettinger et al. (2006) call the ‘blurry line between work
and not-work’ and Glucksmann (2006) herself illustrates how far this
approach might be taken by proposing a ‘new’ area of study, that of
‘consumption work’. Sociologists traditionally put a boundary between
work and consumption but Glucksmann (2006) observes that engaging in
consumption practices ‘often relies on the “work” of knowledge acquisition
and learning specific practical skills, so raising the question of whether, or
in what sense, the acquisition of skills necessary to undertake consumption
constitutes work’. Although one can see the value of suggestions such as
Glucksmann’s one that ‘cooking and preparing meals could be a fruitful
example to investigate for a complex fusion of work, non-work and skill
acquisition’, we need to be careful. If we include in the scope of the
sociology of work all task-oriented activity in which effort is expended,
then we risk extending our study to such activities as walking across a room
to switch on a television set or packing a bag to take for a day on the beach.
We need a compromise that gives sufficient focus to our studies without
limiting them to activities with a formal economic outcome.
There are two main aspects of work that a sociological concept of work
needs to recognise. The first is the task-related aspect of work and the second
is the part played by work in the way people ‘make a living’.
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
2
Looking forward
Work which is done
outside the traditional
‘workplace’ is looked
at in Chapter 6 in
connection, for
example, with
domestic work
(p. 197) and work in
the informal economy
(p. 196).
Glucksmann’s notion
of the Total Social
Organization of
Labour is returned to
in Chapter 6 (p. 207).
➪➪➪➪➪
Work
The carrying out of tasks
which enable people to
make a living within the
social and economic
context in which they are
located.
This way of thinking about work associates it with the expenditure of
effort to carry out tasks but it limits it to something that has an economic
element – in the very broad sense of dealing with problems of survival in
a world of scarce resources. But the notion of ‘making a living’ implies
much more than just producing enough material goods to ensure physical
survival. People do not simply extract a living from the environment. Work
effectively transforms environments in many ways, and, in the process,
creates for many people a level of living far in excess of basic subsistence.
But it does more than this. It also relates intimately to how people shape
their very lives and identities. And people’s lives are significantly shaped
by the circumstances in which they have to work. The work people do
becomes closely bound up with their conception of self. In looking at how
people ‘make a living’ we are looking at how they deal with both the
economic and the social or cultural aspects of their lives.
Work is a social, economic and social phenomenon. It is not simply a
matter of behaviour. Work occurs in societies and, as with work, we have
to conceptualise society before we can examine systematically the role of
work in human societies.
Each society has its own set of economic and legal arrangements and
dominant values, and its members are often pressed to share a degree of
communality of identity. Each society also has its own pattern of power and
inequality. Precisely where each individual and family fits into that pattern
will be fundamental to how they experience work and how well they share
in whatever human benefits derive from the work carried out in that society.
Nevertheless, in spite of the fact that we typically identify societies with
nation states, it is vital to note that it is sometimes more realistic to talk
of, say, a ‘society’ of small farmers to be found in a remote part of a large
nation state such as India, and sometimes it is more helpful to think about,
say, managerial workers in ‘modern industrial capitalist society’ as opposed
to looking separately at the lives of British, Swedish or American managers.
There are significant patterns to be observed within and across nation states.
Thus, when we think about ‘society’ as the subject matter of the discipline
of sociology, it is wise to think of it broadly in terms of ‘the social’ in people’s
lives – ‘social’, that is, at the level of the larger patterns of culture,
community and political economy within which the smaller scale social
interactions and, indeed, individual efforts to ‘make a life’ and ‘make a
living’ occur. Sociological study looks at all these levels of human existence
but, as we shall now see, its characteristic feature is its relating of the small
scale, the local, the intimate in people’s lives to the bigger social scheme of
things – both within and across particular societies.
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
3
Society
The broad pattern of social,
economic, cultural and
political relationships within
which people lead their
lives, typically but not
exclusively, in the modern
world as members of the
same nation state.
Looking forward
The question of how
we deal with the
notion of ‘society’ in
the context of an
allegedly ‘globalising’
world is considered in
Chapter 3.
➪➪➪➪➪
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
4
Sociology
The study of the
relationships which develop
between human beings as
they organise themselves
and are organised by others
in societies and how these
patterns influence and are
influenced by the actions
and interactions of people
and how they make sense
of their lives and identities.
Thinking about work sociologically
Sociology provides us with a range of insights, concepts, theories and
research findings which help us understand the wide range of work and
work-related activities that occur in the context of the broader social and
cultural arrangements.
The defining characteristic of the sociological perspective is that it
ultimately relates whatever it studies back to the way society as a whole is organised.
The essential insight which sociology provides is that no social action, at
however mundane a level, takes place in a social vacuum. It is always linked
back to the wider culture, social structure and processes of the society in
which it takes place. These structures, processes, norms and values, with
all their related inequalities, ideologies and power distributions, are the
source of both constraints and opportunities which people meet in
conducting their lives. The better and more widely these cultures, struc-
tures and processes are understood and the better the connections between
specific actions or arrangements and these basic patterns are appreciated,
then the greater is the opportunity for the human control over work,
industry and every other kind of social institution.
Let us envisage trying to make sense, sociologically, of a simple piece of
‘everyday’ work-related human behaviour (Snapshot 1.1).
In analysing this simple piece of mundane activity in this way, we are
thinking sociologically. In asking these questions, we are asking socio-
logical questions. And, in doing so, we would be engaging with issues of
power and life-chances in a way that would not just enhance our ‘academic’
understanding of relationships at work but would, potentially, offer
understandings of possibilities and practices that could inform human
choices that might further – or, for that matter, resist – social change.
Choices, constraints and opportunities in work and society
Sociology’s potential as a resource for informing human choice is something
to which we will return shortly. First, however, we need to reinforce the
point about working arrangements and social patterns being both the
outcomes of human actions and factors helping shape those actions.
Sociology has been defined here as something that looks at how human
beings organise both themselves and each other. In looking at how people
think and behave, it looks for cultural patterns and ‘structures’ in social life.
These patterns are seen as both the outcome of the activities of individuals
and as things which, in turn, influence, encourage and constrain the
individual. If, for example, it was the man in Snapshot 1.1 who was the
more senior of our two social actors, he might tell us in an interview that
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
5
SNAPSHOT 1.1 Two people arriving at work: a simple case of thinking
sociologically
A man and a woman get out of a car and walk into an office block. One of them goes into a large private
office and closes the door. The other sits at a desk outside that office alongside several other people. The
person in the private space telephones the one in the outer office and a few minutes later the latter individual
takes a cup of coffee and a biscuit into the person in the inner office.
If we were viewing this scene as strangers to the work organisation, whether or not we were formally
trained as sociologists, we would be thinking about both the personal and the work relationship between
these people: were they a married couple, lovers or simply people sharing a lift to work? We would wonder
how this aspect of their relationship related to the authority relationship between them: presumably one
of them was ‘the boss’, was the more highly paid, the more highly trained, and had the right to give instructions
to the other. We would here be drawing on our knowledge of ‘sociological’ matters such as social class,
educational and career opportunity structures, bureaucratic authority structures, culturally normal patterns
of workplace layout and the patterns of behaviour, rules, assumptions and expectations associated with work
activities in this particular society and culture at this particular time in history.
If it were the man that entered the private office we might note that standard ‘norms’ were being
followed with regard to gender relationships. But if it were the woman who ‘played the role’ of the senior
person – the presumably higher paid, more qualified individual with greater authority – we might begin to
reflect on how this individual has come to challenge established patterns. How had she come to break
established norms? What opportunity structures had she used, what barriers had she overcome? To what
extent were her actions and her relatively unusual position in the workplace part of a broader pattern of
social change?
his current role as the organisation’s head of information technology was
the outcome of a series of choices that he personally made in his life. The
woman, to whom he gives a daily lift in his company car, might talk to us
about how she chose to train and work as an office secretary.
As sociological observers we would not want to discount these claims to
choice or ‘agency’ in these individuals’ career patterns. Nor would we say
that there were no individual choices behind the pattern whereby the great
majority of the important ‘decision-makers’ in this organisation are
currently men and most of the secretarial and ‘personal assistant’ workers
are women. Choices have clearly been made. Nobody forced these people
into these jobs. Each human individual is an agent, with wants, aspirations
and a sense of identity which they bring to any decision to speak or act. But,
at the same time, we are likely to be aware that the pattern we have observed
is, in some sense, an outcome of the way the ‘society’ in which these people
grew up channelled male and female children into different spheres of
activity. There were clearly pressures on each child from the world around
them: from role examples observed as they grew up to the opportunities
made available to boys and girls in both education and initial employment.
It is easily possible to see two mutually exclusive alternative types of
explanation emerging here: agency and choice on the one hand and
structural ‘channelling’ on the other. Sometimes sociologists talk of making
a choice between voluntarist and structural frames of reference and modern
sociological thought is characterised, says Swingewood (2000), ‘by a
continual tension between . . . a voluntarist model which emphasises the
creative and active role of agents, and a structural model which focuses on
institutions and processes which constrain and determine the course of
action’.
To use terms which have been around as long as there has been social
thought, we can speak of explanations which emphasise free will and
explanations which stress determinism. This is something that sociologists
try to go beyond. To develop an explanation of the patterns observed we
need an analysis which considers the way these individuals came to shape
their career interests and ‘choose’ their aspirations in the light of their
previous experiences in life and what they have learned from the cultural
and parental influences upon them to be the appropriate and possible types
of work for them to enter. There is an interweaving of individual and social
factors, of free choice and of constraint. We might simplify this, as Figure
1.1 does, by saying that individuals make society and society makes
individuals.
The analytical distinction between individual actions, on the one hand,
and ‘the social’ on the other does not fully parallel the free will and
determinism distinction, however, because it is possible to talk of an
individual’s actions being severely constrained, if not determined, by factors
such as their individual genetic make-up. Equally, it is possible to see social
structures as providing opportunities for individuals to realise their
individual interests (‘climbing the ladder’ of the class structure, say) as well
as seeing people constrained by such structures (being excluded from an
activity because of one’s gender or race, for example). Human beings are
makers of social patterns and are also made by them. These patterns both
constrain us and enable us to achieve our purposes. But these patterns or
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
6
Individual
actions
Social processes, cultures
and structures
Figure 1.1 Individuals
make society and society
makes individuals
Looking forward
Work organisations
are part of this
‘structural’ world and
precisely to what
extent organisations
‘exist’, apart from
the actions of people
involved in them, is
an important matter
which we look at
in Chapter 4
(pp. 109–12).
➪➪➪➪➪
‘structures’ are not objectively existing entities outside of human patterns
of interaction, even though it may at times feel as if they have this kind of
forceful presence.
Sociology is not simply the study of ‘the social’, of societies, of social
structures. Neither, of course, is it a study of individuals’ activities,
aggregated in some way to give us a view of societies as little more than
the sum of their parts. It is, rather, a study of the interrelationships between
the individual and the social whose greatest potential lies in examining
the processes whereby human initiatives and choices shape and are shaped
by patterns of human interaction and power.
Work and the sociological imagination
In one of the most influential considerations of what sociology can con-
tribute to human life, Mills (1970) identified the sociological imagination as
a way of switching ‘upwards’ from an initial focus on the private problems
of individuals. Such problems arise in the case of Mathieu and Valerie, who
face losing their jobs (Snapshot 1.2).
Although, as human beings, we are likely to be very concerned for
Valerie, Mathieu and for all the other families affected by this big business
decision, our distinctively sociological interests move us to a further level
of concern. The sociological perspective places human predicaments such
as these in their broader context. Mills (1970) characterised this broader
context as raising ‘public issues’ and this language immediately suggests
to us a range of matters such as the levels of employment and unemploy-
ment in the city, the quality of educational provision for young children in
this society and the nature of housing markets. These issues would require
us to draw on other social sciences in addition to sociology – economics in
particular. We would look at issues ranging from the state of the inter-
national market for manufactured goods and managerial, governmental
and trade union policies, to patterns of technological change and patterns
of business ownership. And within the analysis which we would undertake,
there is considerable potential for distinctly sociological matters such as
patterns of urban change, gender differences in careers and child-rearing,
class and power in business decision-making, the relationship between
work and personal identities, the impact of globalising trends on different
nation states and so on and so on.
Sociology, then, shifts the level of focus from that of the close-up on the
individual and their working life to that of the ‘big picture’ of the society
in which they live but sociology is not simply to do with ‘painting a
picture’, however broad that might be. It goes beyond this to look for
regularities, patterns, structures and processes. The events in Valerie and
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
7
Looking forward
A valuable context
in which to look at
the interplay to be
seen in social life
between ‘choice’
factors and structural
opportunity/constraint
factors is that of
people’s entry into
particular types of
work or occupation.
This is covered in the
‘Entering work’
section of Chapter 7
(pp. 230–3).
➪➪➪➪➪
Mathieu’s city will be set in their historical context and the overall structure
of the several societies involved – the industrial bases, the political-
economic systems of both eastern and western Europe and the ways in
which these fit into patterns of global change. In analysing these structures
and processes the sociologist would try to show how they potentially both
constrain people as well as enable people to further their personal wishes,
whether these people be corporate managers, politicians and trade union
officers or ‘ordinary’ employees like Mathieu and Valerie.
This distinctly sociological way of thinking means stepping outside our
normal ‘everyday’ commonsense way of thinking about our working lives
and adopting what is perhaps the most basic sociological insight of all;
that there is more than one way and one way only for men and women to
organise their lives. In other words, the way society is is not necessarily the
way society has to be. In the realm of work this means that the way we
currently organise production and distribution does not possess some
immutable inevitability. It is only one of a range of possibilities. Baumann
and May (2001) refer to sociology’s ability to help us appreciate its ‘anti-
fixating’ power. We are reminded, they say, that what we might think of
as the ‘natural, inevitable, eternal aspects of our lives’ have come into being
as a result of the exercise of ‘human power and human resources’. This, in
turn, suggests that social patterns are not ‘immune and impenetrable to
human action – our own action included’. A world that might have seemed
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
8
SNAPSHOT 1.2 The personal troubles of Mathieu and Valerie
Mathieu and Valerie are a couple in their thirties who have three young children, two at primary school and
one at nursery school. For the past dozen or so years, they have both done assembly work at a car factory
which, under a variety of owners, has been part of the industrial city in which they live for many years. The
current owners have decided to move all the work to a newly built factory in eastern Europe – arguing that
that the ‘cost patterns’ and the ‘potential for innovation’ in that setting make it imperative for them to cease
operating the city in which Valerie was born and into which Mathieu moved when he and Valerie first set
up home together. The first ‘personal trouble’ which confronts the couple is that of the large drop which
is likely to happen in their family income. Neither of them knows of alternative jobs in the city, which they
might investigate. They are distressed at the prospect of losing their heavily mortgaged home and they
worry that, even if they choose to sell the house, they will have serious difficulties because many other
redundant workers are likely to be putting their properties on the market at the same time. Also, if they are
able to move, whether within the city or beyond it, they are very worried about the children’s education.
They struggled to get the children into the schools in which they are currently very happy. They would hate
to take their children away from these schools and from the various friends and relatives that are such an
important part of the lives of the whole family. Valerie’s mother is seriously ill and . . .
‘oppressive in its apparent fixity’ is shown to be a world that could be
‘different from what it is now’. We are thus encouraged not to surrender to
what might, at first, seem to be irresistible pressures and circumstances.
The original sociologists were thinkers striving to make sense of the
dislocations of their age, as we shall shortly observe. The attempts by the
classical sociological thinkers to make sense of their time are invaluable
to us because, in an historical location more marginal than our own, they
were better able to look at the industrial capitalist world in the light of
conceptions of alternatives. This is the humanistic significance and
the continuing relevance to us today of people like Marx, Weber and
Durkheim. They were perhaps more aware of alternatives on a societal level
than we are because they were better placed historically to contrast the
modern and the industrial with the traditional, the urban with the rural,
and so on.
Sociology, critique and democratic debate about work
The sociological imagination requires us to suspend our everyday common-
sense assumptions about the world and, indeed, about the future of the
world. But it also means being wary of styles of intellectual analysis that
are more concerned with solving the problems of particular sections of
society than with developing an analysis that would be relevant to members
of society more generally. Jacques (1996) points out, for example, that many
of the attempts currently being made to theorise work relations are
producing their own kind of ‘commonsense’. At the heart of this is a
standard body of relatively unchanging US-created ‘management know-
ledge’ that takes for granted that the key ‘work’ issue is one of finding
better ways to manage employees to enable organisations to achieve high
productivity, international competitiveness and ‘world class efficiency’.
Questions are not asked about the nature and legitimacy of work
organisations or, for example, the role of non-managers in ‘managing’
work, in shaping ‘motivations’ or acting as social citizens within work
arrangements in which relationships are built and balanced. To ask these
questions, we might add, does not preclude an interesting issue of efficiency
and productivity but it does mean asking ‘efficiency and productivity in
whose interests?’
Tendencies in the sociology of work to play down the plurality of
interests at work have been powerfully criticised by Castillo (1999a). He
points to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a key purveyor (‘MIT
Productions Inc.’) of analyses which, in effect, betray the critical legacy
of sociology. He sees too many sociologists of work ‘penning pastoral
odes to just-in-time production, to composing night serenades to work
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
9
Looking forward
The elements of the
contemporary
sociology of work
which have their roots
in the thinking of
Marx, Weber
and Durkheim are
examined in
Chapter 2.
➪➪➪➪➪
commitment, almost Wagnerian symphonies to flexibility, or Mozartian
divertimenti to lean production and “high technology work districts”’. There
may be a degree of exaggeration in this attack. There is also perhaps a degree
of over-excitement in the polemic (leading to the mistaken idea that
Wagner composed symphonies) but, in Mills’ (1970) terms, the charge
here is that the ‘private’ problems of members of society generally are not
being related to broader ‘public issues’ in much of the contemporary social
scientific study of work institutions and practices. In effect, the issues are
less ‘public’ or democratic ones than issues for corporate, and especially
American, capitalist interests (cf. Hutton 2002).
In an address to the American Sociological Association, Burawoy (2004),
a distinguished sociologist of work, argued for a greater engagement of
sociology in public debates. This would entail harnessing sociology’s
‘longstanding critical imagination, reminding us that the world could be
different’. Burawoy (2004) draws here on Mills’ (1970) notion of the
sociological imagination, proposing that ‘as they turn private troubles into
public issues, public sociologies should challenge the world as we know it
exposing the gap between what is and what could be’. In the specific context
of the sociology of work and employment, Stewart (2004) connects the
notion of a public sociology to a recognition that there is ‘an ethical
dimension underlying our work’. This might, in turn, be connected, in
debates, to the ‘question[ing] of the hegemony of neo-liberalism and the need to
challenge it in our work whenever relevant’. Stewart (2004), in addition to
suggesting a critique of neo-liberal market-based political-economic
philosophies is particularly concerned, alongside Fevre (2003), to counter
the influence of what he refers to as ‘a range of actors obsessed with paying
court to management as consultants peddling the verities of, for example
. . . lean production and High Performance Work Systems’.
Sociology and the emergence of industrial societies
The sociological imagination requires a strong historical awareness. The
sociologist of contemporary work studying, for example, lean production
methods of high performance work systems is likely to consider these
practices in the context of the continuing history of industrialisation.
Sociology is itself a creature of the modern industrialised societies within
which it developed as a form of critical reflection on the considerable social
changes associated with industrialisation and the growth of capitalism.
Sociology emerged in the nineteenth century as both a reaction to and a
reflection of certain major social and cultural shifts which had been
occurring for some hundreds of years in Europe. For some centuries prior
to the emergence of sociology, the glue which held together the fabric of
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
10
Looking forward
High performance
work systems and
lean production are
some of the changing
aspects of work
design and control
that will be examined
in Chapter 5.
➪➪➪➪➪
European society, giving it stability and a widespread taken-for-granted-
ness, had been weakening:
• The Reformation in the sixteenth century saw a questioning of the
authority of a centralised Catholic Church and, with the emergence of
Protestantism and dissent, came a growing stress on the individual
rather than the corporate and the rational rather than the traditional.
• The Enlightenment in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
brought under rational and critical scrutiny institutions of religion,
inequality, kinship, property and monarchy.
• The Industrial and French Revolutions in the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries ensured that all of these institutions were further
shaken and indeed often overturned.
A bourgeois revolution occurred in England in 1688 limiting the power
of the monarchy and, in France, the monarchy was toppled. Notions of
democracy were becoming increasingly popular in the early decades of the
nineteenth century but the problem of finding appropriate institutions for
democratic politics was increased by the complications introduced by the
Industrial Revolution. Capitalism had been growing in strength for
centuries but by the early nineteenth century it had become combined with
an industrial spirit and associated techniques which carried revolutionary
structural implications. Arising partly within and partly from outside the
established bourgeois class was the new industrial middle class and,
even more threatening to stability, was the appearance of a new social
phenomenon – an industrial working class.
Some sense had to be made of these massive processes of change. How
could people come to terms with processes of urbanisation, indus-
trialisation, a growing division of labour, secularisation, bureaucratisation,
democratisation, national state centralisation and the rest? Sociology can
be seen as an intellectual coming to terms with these processes and as an
attempt to understand their impact.
The potential for a sociological way of coming to terms with these
changes had developed during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment
period, prior to the full emergence of sociology in the nineteenth century.
The scientific aspects of such a venture were implicit in the Enlightenment
and its characteristic belief that ‘people could comprehend and control the
universe by means of reason and empirical research’ (Ritzer 2000). But also
emerging in this period was the idea that human beings can be understood
only in the context of the whole society in which they live. This was an
insight that later sociologists were to take up from the eighteenth-century
writing of Giambattista Vico. It was also a key idea of the Scottish
Enlightenment, and two key figures in this – John Millar and Adam
Ferguson – examined changing patterns of work specialisation and division
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
11
of labour sociologically, stressing the social as well as the economic aspects
of these changes and identifying their implications, both positive and
negative, for human welfare and work experience (Swingewood 2000;
Herman 2001).
A near total breakdown in old assumptions about authority and social
order followed the Enlightenment and the Industrial and French
Revolutions, a breakdown which called for a reconstruction of the social
order. Piecemeal reconstruction was seen as inappropriate, according to
Fletcher (1971), when the ‘entire fabric of institutions was falling apart’ and
a need for a ‘body of knowledge about society as a totality of institutions’
became apparent. It was this need that the founders of sociology were to
try to meet. The key concepts or ‘unit ideas’ of sociology, Nisbet (1970)
argues, were all developed as part of an attempt to achieve a ‘theoretical
reconsolidation’ of the various elements on which social order had once
rested – kinship, land, social class, religion, local community and monarchy
– but which had now been ‘dislocated by revolution’ and ‘scrambled by
industrialisation and the forces of democracy’.
Sociologists, in this view, developed concepts like society and com-
munity to provide a consolidating or overarching perspective which would
counter the divisive, contradictory and individualistic tendencies of life in
this period of emerging modernism. The founders of sociology were
preoccupied with the analysis of industrialism and were engaged in creating
a ‘powerful vision or “image” of a society in the making’ (Kumar 1978) and,
says Giddens (1971), the overwhelming interest of Marx, Durkheim and
Weber was in the ‘delineation of the characteristic structure of modern
capitalism as contrasted with prior forms of society’. Contemporary
sociology has inherited this role and has ‘as its main focus the institutions
of “advanced” or “industrialised” societies, and of the conditions of trans-
formation of those institutions’ (Giddens 1982).
The continuing challenge
It could be argued that the twenty-first century presents us with challenges
of coming to terms with social and economic changes that are no less
significant than those faced by the creators of sociology almost two centuries
ago. Industrialisation continues apace, if unevenly, across the globe and
links between different areas and cultures are becoming closer and more
immediate with fast-developing information and communication tech-
nologies. It sometimes seems that there are few choices left to us about how
we live, at the level of the nation state let alone at the level of the local
community or family. Technology, international corporations and pressures
for capital accumulation sometimes seem to be pushing everyone towards
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
12
Looking forward
Chapter 3 focuses on
this question of how
we can best
characterise the types
of society in which we
currently live and
understand the
changes which are
occurring in those
societies.
➪➪➪➪➪
a globalised future within which some will be allocated rich, secure and
fulfilling lives at the expense of a mass of materially and experientially
impoverished insecure workers and an even more impoverished stratum of
economically inactive groups. At other times, we are encouraged to believe
that the best of all possible worlds is available to us all, if we take advantage
of the great opportunities both for challenging work and exciting recreation
made possible by the same technological, commercial and globalising
forces. Sociology has to bring us down to earth with regard to all of this. It
needs to analyse what is going on and help us make a balanced appraisal of
trends. Such analysis and insight can be a valuable resource, informing us
and encouraging us to think imaginatively about the alternatives and
choices facing us in all aspects of our lives, in our families, our communities
and the wider societies of which we are members. How we think about the
part that work is to play in our lives is necessarily central to this.
Sociology and the informing of democratic choices about work
What role, then, is suggested for the sociology of work and industry by the
above analysis? First, we must recognise that it implies a rejection of a role
like that criticised earlier by Stewart (2004) and Fevre (2003) (see p. 10)
where industrial sociologists function more or less as management
consultants. This relates to what has been called a ‘servant of power’ role.
Here, those trained as industrial sociologists would primarily be employed
as specialist human manipulators by large organisations in the way Baritz
(1960) saw beginning to happen in pre-war America where such people
were ‘doing what they were told to do and doing it well – and therefore
endangering those other personal, group, class and institutional interests
which were opposed to the further domination by the modern corporation
of the mood and direction of American life’. Sociological knowledge and
insights inevitably have a relevance to practical problem-solving in large
organisations and can be shown to help solve problems in certain relatively
bounded situations (Klein and Eason 1991; Klein 2005). One would be
naive and wrong to deny the right of any group to make use of knowledge
in this way. What can be objected to, however, is the exclusive development
of industrial sociology as a manipulative instrument for the pursuit of
sectional interests.
An alternative role for the sociology of work and industry would be as
a resource which helps those living in the industrial capitalist type of society
to understand better the possibilities and choices which exist with regard
to how work is organised and experienced in those societies. Its role is thus
to inform choice. Here, the subject is not the sole preserve of the expert –
be they ‘servants of power’ or marginalised academic teachers too hung up
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
13
on their naive political utopianism or too caught up in dense conceptual
mystification to be seen as worthy of attention by other than their own
acolytes. Instead, it is something to be disseminated through both formal
and informal educational institutions and communication media. It
becomes something in whose development the individual is first involved
as a student, and something which is subsequently drawn upon and further
engaged with in their later life and career as employees, managers, voting
citizens, trade unionists, self-employers or consumers. It is a resource vital
to a democratic society. Burns (1962) in discussing industrial sociology at
a time when it scarcely had a foothold in Britain argued that it is the
sociologist’s business ‘to conduct a critical debate . . . with the public about
its equipment of social institutions’. As Eldridge et al. (1991) said about
the role that industrial sociology might play in coming to terms with
economic and social issues emerging later in the twentieth century,
‘To show what possibilities may exist for political choices in an active
democracy is to exercise the sociological imagination’. Such an imagination
is as relevant as ever in the twenty-first century.
In the past, social thinkers were a tiny minority addressing a slightly
larger minority of the population. The modern age is one of vastly increased
literacy and access to schooling and communication media. This means
that critical reflection on the values and institutions of society need no
longer be the preserve of the privileged social philosopher or the dilettante
intellectual of a leisured class. An ability to be analytical about social,
economic and political issues can be developed in every citizen – this
furthering the ideal of democratic control of society and its institutions.
Institutions of work and industrial organisation are central to the very
nature of society and they nowadays require perhaps closer and more
rational scrutiny and rethinking than ever before. Sociology, as a science that
looks critically, rationally and systematically at aspects of our social lives,
has a great deal to offer.
Sociology and the future of work
Work institutions, organisations and processes are created by human beings
and are not the outcomes of immutable historical forces. Recognition of this
should make us cautious about associating the sociology of work with the
popular activity of making predictions about the ‘future of work’. Prediction
is often seen as a key aim of scientific research and theorising. But, until
recently, many of the predictions about the future of work have been
speculative, sometimes highly pessimistic and sometimes highly opti-
mistic. Handy (1994), beginning with his influential The Future of Work
(Handy 1984), put forward the notion of a revolutionary level of change in
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
14
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
15
the so-called emerging ‘knowledge economy’. This envisaged bureau-
cratically hierarchical work organisations being replaced by networks and
partnerships in which people would undertake a variety or ‘portfolio’ of jobs
instead of having a traditional career at a single employing organisation.
This flavour runs through a great deal of the writing on work’s future.
In optimistic versions of this kind of futurology we see visions like that
of Leadbeater (2000) in which we move into a world of rewardingly
cooperative, creative and socially useful work. On the pessimistic front, Beck
(2000), on the European side of the Atlantic, sees a world of growing
insecurity and risk, this being matched by the pessimism, on the American
side of the ocean, of Bridges (1995) and Rifkin (1995) who titled his book
The End of Work. However, all of these ‘grand narratives’, as Nolan and Wood
(2003) call them, are produced with an ‘almost complete absence of any
grounded theory or systematic data’. This comment is made in the course
of explaining the importance of the major set of research projects funded in
the UK by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) under the
‘Future of Work’ banner. Rigorous examination of trends that were actually
emerging has been undertaken to provide a ‘check on the more extravagant
claims about the likely pattern of work in the twenty-first century’ (Nolan
and Wood 2003). As White et al. (2004) put it, this research asks the same
questions as the ‘gurus and futurologists’ and in their own contribution to
the broader project they follow the careful logic of closely examining the
detailed managerial ‘decisions being taken and plans being laid in a million
workplaces large and small . . . decisions and plans [which] will affect every
working person, and the families, over the next 5–10 years’. This is
sociological work which makes possible commentaries on the future of work
which are ‘firmly rooted in the evidence base’ rather than relying on
‘anecdotes and speculation’ (Moynagh and Worsley 2005).
Following a similarly cautious and critical overview of the range of
diverse writings on the future of work, Williams (2007) concludes that a
similar ‘storyline’ runs through them. Writers tend, first, to push eco-
nomic activities onto one side or the other of a dichotomy such as Fordist/
Post-Fordist, bureaucratic/post-bureaucratic, informal work/formal work.
Second, they identify a ‘one-dimensional linear trajectory’ towards an
‘-ation’ like ‘globalisation’, or an ‘-ism’ or a ‘post-something-or-other’ like
post-capitalism or post-bureaucracy. (Littlewood et al. (2004), in reviewing
the future of work in Europe, complain about all the ‘post-this-and-thats’
which ‘clutter the literature on change’.) Williams’ (2007) examination of
the areas of activity covered by these analyses shows that this storyline ‘fails
to do justice to lived practice by obfuscating the multiple and divergent
trajectories, ignoring many other dimensions along which transitions are
taking place’. There is a great deal of continuity in the way work is
Looking forward
The alleged ‘end of
bureaucracy’ is
critically examined
in Chapter 4
(pp. 128–30) and the
idea of portfolio jobs
is discussed in
Chapter 7.
➪➪➪➪➪
Looking forward
Use will be made of
this rich collection of
research studies in
various chapters,
especially Chapter 5,
which looks at the
changing patterns of
control in the
organisation and
management of work,
and Chapter 7, which
focuses on people’s
experiences of work
and careers and how
it relates to their
identities.
➪➪➪➪➪
organised and experienced. On the evidence of a detailed ethnographic
study of an organisation which is engaged in a whole series of ‘new’
managerial practices and ‘change programmes’, McCabe (2007), for
example, argues that they ‘reproduce much of our industrial past’. Yet
Williams (2007) demonstrates that significant changes are occurring,
alongside the continuities, with different patterns being apparent in
different circumstances and in different parts of the world.
In any attempt to use sociology to reflect on the future of work it is
important to remember that we can only ever research what ‘is’, as opposed
to what ‘might or will be’. Inferences about the future from whatever
‘evidence’ we gather about the present must be made with great care. While
it is necessary, however, to avoid the exaggerations of much of the
futurology and guru writing, this should not rule out the application of a
degree of imagination in our writing on the sociology of work and industry.
Castillo (1999b), for example, calls for sociologists of work to explore ‘work
of the future’ instead of trying to predict the ‘future of work’. Perhaps the
greatest promise of sociology is in making imaginative contributions to
exploration and debate rather than producing predictions. This does not
mean abandoning attempts to theorise in a scientific manner but perhaps,
as Miles (2001) argues, we should evaluate a theory not according to the
accuracy of its predictions about change but rather ‘according to how far it
stimulates debate about that change’. ‘Good theories’, he suggests, are those
that ‘bring the sociological imagination to life’. And Williams (2007)
points out that recognising that the future is not ‘cast in stone’ frees us to
‘imagine all manner of alternative futures of work’ and that this, in turn,
can help to stimulate ‘greater discussion of how to open up the future more
for those who currently have little choice’. Sociology and theorising is not
just a project of the imagination, however. Recognition that sociology is a
scientific and research-based endeavour has been implicit in everything
said so far. We must now look more explicitly at what this means and
consider how it relates to the notion of theory.
Researching and theorising work patterns and
experiences
Sociology as science
Sociology’s history unfolded alongside the rise of democratic institutions
in western societies. It is also a result of the rise of scientific ways of looking
at the world. Sociology is a science. But what makes it a science is not a
sterile value-neutrality or a concern with amassing facts uncontaminated
by subjectivity. Neither is it a pursuit of final laws. Sociology uses insight,
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
16
Looking forward
This mixture of
continuity and change
will be apparent in
later chapters of this
book in discussions of
such matters as
industrialism,
capitalism,
globalisation,
postmodernity and
McDonaldisation in
Chapter 3; the ‘fantasy
of the post-
bureaucratic
organisation’ in
Chapter 4; standard
and non-standard
employment and
patterns of gender
relations in Chapter 6,
and portfolio and
‘boundaryless’ careers
in Chapter 7.
➪➪➪➪➪
imagination and even inspiration; it is motivated by moral concern and
even by political commitment, and it is characterised by internal debate
and rivalries of both method and interpretation, but, in the end, it falls into
the category of the sciences rather than the arts.
Sociology is a scientific pursuit because it goes about detecting regu-
larities and because it makes its generalisations on as systematic a basis
as possible given its subject matter. This involves the ‘testing’ of proposi-
tions and the basing of statements on evidence – this being collected,
explained and interpreted in such a way that others can scrutinise that
evidence and make their own judgements on the generalisations which are
offered.
Sociology as a science is not essentially different from shrewd practical
reasoning about our social lives. It is not radically distinguishable from
informed journalistic critiques of social institutions and trends in social
change. It is different from these other endeavours in degree rather than in
essence, in three ways. It is
• more formal, systematic and precise in its observing, classifying,
conceptualising and interpreting;
• more rigorous in the extent to which it submits its procedures to critical
examination (seeking to falsify rather than prove its tentative explana-
tions for example);
• more committed to building up a body of knowledge and a series of
generalisations which go beyond immediate and practical needs. This
body of knowledge is, therefore, available to be drawn upon when there
is a practical issue to which it may be relevant.
Theory, work and society
Science is concerned to make informed generalisations about the world.
These are scientific theories. In part these are informed by rational and critical
reflection about the world but, most characteristically, they are informed
by careful and considered attention to systematically gathered evidence.
It is unfortunate that many people use the term ‘theory’ in a derogatory
manner to refer to ideas that do not effectively connect with human
practices in the world. Facts about work, some people say, are interesting
and useful but once we start to ‘get theoretical’ we start to become self-
indulgent and irrelevant. However, once we recognise that sociological
theories are essentially attempts to make sense of how society ‘works’, the
nonsense of this becomes apparent. Indeed, ‘facts’ about society and work
activities cannot really exist separately from the theoretical frames of
reference within which they are expressed. How could we in subsequent
chapters, for example, talk about the ‘facts’ of work security and insecurity
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
17
Science and sociology
Science is a formal,
systematic and precise
approach to building up a
body of knowledge and
theory which is rigorous in
examining propositions
about the social world in
the light of available
evidence. Sociology is a
science because it makes
generalisations as
systematically as possible in
the light of available
evidence.
Sociological theories
Systematic generalisations
about how the social
world ‘works’.
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
18
without a theory of what constitutes ‘security’ and ‘insecurity’ in this
context? How can we consider the extent to which the world is in fact
‘globalising’ without some reference to theories of globalisation? How can
we even talk about ‘work’ and ‘society’ in a theory-free way? The way we
conceptualised work and society earlier in this chapter was the start of the
broader process of theorising the role of work activities and experiences in
modern societies (and, yes, we will have to theorise ‘modern’ at the
appropriate stage). The point of all of this is to deepen our understanding
of what is going on in the world of work. Surely such an appreciation is
valuable to all of us in shaping our social practices.
A range of research methods
Sociologists of work and industry use a variety of techniques of investigation
when they undertake empirical research (‘empirical’ meaning dependent on
observation and experience of phenomena rather than reflection on them
‘at a distance’ so to speak). At one end of a continuum are studies involving
the manipulation of existing bodies of statistical information and research
projects involving the analysis of quantitative information gathered
through questionnaire-based surveys specially designed by the investi-
gators. At the other end of the continuum are studies in which a large
amount of time is spent interviewing in depth a small selection of people
or projects in which the researchers immerse themselves in the lives of the
people they are studying by becoming ethnographers and/or participant
observers (Watson 2008d). In between these contrasting styles of
investigation are studies in which relatively large numbers of people are
interviewed by research teams to gather both quantitative information and
more qualitative material, ‘qualitative’ information typically taking the
form of statements made by the people interviewed or observations made
by the researchers themselves during the process of investigation.
Sometimes the research goes for breadth of coverage by looking at large
numbers of instances of whatever is being studied or by checking samples
large enough to be statistically representative of larger patterns. At other
times the concern is to achieve depth of understanding by giving attention
to close details of particular cases. Case studies might examine particular
work organisations, particular events or even particular individuals. The
logic of such work is to get a detailed understanding of the processes that
occur when, say, two work organisations merge, a new occupation estab-
lishes itself or an individual rises from being an ordinary worker to taking
over the leadership of a large trade union.
We will come across studies in subsequent chapters which use some of
these different approaches to develop our understanding of what is generally
Looking forward
In Chapter 2, where
the various analytical
strands that make up
the sociology of work
and industry are
examined, we will
come across theories
that have largely been
developed at the desks
of their creators –
albeit, we would hope,
within a well-informed
general awareness of
events going on in the
social world outside of
their libraries. These
theoretical ‘strands’
are, in effect, broad
conceptual schemes
that we can take out
into particular work
contexts to make
sense of what is going
on there.
In Chapter 3 we will
come across large-
scale generalisations
about modern
societies that are
typically derived from
critical reflection on
broad trends in work
aspects of the social
world, often using
evidence not especially
gathered within
specifically designed
‘research projects’.
In Chapters 4 to 8 we
will see, in addition to
this kind of material,
generalisations
emerging from
specifically designed
research projects
or ‘empirical’
investigations.
➪➪➪➪➪
‘going on’ in the work and industrial aspects of societies and the work
dimension of people’s lives. It is possible, however, for a variety of tech-
niques to be used within one study, as we see in the imagined research study
in Snapshot 1.3.
This design of this multi-technique research project is influenced by
current theories of, for example, work design, organisational change and job
‘choice’. The information it produces will be analysed to develop further
the theoretical understanding of these matters as well as, of course, present
to the public and to policy-makers broad insights about what is occurring
in an important aspect of contemporary employment. However, things are
not as straightforward as our imagined case of a research project might
imply. Sociologists who study work, industry, occupations, organisations
and employment relations often differ from each other in quite significant
ways in the assumptions which they bring to their studies.
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
19
SNAPSHOT 1.3 Designing a study of call centres: making use of a variety of
techniques
A group of sociologists has decided to combine their efforts in a major piece of research to investigate in
depth the large and growing phenomenon of work in telephone call centres (see pp. 170–1). After working
together on reviewing the existing literature – academic and ‘popular’ – and agreeing on the concepts they
want to use and the variables they want to examine they divide up the investigative labour.
Researcher 1 concentrates on examining employment statistics across a range of developed and less
developed economies in which call centres are located.
Researcher 2 interviews workers and managers in a carefully selected sample of call centre companies of
different sizes.
Researcher 3 conducts a postal survey of members of the public who use or are contacted by such
organisations.
Researcher 4 obtains a job in a single case-study call centre to work as a participant observer and learn at
first hand about working in such a setting.
Researcher 5 is allocated to looking in depth at two comparative case-study call centres. One has been
selected on the grounds that it has a generally good reputation as an employer. The other has a bad
reputation. The researcher will use whatever methods she finds useful, from interviews and (non-participant)
observation to documentary analysis and written questionnaires. The intention is to get as full a picture as
possible of each of these work organisations so that the team can compare the two. The intention of the
comparative case-studies is to give a focus to the group’s broad interest in the variety of work designs and
work experiences which they believe are the case in this employment sector.
Methodological assumptions
We have just noted the range of different methods that sociologists of work
use. But they also vary in the methodological assumptions they bring to their
research and theorising.
It is unfortunate that the term ‘methodology’ is often used simply to
mean ‘method’. This usage tends to divert people from some very important
issues that need to be considered before a ‘method’, in the sense of an
investigative technique, is chosen. Methodological assumptions are ones
about the very nature of the ‘realities’ that we study, about how we can
‘know’ those realities and how we can make valid or ‘truthful’ general-
isations about the social world on the basis of the very limited materials that
we gather (whether these be numbers from surveys or statements and
observations collected in ‘fieldwork’). There are many complexities involved
here but it is vital to any student of the sociology of work to have a basic
understanding of the main methodological choices that every researcher and
theorist has to make.
The choice is often taken to be one between ‘positivism’ and ‘inter-
pretivism’ (sometimes the latter being labelled ‘phenomenology’, which is
really only one version of interpretivist thinking). The term ‘positivism’ is
often used to refer to any research which uses quantitative methods and is
sometimes condemned for a naive belief in the validity of the social facts
that it collects, regardless of the theoretical assumptions to which those
alleged ‘facts’ relate. But this is, as Turner (2001) stresses, a ‘gross distortion’
of what was intended by Auguste Comte, the original advocate, in the
1830s, of a positivist sociology (and, indeed, the inventor of the word
‘sociology’). Comte conceived of sociology as a theory-driven activity. Data
collection would be a means of formulating laws – laws that would enable
positive social progress to be made and would replace superstition and
guesswork as the basis for making decisions about the control of society.
Positivists continue to seek ‘covering law’ types of generalisation about the
social world, working on the assumption that the social world is not
fundamentally different from the natural or physical world and that the
social sciences can therefore adopt procedures similar to those of the natural
sciences. Donaldson (2003), a leading proponent of ‘sociological positivism’
in the field of organisation studies says that the aim is to ‘reveal causal
regularities that underlie surface reality’ and he follows Durkheim (1982)
in arguing that the subject matter of sociology is ‘social facts’ or ‘causes that
stand apart from people and constrain them, forcing them to behave in
ways – even sometimes regardless of the ideas in the minds of the people
involved’. And social facts ‘should only be explained by other social facts,
i.e. objective conditions, rather than in the consciousness of social actors’.
His example here is the explanation that Blau (1963) develops of how
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
20
Methodology
A term often misused to
refer to research
techniques and which, more
properly, refers to the
philosophical issues raised
by the attempt to
investigate the world
scientifically.
organisations tend to become increasingly differentiated (broken down into
more and more sub-units). The causal factor is not decisions or actions by
organisational managers; it is organisational size. Differentiation is a social
fact. And so is organisational size. Interpretivist sociologists, however,
would not exclude from their accounts of such processes the meanings
brought into play by organisational actors.
If positivism, as a term, has been misrepresented and misunderstood at
times, interpretivism has fared little better. All too often it is thought of
as research that uses ‘qualitative’ (word-based) rather than quantitative
(number-based) materials, with the researcher recognising that they have
actively to interpret the material they collect rather than let the ‘facts speak
for themselves’. This is not necessarily incorrect but it is utterly to miss the
point about interpretivist sociology. Of course the interpretivist researcher
acknowledges the need to interpret their research materials. So do most
non-interpretivists. But the essential difference between positivists and
interpretivists is that, whereas positivists see the social world as amenable
to research procedures not dissimilar to those of the natural sciences,
interpretivists do not. They see the social world as different in nature from
the physical world. It therefore needs to be studied in a different way. Most
significantly, this is because human beings, whose actions form the subject
matter of social science investigations, are thinking, sensemaking, decision-
making beings who could potentially choose to defy the predictions of
social scientists. Humans, unlike physical entities, make interpretations for
themselves of what is happening in the world. It is the interpretive or
meaning-making interactions of people in societies that interpretivist
sociologists focus upon.
For the interpretivist, social reality (put simply, ‘what people take their
social world to be like’) is something created by human beings, over history,
through their interactions, interpretations and cultures. This contrasts with
the positivist position that there is a social reality existing independently
of the ways in which people in society interpret their social circumstances.
They are thus generally said to be methodological realists. But positivism
is not the only methodologically realist option. An alternative realist
position that is attractive to some sociologists of work and industry is that
of critical realism. If we take the key methodological choice to be between
realism and interpretivism, as set out in Table 1.1, we can see that there
are not two but three possible methodological positions for the researcher
and theorist to choose from: interpretivism and two variants of metho-
dological realism – positivism and critical realism. Positivism is interested
in causes – in the covering law sense we saw Donaldson explaining earlier.
But critical realists wish to go further and analyse the actual mechanisms
by which any particular cause brings about any particular effect. They would
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
21
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
22
not stop at saying that growth in organisational size, for example, causes
structural differentiation in organisations. They would want to understand
just how the one thing leads to the other.
In Chapter 2 we will examine six strands of thinking that contribute to
the sociology of work and industry. They vary in various respects but an
important differentiating factor is the basic methodological stance that
their proponents have tended to adopt. The managerial-psychologistic and
the Durkheim-systems strands have more or less followed positivist
assumptions while the Weber-social action, the interactionist and the
discursive strands follow interpretivist principles. The critical realist
approach that has emerged in recent years, very much influenced by the
philosophical writings of Bhaskar (1986, 1989), incorporates some of the
key ideas of Marxian thinking. One of its attractions to sociologists of work
is that it stresses the reality of the underlying mechanisms of the capitalist
mode of production while recognising that, at a level above this, inter-
pretive processes and social construction processes do play a significant role
in shaping social patterns and processes (Ackroyd and Fleetwood 2000). It
might therefore seem, at first sight, to be a compromise between realist and
interpretivist positions. It is, however, very firmly rooted in realist thinking,
Table 1.1 Realist and interpretivist social science methodologies
Realist methodologies Interpretivist methodologies
Assume that social reality exists Assume that social reality is the outcome of
independently of how people make people’s interactive and interpretive
sense of it – or investigate it. activities – how they socially and
pragmatically ‘construct’ and negotiate
• Positivism devises covering laws meanings and patterns of relationship.
about social reality through Theoretical approaches that work within
testing hypotheses – propositions these broad assumptions include
that can be tested against
systematically gathered data • Weberian sociology (originating in
which is typically analysed using Germany in the early twentieth century)
quantitative methods.
• Symbolic interactionism (originating in
• Critical realism attempts to identify America in the early to mid twentieth
the structures, processes and century)
causal mechanisms that operate
beneath the surface of social • Poststructuralism (originating in France
reality and which are a constitutive in the late twentieth century).
part of that reality.
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
23
granting to patterns and causal processes outside of human actions a real
and solid existence.
To avoid this discussion sounding too abstract or esoteric we can outline
three different ways in which researchers, adopting different metho-
dological positions, might go about studying the relationship between
people’s age and their experience of work. The three approaches take the
form of research proposals which might, for example, be made to a research-
funding body (Snapshot 1.4).
SNAPSHOT 1.4 Three proposed studies of the relationship between people’s
age and experience of work
Proposal 1 (from a positivist researcher): A large survey will be designed in which a questionnaire will be
posted to a sample of people, the sample being ‘stratified’ to ensure that there is a representative coverage
of different age groups and occupations. Questions will be asked about respondents’ age and about the
extent of their agreement with a variety of printed statements about work satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Once collected, these responses will be treated as data – unproblematic ‘givens’ or ‘findings’ – which
can then be statistically analysed to test the hypothesis that job satisfaction increases with age in high
status occupations and decreases in age in low status occupations. If the ‘data’ or ‘findings’ supports the
original contention, then the researcher will be in a position where they can say they have developed a new
‘theory’ about age and job satisfaction. Strictly speaking, this will be a covering law. It will take the form of a
statement about the relationship between work and age which has a degree of predictive power: suggesting
to each of us, in our particular occupational context, how our happiness at work is likely to change as we
get older.
Proposal 2 (from a critical realist researcher): This project will be strongly influenced from the start by
existing theories (in the sense of generalisations about how the social world ‘works’). The study might use
either, or both, quantitative and qualitative techniques to reveal how ideologies influenced by the interests
of employers in capitalist societies influence younger, and hence fitter and more flexible, people to regard
their work positively while older, and potentially less productive, workers are discouraged from wanting to
stay at work. Drawing on both existing theoretical assumptions about the social world and on the information
gathered in the research, attempts will be made to identify the causal or ‘generative’ mechanisms within
capitalist class and employment relationships using concepts like capital accumulation, labour process and
false consciousness. These mechanisms will be taken to have a ‘real’ existence of their own, a reality operating
at a deeper level than the actions and interpretations of the employers and workers involved.
Proposal 3 (from an interpretivist researcher): A series of face-to-face interviews with people of different
ages and in different occupations will be conducted. Additionally, time will be spent with some of these
people in the workplace, or in a leisure context, in order to note how in group interactions they talk to each
other about their work and their lives. It will not be assumed that words that people speak in the research
context constitute ‘data’ – unproblematic ‘given’ statements of what people actually feel or think. They
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
24
Coping with the variety of orientation in the
sociology of work and industry
From our examples of three possible research approaches it is apparent that
there are significant variations of methodological orientation within the
sociology of work and industry. There is also a variety of theoretical
orientations – as we see in the six ‘strands’ of thought to be examined in
Chapter 2. How is one to come to terms with a subject where there is such
a variety of orientation? First, these tensions can be regarded as creative
ones, and the multifaceted nature of sociological study seen as healthily
reflecting and forcing us to confront the multifaceted nature of human
society itself. Second, the notion of a sociological imagination (see p. 7)
can bring a significant sense of unity to this variety. Whatever emphasis we
adopt, we need to remember that sociology is essentially about relating the
lives of particular individuals and the occurrence of specific and local events
to wider patterns of society and the converting of ‘private problems’ into
‘public issues’.
To undertake our own research does not necessarily mean having to join
one or other of the various ‘camps’ that sociologists tend to set up with
others of similar methodological or theoretical orientation. It has never-
theless been suggested that the various theoretical, methodological and
political orientations of people studying the organisation of work are
fundamentally incompatible with each other and that each researcher needs
to locate themselves within one particular box or paradigm (a cluster of
assumptions about sociological knowledge), choosing between a func-
would be treated as statements made in a particular context and at a particular time. The researcher will
interpret what was said to them in the light of how they believe the subject was interpreting the context in
which they spoke and how they were, at the time of their speaking, choosing to present a particular image
of themselves to the researcher and perhaps to other people present. In the analysis of this research material,
close attention will be given to the language used by the subjects, as well as other symbols like ‘body
language’ and the clothing worn by subjects. This will be used to construct an understanding of how the
people make sense, for themselves and for others, of the relationship between age and the experience of
work. The ‘reality’ of the relationship between one’s age and one’s work experience is thus treated as
something that emerges from human interactions, socially negotiated understandings and available discourses.
It does not exist ‘out there’ separately from the people who bring that reality into existence. Taking this
position does not mean, however, that they will not use concepts like ‘structure’, ‘society’ or, for that matter,
‘capitalist labour process’. They might be used, but, unlike the critical realist researcher, the interpretivist
researcher will regard these terms as sense-making concepts for analysing the world sociologically rather
than ‘actually existing real things’.
tionalist paradigm, an interpretive paradigm, a radical humanist paradigm
or a radical structuralist paradigm (Burrell and Morgan 1979; Jackson and
Carter 2000; Burrell 2002; Keleman and Hassard 2003). Some researchers
are happy to move back and forth between these various paradigms to find
insights to apply to their area of study (Hassard 1993) while others wish
to seek integration across them all to find a shared set of assumptions that
provide a single frame of reference for studying work and the way it is
organised (Pfeffer 1993; Donaldson 1996a).
A further approach is to reject the very notion of paradigms as irrelevant
to the social sciences and to follow instead a strategy of pragmatic pluralism
(Watson 1997). This encourages the researcher to utilise concepts and ideas
from a whole range of different social science perspectives and traditions as
long as, first, the chosen concepts are helpful in understanding the parti-
cular aspect of social life being studied and, second, as long as they are
brought together in a clearly expressed frame of reference which has internal
conceptual consistency and methodological integrity. The researcher needs
to be particularly clear that they are not, for example, claiming at one point
that interview materials they have collected are ‘data’ (i.e. unproblematic
‘given’ facts) and, at another, claim to be doing interpretivist analysis
(which insists that such material can only be analysed with reference to
the particular context in which it was uttered and in the light of the
‘presentation of self’ processes that were engaged in by both the interviewer
and the interviewee in that context). To put it another way, one cannot try
to be a methodological realist and a methodological interpretivist at the
same time.
The structure of Sociology, Work and Industry has been devised to do justice
to both unities and varieties of emphasis in the sociology of work and
industry. The concern of this first chapter with achieving such a purpose is
continued across the next seven chapters. Table 1.2 is intended to show
how this is to be done. It recognises that, in addition to the six strands of
thought that make up the sociology of work and industry, there are six
areas of study to which these broad ways of thinking are applied. The six
strands of thought (which form the subject matter of Chapter 2) are mapped
in Table 1.2 against the six areas of study that form the subsequent six
chapters which focus, each in turn, on:
• the industrial-capitalist and ‘modern’ nature of contemporary societies
• the organisational dimension of work structuring
• changes in the organising and managing of work
• the occupational dimension of work structuring
• the patterns of meaning, opportunity and experience of work in modern
society
• the tendencies to conflict and resistance in work relations.
1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY
25
Table
1.2
How
the
six
strands
of
thought
to
be
considered
in
Chapter
2
bring
different
emphases
to
the
six
focal
areas
of
the
sociology
of
work
and
industry
covered
in
Chapters
3
to
8
Focus
Work
and
social
Organisations
Organisational
Occupations
Work
experience,
Conflict,
resistance
and
change
(Ch.
3)
(Ch.
4)
change
and
(Ch.
6)
meaning
and
misbehaviour
(Ch.
8)
managerial
identity
(Ch.
7)
initiatives
(Ch.
5)
Theory
Managerial
Increasing
managerial
effectiveness
through
Causes
and
correlates
Overcoming
worker
psychologistic
satisfying
the
economic
wants
or
of
job
satisfaction
‘resistance
to
change’
emphasis
on
psychological
needs
of
workers
Durkheim-systems
The
‘organic’
division
Organisations
as
Social/cultural
The
role
of
occupa-
Work
meanings
and
The
management
of
emphasis
on
of
labour
in
modern
‘systems’
of
roles
integration
of
tional
groupings
in
experiences
related
conflict
within
industrial
societies
individuals
into
maintaining
social
to
one’s
life
in
society
relations
systems
enterprises
cohesion
as
well
as
in
the
workplace
Interactionist
Division
of
labour
as
Organisations
as
‘negotiated
orders’
The
significance
of
Identities
and
Defence
of
self
and
emphasis
on
part
of
the
moral
‘dirty’
or
deviant
subjective
careers
resistance
to
power
of
order
of
society
work
others
Weber-social
Rationalisation
of
life
The
bureaucratic
nature
of
organisations
The
tendency
of
Dynamic
work
The
interplay
of
interests
action
in
modern
industrial
and
the
tendency
towards
unintended
groups
to
pursue
‘orientations’
and
the
and
ideas
in
the
shaping
emphasis
on
capitalist
societies
consequences
of
managerial
initiatives
social
closure
to
role
of
discursive
of
identities,
discourses
further
shared
resources
in
shaping
and
practices
The
social
construction
of
the
‘realities’
of
interests
work-related
aspects
organisational
activity
of
identities
Marxian
The
exploitative
Managerial
shaping
of
labour
processes
in
Decline
of
the
social
Work
a
source
of
human
fulfilment
only
when
emphasis
on
nature
of
capitalist
organisations
to
serve
interests
of
the
division
of
labour
a
non-exploitative
social
order
has
been
societies
property
owning
dominant
class
established
Poststructuralist/
The
power
of
Organisations
constituted
by
language
–
Worker
subjectivities
Human
resistance
to
postmodern
‘modernist’
discourses
understood
as
‘texts’
rather
than
structures;
the
outcomes
of
subjugation
by
emphasis
on
in
social
life
techniques
of
surveillance
and
attempts
at
power/discourse
modernist/managerial
identity-shaping
at
the
heart
of
organisational
discourses
To try to find some overall patterns across all of this, Table 1.2 offers a
matrix identifying how the six strands of thought to be outlined in Chapter
2 each bring a distinctive emphasis to the six substantive areas studied by
the sociology of work and industry (these focusing on organisations;
organisational change and managerial initiatives; occupations, inequalities
and varieties of work; work experiences, meanings and identities; conflict,
resistance and misbehaviour respectively).
Summary
In this chapter we have established that sociology developed historically as
a discipline intended to help people understand and deal with processes of
modernisation and industrialisation and that it has the potential to play an
important role in informing the choices that are made about work in the
twenty-first century. It can also help us think imaginatively about work in
the future. Sociology is a scientific discipline concerned with developing
theories and insights which can inform human choices and, to this end, it
uses a variety of different research methods, with different sociologists
working within a number of different methodological traditions. These
can be ‘mapped out’ to help anyone interested in either reading or doing
sociology to appreciate the options open to sociological researchers.
SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY
28
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
bezat, en dat hij niet meer als zijn eigendom, maar als dat zijner
huisgenooten beschouwde.
Deze droegen hun leed, gelijk hij verwacht had.
Emilia schreef haren bruidegom, dat ze in geen geval er aan denken
kon, haar moeder in de tegenwoordige omstandigheden te verlaten.
Ook het huis Borgers had, ofschoon het voor velen een geheim
bleef, door het faillissement Howell en Co. een knak gekregen, en
het zou veel moeite hebben, zich staande te houden.
De beide families oordeelden, dat het voor het oogenblik de wijste
partij zou zijn, te doen alsof de verloving van Emilia Roda en Herman
Borgers niet had plaats gevonden. [14]
Emilia betoonde zich de waardige dochter haars vaders; zonder
klagen en zonder uiterlijke droefheid schikte zij zich in haar lot. Nog
slechts een kort onderhoud had zij met haar bruidegom, dien ze
sedert vele jaren kende en om zijn goed hart en standvastig karakter
had leeren hoogachten en liefhebben. De week daaropvolgende
vertrok hij naar Australië.
Nu kon Emilia zich geheel aan haar moeder wijden. Roda en zijn
dochter waren den geheelen dag om en bij de zieke vrouw. Zij
beiden torsten op hun schouders den geheelen zwaren last der
zorgen, en hielden dien zoo hoog, dat hij het hoofd der zwakke
moeder nauwelijks raakte.
Willem leerde zijn vader nu eerst recht kennen en liefhebben; het
verdroot den jongen werkeloos te moeten blijven, terwijl hij zag, hoe
zijn vader en zuster alle krachten inspanden, om met de geringe
middelen, waarover zij te beschikken hadden, zijn fijnbeschaafde
moeder de gemakken te verschaffen, waaraan ze van kindsbeen af
gewend was, en die voor haar gezondheid, zoo meenden zij,
onmisbaar waren.
Als zijn moeder zich in ’t schemeruur bij ’t flikkerende haardvuur
koesterde en langzamerhand indommelde, zetten Roda en zijn
dochter zich aan het venster en ging Willem achter den stoel zijner
zuster staan.
Dan klaagden ze elkander hun nood en spraken ze over de
beleedigingen, die ze te verduren hadden van hun voormalige
kennissen, die hen bij elke ontmoeting zoo dikwijls en zoo
medelijdend beklaagden; dan troosten zij elkander met de hoop op
betere tijden, en weldra verjoeg de zorg voor de zieke moeder het
verdriet: er was hun een taak tot plicht gesteld, die ze beiden met
liefde wilden vervullen. Menigmaal had Willem, in de eerste dagen
van hun armoede, zich in het gesprek gemengd; maar zijn zuster
zeide dan telkens: „Pa en ik zullen dat samen wel bedisselen; jij bent
nog veel te jong, om nu al zorgen in je hoofd te halen!” En vader
voegde er met een handdruk bij: „Willem, nu nog niet, voor de
toekomst hopen we op jou. Ga straks je mama wat opvroolijken!”
Deze wist de zelfopoffering van haar huisgenooten naar waarde te
schatten. Fijngevoelig als ze was, begreep ze zeer spoedig, dat de
nauwlettende en liefderijke zorgen ten doel hadden, haar den
nederigen toestand, waarin ze zoo plotseling was verplaatst, te doen
vergeten, en al wat haar slechts eenigszins grieven kon, zoo ver
mogelijk van haar te verwijderen.
Ze betoonde haar dankbaarheid, door nooit te klagen. Ook bemerkte
ze zeer goed, dat hun opgeruimdheid slechts schijn was en dienen
moest, om haar niet treuriger te stemmen, dan ze reeds was: ze
veinsde evenwel het niet te begrijpen, daar ze [15]zag, dat het haar
man en haar kinderen een genot was, al haar wenschen te
voorkomen.
Allen ondervonden nu eerst, hoe menschen, die elkander liefhebben,
elkaar het leven kunnen veraangenamen; ze gevoelden zich
daardoor zoo opgewekt, dat de schijnbare opgeruimdheid, spoedig
werkelijkheid werd en de gezondheid der moeder met den dag
verbeterde.
Het ongeluk had deze vier menschen, vroeger door een stoet
bedienden en tallooze vermakelijkheden dikwijls gescheiden,
saamgebracht en zoo innig verbonden, dat ze zich in hun armoede
rijker gevoelden, dan ooit te voren; veel rijker en gelukkiger, dan
hun vroegere kennissen wel konden vermoeden, als ze op hun
partijtjes, met geveinsde of oprechte deelneming, de benarde
omstandigheden van die arme Roda’s ter sprake brachten.
Maar ’t schijnt wel, dat de nijdige tegenspoed bij één enkelen aanval
geen leedvermaak genoeg smaakt, en er een wreed behagen in
schept, juist, hen met zijne slagen te vervolgen, die na den eersten
slag weder fier het hoofd opheffen.
De familie Roda althans was zelfs dit bescheiden geluk niet gegund;
een ramp wachtte hen, veel grooter dan de vorige, en van een zijde,
vanwaar zij die het allerminst vermoedden.
Twee maanden waren er verloopen sedert het faillissement van
Willems vader, en Willem zou voor eerst weer naar school gaan.
Drie klassen van het gymnasium had hij reeds doorloopen, en twee
jaren was hij primus geweest.
Hij was een van die gelukkige jongens, die alles leeren kunnen,
zonder dat het hun veel inspanning kost, en tegen wie de andere
jongens niet zelden met bewondering of met afgunst opzien. Hij
verlangde er dan ook naar, weer naar school te gaan, maar nu zag
hij tegen een ontmoeting met zijn schoolmakkers op als tegen een
berg.
Hij schaamde zich. Waarvoor? Daarvan wist hij zich geen rekenschap
te geven.
Den vorigen avond was er visite geweest. De huisheer, tevens een
der nieuwe buren van Roda, had een beleefdheidsbezoek gebracht.
Ofschoon het gesprek in het begin weinig aantrekkelijks voor Willem
had, gebood de wellevendheid hem, zijn leesboek ter zijde te
leggen. Hij luisterde onwillekeurig; eerst dwaalden zijn gedachten af,
maar spoedig werd zijn aandacht geboeid, daar [16]er over hem
werd gesproken. Zijn vader zeide namelijk, dat hij wel lust had
Willem van school te nemen, indien hij hem in een flinke zaak
geplaatst kon krijgen.
Het vóór en tegen van vele zaken werd nu overwogen, en de
bezoeker, die in den kleinhandel rijk was geworden, bleek een groote
mate gezond verstand te bezitten.
„Ja, mijnheer Roda, ik herhaal het, een boekhandel, goed opgezet
en flink aangepakt, kan eene goudmijn worden. Ik voor mij, zou er
niet meer aan denken, ik heb Goddank, mijne schaapjes op het
droge, maar voor mijn zoon, ziet u! Die is nu al achttien jaar en ik
weet werkelijk niet, wat ik met hem moet beginnen. Ik heb hem van
alles laten leeren; ziet u, mijnheer, zoo’n pet vol gouden tientjes
heeft me de jongen gekost. Maar waar het niet in zit, daar krijg je
het niet in, al sta je er met de zweep achter.
„Ik heb het al in de tabak met hem geprobeerd; hij is ook een paar
maanden op een effectenkantoor geweest, maar daar had hij in ’t
geheel geen zin in. Hij wou met alle geweld in een boekwinkel. Nu is
hij al een jaar bij een boekhandelaar, en daar schijnt het hem te
bevallen.”
„Nu,” zeide Roda, tot de breedsprakigen kruidenier, „dan heeft hij
toch eindelijk zijn bestemming gevonden, en zal wel vooruitkomen.”
„Och het zou wat, mijnheer! Vooruitkomen in een winkel! Voor een
paar gulden in de week knecht zijn voor een ander! Neen, mijnheer,
niet voor niets heeft zijn vader een aardig kapitaaltje bij elkaar
gespaard. Zoo gauw ik er kans toe zie, zet ik hem zelf in een flinke
zaak.”
„Waar wacht u dan op?” vroeg Willems vader.
„Ja ziet u, hij is wel een flinke jongen, maar soms zoo kinderachtig,
en ook, hoe zal ik het noemen, zoo onbestendig. Ik ben niet op de
hoogte met de boeken, en als hij alleen voor zoo’n winkel moet
zorgen, zal het hem spoedig vervelen, ziet u.”
De kleine, doordringende oogen van den dikken kruidenier hadden
Willem reeds geruimen tijd vervolgd en terwijl hij hem bleef aanzien
zeide hij tot Roda:
„Kijk, als uw zoon een paar jaar ouder was, zou ik zeggen: laat ze ’t
samen eens probeeren! Die zoo lang in de boeken gestudeerd heeft,
moet er dunkt mij, wel verstand van gekregen hebben. Geld om te
beginnen heb ik genoeg, dat zou geen bezwaar zijn!”
Willem’s oogen schitterden; hij dacht er niet aan, dat er iets
beleedigends kon zijn in den klemtoon, dien de huisheer op het
woordje ik legde. Zelf geld verdienen voor zijne ouders! [17]Een
winkel met boeken, leesboeken en studieboeken, wat een
luilekkerland!
„Uw voorstel is zoo kwaad niet, mijnheer Van Dal”, zei Roda, wien de
zaak toelachte, omdat ze hem zelf ook bezigheid kon bezorgen.
„Willem is nu nog te jong; maar indien u uw zoon nog een jaar bij
zijn patroon laat blijven, laat ik Willem nog een jaar naar school
gaan. Na dien tijd zijn beiden nog wel wat jong, maar ik heb van
boeken en platen ook wel een beetje verstand, en wij beiden kunnen
immers altijd een oog in ’t zeil houden.”
„Mijnheer Roda, ik geloof dat het wel lukken zal.…
„Al tien uur! Wat zal de vrouw kwaad zijn; ik kom nog wel eens
terug, om er over te spreken. Goeden avond, dames! Goeien avond,
Willem, leer maar goed, dan zal het wel losloopen; kom eens kennis
maken met mijn jongen! Goeien avond, mijnheer, nogmaals geluk
gewenscht in de nieuwe woning; ik dank u wel voor de vriendelijke
ontvangst! Als u me spreken wilt: een trapje hooger; onder één dak,
ziet u! Zonder kloppen binnen! Wel te rusten!”
Nadat de buurman vertrokken was, werd de zaak nog lang en breed
besproken, en Willem ging naar bed met de troostrijke gedachte, dat
hij over niet al te langen tijd misschien een steun voor zijn ouders
zou worden.
Toen de dikke huisheer reeds zijne slaapmuts had opgezet en met
de eene hand de beddeplank vasthield, om met een wipje in bed te
springen, mopperde hij nog tegen zijn vrouw, die kousen zat te
stoppen.
Ze had niet willen meegaan op bezoek bij de nieuwe huurders.
„Hebben ze mij nou den neus afgebeten? Aardige menschen zijn
het! Jij stoort je altijd aan praatjes van de lui: geen ziertje trotsch zit
er in, zie je. Geen oogenblik hebben ze me laten merken, dat ze me
liever zagen gaan dan komen, of me laten voelen, dat ze van fijner
komaf zijn dan ik of jij. Daar kun je juist de voorname lui aan
kennen, zie je?”
„Willem, het is bijna schooltijd; je hebt een heel eind verder te
loopen. Zou je niet heengaan, jongen?” zeide Emilia den volgenden
morgen.
„Ja, dadelijk. O, ’t is nog veel te vroeg!” antwoordde hij met een blik
op de pendule.
„Neen, Willem, ’t is hoog tijd; kom, hier zijn je jas en je pet. Niet
kinderachtig zijn! De leeraren zullen nergens over spreken en
mochten de jongens soms iets zeggen of iets doen, wat je niet
bevalt, doe dan alsof je het niet merkt. Gedraag je verstandiger, dan
die domme onnadenkende jongens, die hun [18]makkers voor de
voeten gooien, wat de ouders misdaan hebben. Want je moet
weten, dat er een paar jongens bij je op school zijn, wier ouders
schade geleden hebben door pa’s faillissement; bij hen thuis zal wel
niet met liefde over ons gesproken worden; misschien stoken deze
jongens de andere op je te beleedigen. Houd je dan goed, word
vooral niet driftig.”
En hiermede schoof ze hem zachtjes de deur uit.
Met een bezwaard hart trad Willem het schoollokaal binnen.
De jongens hadden reeds plaats genomen, maar de les was nog niet
begonnen.
Bij Willem’s verschijnen verstomde plotseling het verward rumoer. Hij
ging naar zijn plaats in de eerste bank. Alle blikken voelde hij op zich
gevestigd; dit deed hem beurtelings blozen en verbleeken. Er viel
hem een steen van het hart, toen de leeraar binnenkwam en de les
begon.
Maar den geheelen morgen bleven de jongens hem aangapen, alsof
hij een vreemd dier was. Wanneer hij op een enkele vraag van den
leeraar moest antwoorden, was het zoo onnatuurlijk stil in de klasse,
dat men elkaar kon hooren ademhalen. Nu en dan werd de stilte
verbroken door een onderdrukt gegiegel, dat Willem het bloed naar
het hoofd joeg.
De klok sloeg twaalf, en Willem slaakte een zucht van verlichting.
Nog nooit had hem de schooltijd zoo lang geduurd. Voordat één van
de jongens het lokaal verlaten had, was hij reeds op straat en sloeg
een zijstraatje in, vast besloten dien middag niet weer naar school te
gaan.
Daar hij te veraf woonde om naar huis te kunnen gaan, zou hij zijn
twaalfuurtje in een melkhuis gebruiken.
Het had den geheelen nacht gestortregend en de straten geleken
wel modderpoelen.
Willem slenterde rond, gracht op gracht af, straat uit, straat in.
Omstreeks half twee was hij in de Kalverstraat verzeild geraakt. Hij
bleef voor een der boek- en plaatwinkels staan, en bekeek met
welgevallen de fraaie boeken en platen in de uitstalkast; voor het
eerst in zijn leven was hij nieuwsgierig den prijs ervan te kennen.
Hij keek naar binnen, zag den bediende iets verkoopen en het geld
in de lade strijken.
Dit bracht hem het gesprek van den vorigen avond te binnen en
herinnerde hem aan het plan van Van Dal.
In zijn verbeelding ziet hij zich zelven als gelukkige bezitter van een
boekwinkel achter de toonbank, bezig het geld van de klanten op te
strijken.
De lade vult zich meer en meer met zilver en goudgeld, en [19]is
weldra niet meer te sluiten; geen nood, kisten en kasten zijn er
genoeg in huis. Ook die zijn weldra vol. De koopers stroomen toe uit
alle wijken der stad; zwart van volk is de winkel; het geld waait in
huis, als eertijds op zijn vaders bankierskantoor.
Al rijker en rijker wordt hij. Eindelijk heeft hij geld genoeg.
De winkel zinkt weg in de diepte. Een groot gebouw rijst er voor in
de plaats, met talrijke kamers, marmeren gangen, bronzen beelden
en kostbare schilderijen; alles in stilte gekocht voor zijn geld. Nu
naar huis! Vader, moeder en zuster van de armzalige bovenwoning
gehaald, en in triumf naar het nieuwe huis gevoerd.
Ook het hardsteenen gebouw verdwijnt als rook in den wind.
Een ander doemt uit den nevel op. Ver van hier, te Königswinter aan
den Rijn in Duitschland, staat een villa gereed om zijne mama te
ontvangen; geen gehuurde zooals in vorige jaren, maar een eigen
gebouw, het schoonste van de streek, met stalling en koetsen en
paarden in overvloed. Kijk, mama en Emilia zitten in den
mandenwagen, papa ment het vurige vierspan. Hoe de paarden over
den straatweg vliegen, hoera! En door zijne gedachten
medegesleept, rent Willem de Kalverstraat door, als wilde hij de
paarden tot nog sneller vaart aanzetten.
Helaas, de Kalverstraat is geen geschikte plaats om luchtkasteelen te
bouwen.
Bof! Daar vliegt hij tegen het lijf van een wandelaar op. Deze valt als
een blok achterover en komt met zijne partes posteriores in een plas
neer. Willem is in een oogenblik ontnuchterd, en herkent tot zijn
schrik in den man, die midden in de Kalverstraat in de modder zit,
den bewusten Van Dal. De dikke man doet vergeefsche pogingen,
om op te komen, en kijkt daarbij zoo pijnlijk en tegelijk woedend,
dat Willem het geraden oordeelt een steegje in te snijden.
In een oogwenk heeft zich een standje om den man gevormd.
Het voorval is koddig; aan kwinkslagen is dan ook geen gebrek.
In plaats van hem te helpen gaat een dienstmeisje vlak voor hem op
de hurken zitten, met de handen op de knieën.
„Wil uwé soms een kussentje?” zegt de meid, „of heeft u zich
bezeerd?”
Een slagersknecht neemt het woord:
„Geen nood, Mietje, het varkentje is op zijn spek te land gekomen.”
„Een leelijk gevalletje!” meent een ander.
„Mò, mò, mò, mòt meheer nou overreeje worre,” roept de
schoenpoetser van den hoek, die haastig komt toeloopen. [20]
„Laat ik mijnheer maar eris helpe.”
De schoenpoetser aan de eene en de slager aan de andere zijde
nemen den man, wien het huilen nader staat dan het lachen onder
den arm en hijschen hem op.
„Zie, zoo! daar gaat-ie! één, twee, drie, haal op de hei!”
„Daar is-ie al! Schoonmake, meheer? Kom hier op de stoep,
meheertje.” En met deernis ’s mans kleeren beschouwend, zegt de
schoenpoetser uit den grond van zijn hart:
„Zoo’n kwaaie jonge!”
De „kwaaie jonge” was intusschen het steegje doorgeloopen en op
het Singel uitgekomen.
Hoewel hij er een vaag begrip van had, dat hij zooeven een huis en
een villa had omvergeloopen, oefende het onthutst en nijdig gezicht
van den zwaarlijvigen kruidenier zulk een invloed op hem uit, dat hij
ondanks zijn schrik, glimlachend zijn weg naar school insloeg en zijn
plan om te boemelen vergat.
Op den hoek, niet ver van de school, stonden eenige jongens te
praten en te stoeien.
’t Waren niet de netste en niet de beste jongens van de klasse; met
de meesten stond hij op niet te besten voet. Zij konden het niet
uitstaan, dat hij zich nooit met hen bemoeide en hen altijd op een
afstand hield.
Toen Willem hen uit de verte zag, kwam hem de akelige morgen,
dien hij op school had doorgebracht, weer voor den geest.
Hij stond in tweestrijd, of hij omkeeren en naar huis gaan of
doorloopen zou, toen hij aan hun gebaren en bewegingen bemerkte,
dat zij hem gezien hadden.
„Jongens, daar heb je Willem Roda weer; hij durft niet voorbij!”
begreep hij dat zij zeiden, al kon hij het door den afstand niet
hooren.
Nu verbood zijn gevoel van eigenwaarde hem, terug te keeren; met
trotsche houding, misschien wel wat al te trotsch, doordat het
opzettelijk geschiedde, stapte hij door.
De jongens stonden midden op de gracht, zoodat hij moest
uitwijken, om te kunnen voorbijgaan.
„Daar heb je die bluffer, die praatjesmaker!”
„Kijk die kale jonker nog eens deftig stappen!” klinkt het hem reeds
tegemoet.
Hij kijkt recht voor zich uit, maar ziet toch wel, hoe aller blikken
uitdagend op hem gericht zijn.
Een van de jongens, algemeen bekend onder den naam van „de
schooier”,—een eerenaam, dien hij zich gewoonlijk liet welgevallen,
—stak een hoofd boven alle anderen uit. Hij had een gemeen
gezicht, en ofschoon van gegoede ouders, was hij altijd slordig in de
kleeren. [21]
Op het oogenblik, dat Willem voorbij wil gaan, werpt „de schooier”
een kleinen jongen tegen hem aan.
Willem blijft staan en keert zich driftig om naar de jongens. Deze
heffen een hoeraatje aan.
’t Bloed stijgt Willem naar het hoofd; zijn vingers jeuken en hij drukt
de gebalde vuisten tegen de zijden. ’t Liefst zou hij op een van de
jongens zijn toegevlogen of er blindelings op losgeslagen hebben.
Maar hij bedenkt zich, en nog bijtijds schieten hem de
waarschuwende woorden van zijn zuster te binnen. Hij bedwingt zijn
drift en wil voortloopen. Maar nu wordt hij van achteren bestookt,
met boeken, tasschen en riemen. Met van drift bevende stem zegt
hij, zich omkeerende:
„Wat wil jullie van mij? Wat heb ik jullie gedaan? Laat me gaan; ik
bemoei me ook met niemand!”
Willem zag, dat „de schooier” de anderen van achteren tegen hem
opduwde, en met tranen van woede in de oogen gilde hij:
„Pas op, schooier, neem je in acht!”
„Wie schooier, wat schooier!” roept deze, dringt naar voren tot vlak
voor Willem, en kijkt uit de hoogte op hem neer.
„Nu nog mooier! bemoei jij je niet met ons, dat wil ik wel gelooven,
daar ben je nog te trotsch voor, al ben je nu ook zoo arm als de
mieren, kale jakhals! Zeg, kijk me niet zoo voornaam aan, of ik zal je
een slag op je bakkes geven, dat je den grond zoekt!”
De jongens, belust op eene vechtpartij, vormen een kring en
beginnen op te hitsen: „Schooier, geef hem er een!”
Deze duwt met zijn schouder tegen Willems hoofd op.
Willems bloed kookt, maar zijne tegenpartij schijnt hem een reus. Hij
kijkt om, of hij op hulp kan rekenen, doch ontmoet achter en voor
alleen blikken vol leedvermaak.
Daar gooit een jongen achter hem, hem tegen zijn tegenstander
aan.
„Zeg, sta op je lijf,” zegt deze, met een gevoeligen stomp tegen
Willems kin.
Nu kan hij het niet langer uithouden. Met een sprong als van een
kat, springt hij tegen den schooier op, en grijpt hem in de borst. Een
oogenblik later rollen ze over de steenen. Willem, hoewel minder
sterk, is veel vlugger dan zijn tegenpartij; hij worstelt zich boven, en
nu dalen de vuistslagen als hagelsteenen op het hoofd van den
schooier neer.
De jongens, die dezen eerst opgehitst hebben, verkneukelen zich nu
van plezier, als zij zien hoe hij er van langs krijgt en worden met
eerbied voor Willem vervuld. [22]
Deze heeft er genoeg van; hij staat op, en zegt hijgend, terwijl hij
zijn gehavende kleeren recht trekt:
„Zie zoo! nu heb je gezien, dat ik niet bang voor je ben, nu zul je me
in ’t vervolg met rust laten.”
De overwonnene kan zijn spijt niet verkroppen:
„Och, verbeeldt je maar niet, dat je de baas bent gebleven, ik ben
uitgegleden door de modder, maar begin nu nog eens als je durft!
Ja, strijk je boordje maar glad! Wat zal je moesje wel zeggen, dat er
modderspatjes op je pakje zijn!”
Willem is volstrekt niet van plan weder te beginnen en antwoordt
slechts met een verachtelijken blik en een liptrekking.
De schooier moet zijn spijt over de nederlaag lucht geven; de builen
en schrammen op zijn hoofd doen hem geweldig pijn, en Willems
schijnbare kalmte prikkelt hem nog meer. Met een sarrenden
grijnslach roept hij Willem, die zich omgekeerd heeft om heen te
gaan, na:
„Zeg Willempie, is het waar, dat je pa zich doodgeschoten heeft?”
Willem blijft staan. De grond golft onder zijn voeten, de hemel staat
in vuur en vlam; razend van drift keert hij zich om en met een
gebrul, als van een wild dier, vliegt hij op den laaghartigen jongen
toe en geeft hem een hevigen schop tegen den buik.
Een rauwe gil snijdt door de lucht en de schooier zakt ineen.
Willem stond verpletterd: hij zag hoe het gezicht van den
ongelukkige met een lijkkleur overtogen werd; hij zag nog hoe de
jongens schreeuwend en gillend op de vlucht gingen, hoe van alle
kanten de menschen kwamen toeschieten, hoe twee mannen zijn
slachtoffer voorzichtig opnamen en wegdroegen, toen was het hem
of een dikke mist voor zijne oogen zweefde en hem het zien belette,
zijn ooren suisden en als aan den grond genageld bleef hij staan.
Plotseling voelde hij de zware hand van een politieagent op zijn
schouder. Een rilling voer hem door de leden, en willoos, zonder zich
bewust te zijn, wat er met hem gebeurde, volgde hij den agent naar
het bureau.
Een half uur later viel de ijzeren deur van de gevangenis met een
akeligen, doffen slag achter hem dicht. [23]
[Inhoud]
HOOFDSTUK III.
In den loop van dien noodlottigen dag ontving Roda een briefje van
den commissaris van politie, het verzoek inhoudende, even aan het
bureau te komen. Hij was zich niets kwaads bewust; toch schrikte hij
bij het lezen. Wat kon het zijn?
Allerlei gissingen kwamen snel na elkander bij hem op, de eene al
ongerijmder dan de andere; maar even spoedig werden ze
verworpen. Intusschen, iets moest er toch voorgevallen zijn. Als
Emilia nu maar terugkwam; ze was even uitgegaan, om een luchtje
te scheppen en meteen een paar noodzakelijke boodschappen te
doen.
Roda kon zijn vrouw niet alleen laten; daar hij en zijn dochter altijd
zorgden, minstens één van beiden thuis te zijn, zou dat argwaan
wekken, en hij wilde haar niet noodeloos ongerust maken.
Met haastige schreden liep hij de kamer op en neer, en gaf zich
moeite, zijn ongeduld en zijn onrust te verbergen.
Emilia kon reeds terug zijn! Wat bleef ze lang weg! Dat was toch
hare gewoonte niet!
Hemel, als haar eens iets overkomen was! Onwillekeurig greep hij
naar zijn hoed aan den kapstok.
„Johan, wat mankeert je? Wat is er gebeurd?” riep zijne vrouw,
ontsteld opstaande.
„Och, niets van belang; ik moet even weg, en Emilia komt niet
terug.”
„Wel, ik ben niet ziek meer en kan wel een oogenblik alleen blijven.”
Daar werd gescheld. Gelukkig, het was Emilia.
In een oogwenk had haar vader zijn jas aangeschoten en zijn hoed
opgezet.
„Ik kom spoedig terug.”
Zijn gejaagdheid ontging Emilia niet. Den schijn aannemend hem
nog iets op te dragen, volgde zij haar vader in de gang.
„Vader, wat is er te doen? Waarom zoo haastig?”
Roda toonde haar het zoo even ontvangen briefje. Ook zij poogde
tevergeefs de oorzaak te raden. Aan Willem dachten geen van
beiden; die zat immers rustig en wel op de schoolbanken.
Het gerust geweten van Willems vader gaf dezen spoedig zijn kalmte
terug, en bedaard stapte hij de kamer van den commissaris binnen.
Als een donderslag bij helderen hemel trof hem de jobstijding.
Indien eenige beambten hem niet gegrepen hadden, zou hij tegen
den grond geslagen zijn. Voorzichtig deden ze hem op [24]de bank
plaats nemen, en boden hem een glas water aan. De commissaris en
de agenten, ofschoon aan dergelijke tooneelen gewoon, waren met
zijn leed begaan. De eerste bezorgde den ongelukkigen vader in zijn
leuningstoel een gemakkelijker rustplaats, en bleef zelf staan.
Met de ellebogen op de knieën en het gelaat in de handen
verborgen, bleef Roda roerloos zitten.
De commissaris was er verlegen mede; hij verweet zich, bij de
mededeeling van het feit niet omzichtig genoeg gesproken te
hebben, en wist niet, hoe hij zijn onhandigheid weer goed zou
maken.
„Mijnheer,” zei hij, na een poos, op eenig teeken van leven gewacht
te hebben, „mijnheer, sta eens op, laat de droefheid u niet
overmeesteren, er moet gehandeld worden. Is u in staat, mij aan te
hooren?”
Roda hief het hoofd op.
„’t Eerste, dat u te doen heeft, is naar de ouders van den verslagene
te gaan en te trachten, het hart van den vader te vermurwen. Ik heb
den heer Walling hier ontboden, maar hij heeft tot nu toe geen
gevolg aan mijn oproeping gegeven. Misschien kan hij uw zoon de
voorloopige hechtenis besparen.
„Stel u evenwel de zaak niet te licht voor, want al is de arme jongen
nog niet dood, de geneesheer verklaarde mij, dat er weinig of geen
hoop op herstel bestaat. Bovendien vernam ik, dat de heer Walling
reeds eenigermate uw vijand is; bereid u derhalve voor op een
onaangename ontmoeting. In elk geval kunt u beproeven, of hij tot
gematigdheid te stemmen is; haast u dus.”
Roda stond met knikkende knieën op.
„Wil ik u een agent meegeven?”
Nauwelijks had de commissaris de woorden uit den mond, of de
deur werd driftig opengeworpen, en Walling zelf stond op den
drempel.
Niet zoodra werd hij Roda gewaar, of zijn gelaatstrekken verwrongen
zich tot een onbeschrijfelijke uitdrukking van woede en haat, en met
den brullend uitgestooten kreet: „moordenaar!” wierp hij zich op
Roda.
De agenten hadden moeite, dezen uit de handen van den razende te
bevrijden. Op een wenk van den commissaris brachten ze den hevig
ontstelden man uit de kamer in de voorzaal.
Toen Roda eenigszins van den schrik bekomen was, verliet hij met
loome schreden het bureau.
Waarheen? Naar huis? De ontzettende tijding aan vrouw en dochter
brengen? Hij had er den moed niet toe. Doelloos dwaalde hij rond.
[25]
Een ijzige Decemberwind woei hem om het verhitte hoofd, doch
bracht geen verkoeling. Al zijne polsen klopten, als moesten de
aderen barsten. De voorbijgangers staarden nieuwsgierig den armen
man aan, die, met gebukt hoofd, van het trottoir op de straat, en
van de straat weer naar het trottoir waggelde, als was hij
beschonken.
Zonder te weten, hoe hij er gekomen was, stond hij voor de
gevangenis. Het deerde hem niet, hij bemerkte het nauwelijks, dat
de leegloopers bleven staan, en hem brutaal aanstaarden.
Hij schelt, een sombere klank galmt door de gewelfde gang. De
schildwacht staakt, ondanks zijne verkleumde voeten, den haastigen
tred en blijft trantelend staan. De sleutel knarst in het slot.
Een cipier, met den onafscheidelijken, rammelenden bos sleutels,
opent de deur op een kier.
„Is mijn zoon hier?”
„Zijn naam?”
„Willem Roda.”
„Zal hooren,” zegt de cipier en slaat de deur dicht; ’t is ook zoo koud
buiten.
Weer gaat de deur open. Men laat Roda binnen.
Op eene tafel in het portierskamertje ligt het register.
Een andere beambte bukt zich over de lange lijst.
„Roda, zegt u? A, B, D, G, M, R, Ra, Re, Ro, Roda, juist, No. 41, van
middag gebracht.”
„Laat me, als het u belieft een oogenblik bij hem.”
De cipier glimlacht om Roda’s onnoozelheid. Hoe kan iemand ook
zoo dom zijn?
„Onmogelijk, mijnheer! De directeur is er niet, maar spaar u de
moeite van het wachten. Nu nog niet; hij is nog niet voor den
rechter van instructie geweest. U kunt later terugkomen.”
„Maar het is mijn zoon, mijn Willem, ik moet hem spreken, ik wil
hem zien, ik ben zijn vader!”
„Wel mogelijk, mijnheer: al was u zijn advocaat, het mag niet, de
wet verbiedt het.”
Roda strijkt de handen over het klamme voorhoofd.
De wet! ja, hij is immers geen meester meer over zijn kind. De wet
treedt in zijne rechten; toch aarzelt hij nog; zou hij trachten den
cipier te verteederen?
„Och, mijnheer, laat me hem slechts even zien. U kunt immers
meegaan, ik zal geen woord spreken!”
Doch den cipier heeft deze dagelijks terugkeerende scène reeds te
lang geduurd.
„Portier, laat mijnheer uit!” luidt het norsche antwoord. Deze opent
de deur en Roda staat weer op straat. [26]
De avond begint reeds te vallen. Reeds fonkelt in het Westen de
avondster aan den zachtblauwen winterhemel. De zon zinkt weg
achter de daken van de gevangenis; maar nog vergulden haar
laatste, wegstervende stralen de nok van de tegenoverliggende
huizen, en zetten de dakvensters in vuur.
Met weemoed in het hart, ziet Roda de zon verdwijnen; met haar
verdwijnt ook de zon van zijn hoop, van zijn leven. En niet voor één
nacht, om morgen—zooals de avondster, het beeld der hoop, met
haar liefelijk geflonker schijnt te beloven—even schoon en stralend
te herrijzen; neen, zijn zon was, zoo hij meende, voor altijd
ondergegaan in een akelige cel, achter de kille, koude muren van
een gevangenis.
De diep bedroefde man zal naar huis gaan; doch nu ontbreekt hem
niet alleen de moed, maar ook de kracht, om een trooster te wezen
voor de zijnen.
Nu is zijn tred niet meer vast, zijn houding niet meer fier. Het verlies
van zijn vermogen had den flinken man slechts kunnen buigen, de
misdaad van zijn zoon heeft hem gebroken.
Onder het gaan, overdenkt hij, hoe er niemand is, die deelneemt in
zijn lot, wien hij zijn nood kan klagen.
Daar schiet hem plotseling het woord van Omens te binnen: „En ik
dan?”
Zijn besluit is genomen. Onverwijld begeeft hij zich naar de woning
van den advocaat. Gelukkig treft hij hem thuis.
In onsamenhangende woorden deelt hij hem de noodlottige
gebeurtenis mede, zoodat Omens, meer door vragen dan door de
mededeeling van zijn vriend, tot een juist begrip van het gebeurde
kwam. Ook hij was hevig ontsteld.
„En je vrouw en je dochter?”
„Weten nog niets,” zegt Roda zuchtend.
„Ik begrijp je, ik zal gaan, maar wanneer een man als jij den moed
laat zinken is alles verloren.—Blijf zoolang hier.”
Den smeekenden blik van Roda opvangende ging hij voort:
„Wees gerust; ik krijg, helaas! zoo langzamerhand een zekere
vaardigheid in het behoedzaam overbrengen van ongelukstijdingen.”
En na een oogenblik nadenkens voegde hij er bij:
„God geve, dat ik je nog eens een blijde boodschap mag brengen!”
Roda begreep zijne bedoeling:
„Och Omens, of het je ook al gelukt hem vrij te doen spreken; de
schande neem je niet van mijn hoofd en nog minder van het zijne.
Tweemaal binnen één maand zijn we de fabel van de stad!” En in
snikken uitbarstend:
„God! mijn kind een moordenaar! Wie had dat ooit kunnen denken!”
[27]
Omens liet wijselijk den ongelukkigen man met zijne smart alleen en
kweet zich zoo goed mogelijk van de ondankbare taak, die hij met
alle omzichtigheid ten einde bracht.
Al viel de slag niet plotseling, het verdriet werd er niet door
verminderd.
Nadat Roda dien avond door Omens thuis was gebracht, spraken
geen van drieën één woord meer; zwijgend zaten zij tegenover
elkander en staarden met bleeke wangen en sombere blikken voor
zich uit. Schijnbaar waren ze in gedachten verdiept, in werkelijkheid
echter bedwongen ze slechts met moeite de uitbarsting van hun
smart.
Eerst nadat zij de kamer verlaten hadden, om zich ter ruste te
leggen, kon ieder voor zich aan zijn overkropt gemoed lucht geven.
’t Duurde lang eer Willem in zijn cel tot bezinning kwam. Alsof hij uit
een droom ontwaakte, keek hij zijne gevangenis rond, en begreep
niet eens, hoe hij er in gekomen was. Het ging hem als iemand, die
bewusteloos uit het water gehaald is, en in een vreemd huis bij
kennis komt.
Maar langzamerhand doemde de herinnering aan de gebeurtenissen
van dien dag weder in hem op. De beelden warrelden eerst door
elkander als de sneeuwvlokken bij een wervelwind, eindelijk kwam
er orde in den chaos. Achtereenvolgens kwamen ze op, verflauwden
en verdwenen als de lichtbeelden van een tooverlantaarn; eerst de
school, daarop zijne luchtkasteelen, het omverloopen van Van Dal,
de vechtpartij en eindelijk het wegdragen van den stervenden
jongen. Kijk, ’t is of dat akelige gezicht daar op den muur
geschilderd is; het verdwijnt niet zooals de andere beelden. Een
rilling vaart Willem door de leden; hij kan zijn blik er niet van
afwenden; met geweld keert hij zich om; ook op dien muur staat
het. Zijn slapen bonzen, of er in zijn hoofd gehamerd wordt. Hij sluit
zijn oogen; tevergeefs! Het spooksel wijkt niet. Het verdraait de
oogen en schijnt te spreken. Daar hoort hij weer den sarrenden toon
en de tergende woorden van den „schooier”:
„Is ’t waar, dat je vader zich doodgeschoten heeft?” En zonderling,
het grijnzend spook is verdwenen.
Nu beseft hij ook opeens, waar hij is, en waarom hij hier is. Schuw
kijkt hij om zich.
Zijn cel is een meter of vier lang en ruim half zoo breed. Tot op
eenigen afstand van den asphalten vloer zijn de wanden zwart
geteerd, overigens wit gepleisterd en bedekt met tallooze namen,
woorden en teekeningen; de meeste letters en de figuren zijn met
de nagels of een scherp voorwerp ingekrast, [28]sommige met
potlood gekrabbeld, en enkele met bloed geschreven.
In een der smalle wanden is, niet ver van de deur, een tralievenster
aangebracht, dat de cel slechts spaarzaam verlicht. De eenige
meubelen zijn een houten stoel en een tafeltje onder de gaspit en
bovendien tegen den anderen wand drie boven elkander geplaatste
planken. Op de middelste een bijbel en eenige andere boeken; op de
onderste kammen en verdere benoodigdheden. Onder den stoel ligt
een mat, en op de tafel staat een met water gevulde aarden kruik en
een tinnen beker.
Gretig drinkt Willem beker op beker ledig. De nieuwsgierigheid en ’t
vreemde van een gevangenis verbannen voor een oogenblik zijn
vrees, maar de nieuwsgierigheid is spoedig bevredigd en de angst
keert terug; ook het woelen en bonsen in zijn hoofd begint opnieuw.
Opgewonden loopt hij nu heen en weer, als een tijger in zijn kooi;
honderd malen heeft hij de lengte van zijn cel met haastige
schreden gemeten. Allerlei gedachten bestormen hem. Zouden ze
het thuis al weten? Zou hij hier lang moeten blijven? Bij elk geluid
dat door de dikke muren dringt, staat hij stil. Nu eens is het boven
hem een voetstap, dan weer in de gang het dichtslaan van eene
deur of gerammel van sleutels.
’t Begint te schemeren, en de uiterste hoeken van de cel zijn reeds
onzichtbaar; het kleine stukje hemel, dat hij door de tralies kan
waarnemen, verwisselt zijn blauw met grijs.
Als ze hem nu eens vergaten?
De naderende duisternis vermeerdert zijn angst; ’t is of de wanden
naar elkander toe komen, om hem te verpletteren.
„Ik wil er uit, laat me er uit!” gilt hij en schopt en trapt, bonst en
beukt met hakken en vuisten tegen de eikenhouten deur, tot de
hielen hem pijn doen en de vuisten bloeden; doch de deur wijkt niet,
alles blijft stil als het graf. Afgemat door de vruchtelooze poging,
gaat Willem op den stoel zitten en kijkt nog eens rond.
Als hij dat venster maar open kon krijgen! Maar hoe er bij te komen?
Wacht, als dat tafeltje er onder staat, zal het gelukken. Snel als de
gedachte springt hij op, en grijpt het tafeltje bij den rand. IJdele
poging, het is aan den grond vastgeklonken. De stoel dan: ook die is
onwrikbaar bevestigd.
De tegenstand maakt zijn verlangen des te vuriger; of er zijn leven
van afhangt, haakt hij er naar; het venster moet open.
Al zijn denken trekt zich op dit eene punt samen en dit maakt hem
vindingrijk.
Eén voet op het scharnier van de deur, de andere op de
verwarmingsbuis, dat gaat; het is wel wat hoog; nog maar wat
[29]uitgerekt.…. een ruk, het venster vliegt open—en Willem valt
achterover op den vloer.
Tegelijk met een kouden wind, dringt een verward gedruisch door de
tralies, niet ongelijk aan het ruischen der golven, als ze breken tegen
het strand. Het is rumoer van de straat, doch verzwakt door den
afstand en de hoogte. De gillende stemmen der venters, het schellen
der trams, het geratel der wielen, alles is saamgesmolten tot één
golvenden toon, die nu eens zachter dan weer luider klinkt,
naarmate het grootste geraas, dat den grondtoon vormt, dichtbij of
veraf is. Daar buiten is het leven, hier in de cel is de dood. Het wordt
Willem te moede of hij in eene doodkist met eene opening ligt, en
het leven der wereld hoort uit een graf. Hij heeft zich bij zijn val zoo
geducht bezeerd, dat hij van eene tweede poging, om op dezelfde
wijze de tralies te bereiken afziet. De vertwijfeling nabij valt hij op
den vloer neer.
„Toreador en ga-a-a-ar-de. Toreador, Toreador.….” klinkt het
eensklaps, wel wat zwak, doch duidelijk hoorbaar.
Een orgeldraaier heeft vlak voor den muur van de gevangenis post
gevat. Hij heeft ook een proefje van het leven daarbinnen gehad en
weet hoezeer zijn anders zoo geminacht instrument door de
gevangenen wordt op prijs gesteld.
Elken namiddag als zijn eentonige dagtaak is volbracht, en hij zijn
koperen ontvangst heeft nageteld, denkt hij aan zijn vroegere
lotgenooten in de ellende.
En al hebben de menschen hem met verkleumde vingers tevergeefs
laten draaien, en de meiden hem afgesnauwd, omdat zij voor dat
bedelvolk telkens naar de schel moesten loopen, voor de gevangenis
speelt hij zijn geheel repertorium nog eens om Godswil; en, indien
hij slechts eenig teeken van bijval bemerkt, drie-, viermaal over.
Daar hij langen tijd hetzelfde publiek houdt, verwisselt hij dikwijls
tegen den avond zijn gewoon instrument voor dat van een collega,
om eens wat afwisseling in het programma te brengen.
Op dien avond gebeurde het, dat een dame, die toevallig
voorbijwandelde, staan bleef en nieuwsgierig vroeg:
„Orgeldraaier, voor wie speel je daar?”
„Voor de gevangenen, mevrouw! Kijk ze eens de neuzen door de
tralies steken, om beter te hooren. Allen zijn present, op één na; die
is zeker ontslagen of anders bepaald ziek; ik wou dat ik wat dichter
bij kon komen.”
„Hier man, heb je een gulden voor je moeite!”
„Vraag wel excuus, mevrouw, als ik morgen bij u kom, zal ik voor u
spelen. Ik neem nu al vast uw geld dankbaar aan, zeg me uw adres
maar. Hier speel ik voor mijn plezier.” [30]
„Zeg, kameraad, steek eens op!” fluistert de schildwacht, die het
gesprek heeft gehoord, en kijkt behoedzaam rond, want hij mag op
wacht niet spreken; „’t mot een fijne wezen, ik heb hem van den
sergeant en die heeft hem van den oppasser van den kapitein; ik
heb net zoo lief een flinke pruim.”
„Nou, in Gods naam dan, voor van avond bij een slokkie thee. Kijk,
daar heb je no. 41 ook. Dat hokkie ken ik: daar heb ik ook een half
jaar gebromd. Voor dien moet ik het nog eens overdoen.”
Inderdaad was het Willem gelukt weer bij de tralies te komen. Niet
voor niets had hij gymnastiek geleerd. Met een aanloop, zoo groot
als de lengte van de cel het toeliet, en een hoogsprong zooals hij er
nog nooit een over het lijntje had gemaakt, bereikte hij de tralies;
klemde zich met beide handen vast en bleef hangen. Met de knieën
werkte hij zich zooveel mogelijk op, om zijn zwaarte te verminderen.
De schorre tonen van het draaiorgel klonken hem als hemelsche
muziek in de ooren. Op het lied uit Carmen volgde „Die schöne blaue
Donau”, nog eene polka van Strauss en lest best, het lied „An den
Abendstern” van Wagner.
De goedhartige liereman vertrok en nam den hartedank mede van
velen, wier eenige troost en opwekking hij was.
Ofschoon zijn armen hevig pijn deden, bleef Willem nog hangen. De
binnenplaats was van de tralies uit niet in haar geheel te overzien,
daartoe was de muur te dik en het venster te hoog boven den
grond; maar in de verte zag hij, tusschen de omringende huizen
door, in eene drukke straat. De winkels waren helder verlicht en
eene haastige menigte krioelde er als mieren door elkander.
Een oogenblik dacht hij aan ontvluchten, maar ook één oogenblik
slechts. De hoogte, de breede muren zonder houvast en de stevige
arm-dikke tralies waren even zoovele onoverkomelijke hinderpalen.
Uit zoo’n gevangenis kon geen kat ontsnappen.
Zijn handen begonnen te verstijven van de koude en het
krampachtig vasthouden der tralies; hoewel tegen zijn wil, moest hij
loslaten. De sprong achteruit gelukte zonder veel pijn. Tot zijne
verbazing was de cel helder verlicht door een groote gasvlam boven
het tafeltje. Verschrikt kneep hij de oogen dicht, die zoo lang in de
duisternis hadden getuurd. Bijna op hetzelfde oogenblik werden de
grendels weggeschoven, knarste het slot en kwam een kreupele
bewaker binnen. Deze zette, zonder te spreken, een tinnen bord met
gesneden roggebrood en eene kan—van hetzelfde metaal—met melk
op het tafeltje. Een pakje, dat hij onder den arm had gedragen,
legde hij in een hoek op den grond en sloot het venster met een
haak. [31]
Het was een kleine man met een ruw, bijna woest uiterlijk. Zijn
lange, vuile haren hingen verwilderd om zijn hals en op zijn
voorhoofd. Zijn kleine, grijze oogen, sluw en wreed als van een vos,
keken Willem doordringend aan; zijn bovenlip was gespleten en
lieten twee vervaarlijk groote, zwarte tanden zien.
Blijkbaar maakte Willems nette kleeding hem nieuwsgierig; hij
bekeek hem van het hoofd tot de voeten, en nam eene houding aan,
alsof hij een vraag verwachtte; toen die niet kwam, vroeg hij met
piepende stem, die zonderling bij zijn roofdierkop afstak:
„Al meer in de cel geweest?”
Willem schudde nauw merkbaar het hoofd, en gevoelde zich lang
niet op zijn gemak.
„Niet? De hangmat vasthaken, stroo en dekens er op leggen, op die
plank alles wat er noodig is.”
Hij scheen meer mededeelzaamheid bij de gevangenen gewoon te
zijn; ten minste hij wachtte nog en bleef Willem met zijn gluipende
oogen aanzien; deze echter sloeg de zijne neer en bewaarde een
hardnekkig stilzwijgen.
„Bent er vroeg bij, maatje, zeker gestolen op een kantoor.”
„Dat lieg je!” schreeuwde Willem driftig opspringend; maar hij
bedwong zich en herinnerde zich de oorzaak van zijn
gevangenschap. Misschien ook wist die man iets van „den schooier”.
Zich tot vriendelijkheid dwingende, vroeg hij zonder den man aan te
zien:
„Kunt u mij ook iets vertellen van dien jongen, dien ik.… dien ik zoo
bezeerd heb; weet u ook soms, of het gevaarlijk is, of hij soms.…”
„Zoo, hm, niet gestolen, dacht het wel, veel te mooi gekleed,
rijkelui’s kind, vechtpartij, vrijkomen, morgen uit de cel, pistole,
duitje afhalen,” piepte de bewaker voor zich ziende en hardop
denkende.
„Zegt u wat, mijnheer?” vroeg Willem, die met angst op een
antwoord wachtte.
„Neen, weet niets, mag niets zeggen, morgen misschien voor den
rechter van instructie.”
„Wie? Wat bedoel je, spreek duidelijker!”
„Neen, weet niets, mag niets zeggen, anders weggejaagd, arm,—
vrouw en kinderen hongerlijden,—morgen alles krijgen voor geld;”—
hij kwam dichter bij Willem, die onwillekeurig terugdeinsde, en siste
hem toe, met een grijns van verstandhouding:
„Zal stil nog eene deken brengen,—niemand zeggen, boter op het
brood morgen.”
Willem kon zijn afkeer van den hatelijken man nauwelijks
[32]verbergen en vroeg niet verder, zoodat de bewaker met een
„goeden nacht,—tien uur licht uit”—heenging.
Veel wijzer was Willem niet geworden; alleen had hij begrepen, dat
hij den volgenden dag voor den rechter zou verschijnen.
Hoewel hij sinds dien morgen negen uur niets gegeten had,
gevoelde hij toch geen behoefte aan voedsel; hij liet dan ook het
brood staan en dronk alleen de melk.
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  • 5. Sociology Work and Industry Fifth edition Tony J. Watson Digital Instant Download Author(s): Tony J. Watson ISBN(s): 9780203928479, 0203928474 Edition: 5 File Details: PDF, 3.87 MB Year: 2008 Language: english
  • 7. Sociology,Work and Industry This popular text explains and justifies the use of sociological imagi- nation to understand the nature of institutions of work, occupations, organisations, management and employment and how they are changing in the twenty-first century. With outstanding breadth of coverage it provides an authoritative overview of both traditional and emergent themes in the sociological study of work; explains the basic logic of sociological analysis of work and work-related institutions; and provides an appreciation of different theoretical traditions. It fully considers: • the direction and implications of trends in technological change, globalisation, labour markets, work organisation, managerial practices and employment relations; • the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing experiences of individuals and families; • the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own contributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions. New features include an easy-to-read, fully signposted layout, key issue questions, snapshot case studies, chapter summaries and a companion website which contains useful resources (for students and teachers). All of these elements – and much more – provide you with a text unrivalled in the field. Tony J. Watson is Professor of Organisational Behaviour in the Nottingham University Business School, University of Nottingham.
  • 10. First edition published 1980 Second edition published 1987 by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd Reprinted 1988, 1991, 1993 and 1995 Third edition 1995 Fourth edition published 2003 by Routledge Reprinted 2004, 2005, 2006 Fifth edition 2008 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1980, 1987, 1995, 2003, 2008 Tony J. Watson All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Watson, Tony J. Sociology, work and industry/Tony J. Watson. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Industrial sociology. I. Title. HD6955.W38 2008 306.3—dc22 2007041893 ISBN10: 0-415-43554-4 (hbk) ISBN10: 0-415-43555-2 (pbk) ISBN10: 0-203-92847-4 (ebk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-43554-3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-43555-0 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-92847-9 (ebk) iv This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” ISBN 0-203-92847-4 Master e-book ISBN
  • 11. List of figures, tables and snapshots xi Introduction xv 1 Studying work and society 1 People, work and society 1 Thinking about work sociologically 4 Choices, constraints and opportunities in work and society 4 Work and the sociological imagination 7 Sociology, critique and democratic debate about work 9 Sociology and the emergence of industrial societies 10 The continuing challenge 12 Sociology and the informing of democratic choices about work 13 Sociology and the future of work 14 Researching and theorising work patterns and experiences 16 Sociology as science 16 Theory, work and society 17 A range of research methods 18 Methodological assumptions 20 Coping with the variety of orientation in the sociology of work and industry 24 2 The sociological analysis of work and industry 29 Six strands of thought in the sociology of work 29 The managerial-psychologistic strand 31 Scientific management 31 Psychological humanism 33 Discussion 36 The Durkheim-systems strand 37 Emile Durkheim 38 Human relations and the Hawthorne studies 40 v Contents Contents
  • 12. Systems thinking in industrial sociology 44 Corporate cultures 45 Discussion 46 The interactionist strand 47 The Chicago school and symbolic interactionism 48 Organisations as negotiated orders 49 Ethnomethodology 50 Discussion 52 The Weber-interpretivist strand 53 Max Weber 53 Orientations to work 56 Institutional theories of organisation and the social construction of reality 57 Discussion 59 The Marxian strand 60 Marx and Engels 60 Marxian industrial sociology and labour process analysis 62 Discussion 64 The poststructuralist strand and postmodernism 66 Postmodernism 66 Poststructuralist labour process thinking, Foucault, discourse and human subjectivity 67 Discussion 69 Towards a language-sensitive but not language-centred sociology of work and organisation 70 3 Work, society and globalisation 74 The nature of modern societies 74 The emergence of industrial capitalism 77 From feudalism to capitalism 77 Protestantism and the spirit of capitalism 79 Social groups and the rise of industrialism 82 Industrialisation and the changing division of labour 84 Technology, science and social change 87 Industrial capitalism: change and transition 90 Post-industrialism and the information society 90 Post-Fordism 92 Flexible specialisation 94 Postmodernity 95 McDonaldisation and the blurring of the manufacturing– service distinction 96 Globalisation in perspective 99 CONTENTS vi
  • 13. 4 Work organisations 107 The organisational principle of work structuring 107 The nature of work organisations 109 Official and unofficial aspects of organisations 112 Organisational structures and cultures 115 Official structure and culture: basic organisational design principles 119 Bureaucracy 120 Classical administrative principles 123 Taylorism and Fordism 123 The limits of bureaucracy and the paradox of consequences 125 The virtues of bureaucracy, virtual organisations and the fantasy of the post-bureaucratic organisation 128 Contingency and choice in the shaping of organisational structures and cultures 131 Micropolitics, careers and unofficial management practices 134 Vertical aspects of micropolitics 136 Horizontal aspects of micropolitics 139 Unofficial practices and bureaucratic dysfunctions 141 Ambiguity and decision processes 143 5 The changing organisation and control of work 147 Work restructuring and the logic of corporate management 147 The logic of corporate management 149 Choice and circumstance in the shaping of employment or ‘human resourcing’ practices 152 Labour processes and employment practice options 153 HRM and the choice between ‘high commitment’ and ‘low commitment’ human resourcing strategies 155 The pursuit of flexibility and direct and indirect managerial control options 159 The pursuit of flexibility and new work control practices 161 Teamworking and control 162 Lean production and process re-engineering 165 Change and continuity in HR strategies and work practices 167 Information and communication technologies (ICTs) and control 168 Culture management and worker subjectivity 172 6 Occupations, inequality and varieties of work 176 The occupational principle of work structuring 176 Occupational structure, class, status and inequality 180 Locating an occupation in the class structure 183 Ownership, control and the class location of managers 185 Status and the ‘first line manager’ 187 CONTENTS vii
  • 14. Status and dirty work 189 Labour market segmentation and non-standard employment 190 Part-time and temporary work 191 Home and teleworking 192 Work outside employment 194 Self-employment 194 Paid work in the informal economy 196 Domestic work 197 Voluntary work 200 Gender and inequality 201 Changing historical patterns 201 Contemporary patterns 202 Explaining patterns 207 Ethnicity and inequality 210 Occupational socialisation and recruitment 211 Occupational careers 214 Occupational identity, culture and ideology 215 Occupational communities 218 Professionalisation and occupational strategies 219 7 Work experiences, identities and meanings 226 Work, meaning and culture 226 Entering work 230 Choice and opportunity structures 230 Class, family and educational influences 232 Work and satisfaction 233 Technology, work experience and alienation 236 Work orientations: variations, dynamics and the negotiation of implicit contracts 239 Dynamic work orientations and changing worker priorities 241 Dynamic work orientations and the negotiation of implicit contracts 244 Patterns of work orientation and experience within the organisational hierarchy 247 Women’s preferences, choices and work orientations 248 Identity, discourse and work experience 251 Identity, discourse and identity work 251 Portfolio and ‘boundaryless’ careers or ‘one dead end job after another’ 256 Managerial orientations and experiences 259 Anxiety, emotion and sexuality at work 261 Angst in the human condition generally and in managerial work specifically 261 The rise of the stress discourse 262 Emotions and feelings 262 CONTENTS viii
  • 15. Emotional labour, emotion management and aesthetic labour 264 Sexuality and the workplace 266 Work and non-working lives 268 Work, leisure and work–life balance 268 Unemployment 271 8 Conflict, resistance and misbehaviour in work 275 Conflict and cooperation at work 275 Analysing conflict at work 279 Frames of reference 279 Unitary thinking 279 Pluralist analyses 280 Radical perspectives 281 Contradictions and conflicts 282 Effort bargains, fragile implicit contracts and the inevitability of grievances 287 The mobilisation of interests 290 Coalitions and interests 290 Trade unions and collective bargaining 291 Changing patterns of employer–union relations 293 Shop stewards and workplace representation 296 Job control strategies and ‘making out’ 297 Adjustment, resistance and organisational mischief 299 Accommodation, subjectivity and values 301 Withdrawal, instrumentalism and the management of boredom 302 Humour at work 305 Bullying and sexual harassment 308 Cheating, fiddling and breaking things 309 Rule manipulation 312 Service work and defence of self 313 Concept guide and glossary 316 Bibliography 335 Author index 379 Subject index 386 CONTENTS ix
  • 17. Figures 1.1 Individuals make society and society makes individuals 6 2.1 The capitalist mode of production 61 4.1 Official and unofficial aspects of organisations in their societal context 116 4.2 Contingencies and managerial choices in shaping organisational structures and cultures 134 5.1 Choices and constraints in the shaping of organisational human resourcing practices 157 7.1 Factors influencing the individual’s approach to work 231 7.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic work satisfactions: a continuum 235 7.3 Blauner’s ‘inverted U curve’ relating alienation and technology 238 7.4 The individual’s perceived implicit contract at the centre of their work orientation 244 7.5 Two ideal types of relationship between individual and employing organisation (seen as two ends of various continuums related to the hierarchical structure of organisation) 248 8.1 The implicit contract between employer and employee in its societal and economic context 290 Tables 1.1 Realist and interpretivist social science methodologies 22 1.2 How the six strands of thought to be considered in Chapter 2 bring different emphases to the six focal areas of the sociology of work and industry covered in Chapters 3 to 8 26 2.1 Six strands of thought in the sociology of work and industry 30 3.1 Tönnies’ notion of a transition from community to association 78 5.1 Two ideal type human resourcing strategies 156 5.2 Direct and indirect approaches in the pursuit of managerial control 159 5.3 Direct and indirect work design principles 160 7.1 Human identity, self-identity, social-identities and identity work 252 xi Figures, tables and snapshots Figures, tables and snapshots
  • 18. Snapshots 1.1 Two people arriving at work: a simple case of thinking sociologically 5 1.2 The personal troubles of Mathieu and Valerie 8 1.3 Designing a study of call centres: making use of a variety of techniques 19 1.4 Three proposed studies of the relationship between people’s age and experience of work 23 2.1 ‘The hierarchy of needs theory doesn’t stack up, does it?’ 35 2.2 Her mind turned to Suicide: social solidarity and anomie in two organisational departments 39 2.3 Of rate busters and sociology tutorials 42 2.4 Connecting sex work, in particular, to service work generally 50 2.5 Putting ethnomethodology and ‘negotiated order’ to work on a factory yard 51 2.6 John’s changing orientation to work 57 2.7 Jean learns a sociological lesson – the hard way 65 2.8 The life of Janet: discourses as constraining and enabling 72 3.1 The Lunar Society of Birmingham 83 3.2 Violin-making in Poterton 86 3.3 ‘The computer won’t let me do my job’ 89 3.4 Max and Samantha debate globalisation 100 4.1 Herding cats at Barkermills? 111 4.2 Mutual influences of official and unofficial practices at Barkermills 115 4.3 Official and unofficial structures at Begley’s Foods 117 4.4 Official and unofficial culture at Begley’s Foods 117 4.5 Some cultural features of Begley’s Foods 119 4.6 The rationalisation and bureaucratisation of the Merryton Echo 122 4.7 Melkins’ own ‘bureaucratic personality’ and the broken cricket bat 127 4.8 Marketing at Melkins: a means to business success or an end in itself? 128 4.9 Hitting the targets and endangering Melkins’ future 128 4.10 Contingencies, underwear and the fight for survival 135 4.11 The narrowing ladder in the Ministry of Technology 137 4.12 The very model of a modern moral manager 138 4.13 Indulging the team 142 4.14 The union committee decision bin 144 5.1 Keeping the Liffatec show on the road? 152 5.2 HR strategy-making at Liffatec 158 5.3 Two types of flexibility in a telecommunications company 160 5.4 Coal and organisational choice: a classic study 163 5.5 Upgrading work in the Viewfields call centre 171 6.1 ‘She does something in the council offices’ 178 6.2 Henry’s complaint 182 FIGURES, TABLES AND SNAPSHOTS xii
  • 19. 6.3 Tom remembers an old song 189 6.4 Home workers in our village 193 6.5 Self-employed people in our village 195 6.6 Domestic work in Christopher and Christine Fellows’ home 200 6.7 Pamela volunteers 201 6.8 Bedtime stories 204 6.9 Gendered roles and the microwave oven 205 6.10 Women and men of the !Kung 208 6.11 The occupation of soldiering 216 6.12 Discursive ingenuity and the professional institute 224 7.1 Wei Lei reflects on ‘working hard’ 229 7.2 Three medical students talk about parental pressure 232 7.3 The meat worker and the stone mason compare their jobs 237 7.4 Four cases of change in work orientation 243 7.5 Mary’s new job and new implicit contract 245 7.6 Clive goes for a ‘win–win’ in his supermarket store 247 7.7 Michael reflects on who he is 253 7.8 Humiliation and indignity at the bottom of the heap in the USA 258 7.9 Stress and hardship at the bottom of the heap in the UK 259 7.10 Kelly, Joan and the difficult customer 263 7.11 Emotion management in a special care baby unit 265 7.12 Caitlin’s aesthetic and emotional labour 267 7.13 Heidi, Will and Evan and three relationships between work and leisure 269 8.1 Working for Asif 276 8.2 Thomas watches the control-commitment pendulum swing back and forth 287 8.3 Frank starts a fire 301 8.4 Scrimshaw scrimshanks 304 8.5 Humour among sex workers 306 8.6 Hawks, donkeys, wolves and vultures 311 8.7 Three types and levels of sabotage 311 8.8 Customer labelling in the fish and chip shop 314 FIGURES, TABLES AND SNAPSHOTS xiii
  • 21. It might appear to be a truism to use the term ‘continuity and change’ when writing about work in contemporary societies and in peoples’ lives. But, as other authors concerned with these issues recognise (Edgell 2006; Williams 2007, to take just two examples) the expression is more than a cliché. There are significant changes occurring across work organisations, occupations and the global division of labour which affect the lives of practically every living person, whether their main involvement with work occurs in the office, the factory, the shop, the school, the home or wherever. Yet many of the key features of contemporary work structures and processes are those which took their distinctive shape within the industrialising and modernising processes of past centuries. Sociology emerged as an intel- lectual way of coming to terms with those changes and Sociology, Work and Industry is based on the premise that the sociological discipline continues to be a vital resource for anyone wishing to appreciate what is happening to work, industrialised societies and people’s experience of work (or, indeed, the lack of it). Two further premises follow from this initial one. First, it is assumed that we can appreciate neither the continuities nor the changes in work unless we set in their historical context both the work-related social institutions themselves and the sociological concepts, theories and research which have been used to understand them. This means that an effective text must present and explain what we might call the ‘classical’ ideas and research studies of the sociology of work which emerged in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as well as being fully ‘up to date’ with insightful and productive new ways of thinking. Second, it is believed that for sociology to fulfil its potential for informing our relationship to work it must avoid going too far with its own division of labour and leaving us with separate ‘subjects’ like organisation theory, sociologies of occupations, professions and work-experience, employment relations and so on. In such a deep and broad endeavour as that of studying ‘work’, these tendencies are inevitable xv Introduction Introduction
  • 22. and they are often fruitful. But it is vital that we have at least one text which crosses and integrates themes which run through these subjects. This is where Sociology, Work and Industry fits into the division of labour. The fact that the text is now appearing in a new edition, after four earlier and successful versions, suggests that it is meeting a significant need. And the fifth edition does more than simply update the research and thinking that appeared in earlier versions of the book. It has been developed to strengthen both its integrative purpose and its concern to relate sociological thinking to the lives of its readers. Hence two of the new ‘devices’ of the fifth edition. The ‘snapshot’ illustrative cases are designed to bring alive the more abstract academic reflections of the main text (drawing on a variety of sources, varying from the author’s own research work and personal experiences to published studies of other researchers). The signpost or ‘linking’ system might, at first sight, look like little more than a fancy form of cross-referencing. But it is much more than this. It allows us to come to terms with the fact that many themes run across and through the various chapters. And it also makes it possible for the reader or student to enter the text at whichever point best suits them or their tutor. If the focus of a module is, say, on work organisations or the management of organisations, one could start with Chapter 4 or 5, allowing the signposts to refer the reader back to relevant material from earlier chapters (on ‘rationalisation’ say) or forward to subsequent chapters (on worker orientations, say). A lot of work has gone into writing this book about work! But much of that work has been a pleasure to undertake, as has the teaching and the original research work which has been done alongside the preparation of this edition. Reading, writing and doing sociology is an exciting and rewarding activity. It is hoped that every reader of Sociology, Work and Industry will, in their own way, find it rewarding to engage with. And it is hoped that part of that reward will be an enhanced ability to come to terms with, and to contribute to, the shaping of their work activities either in the present or in the future. INTRODUCTION xvi
  • 23. 1 Studying work and society Studying work and society 1 Key issues • How can we most usefully differentiate ‘work’ from other human activities and endeavours? • What are the essential characteristics of a sociological way of thinking? • How can we most helpfully think about ‘society’ and ‘societies’? • What role has sociology played historically in understanding a changing world and what role might it play in understanding both contemporary issues and questions about the future of work? • In what ways can sociology be understood to be a science? • In what ways do sociologists use theories, adopt various research methods and work with differing philosophical (or ‘methodological’) assumptions? • How can we cope with the variety of ways in which sociologists orient themselves in their studies of work and work organisations? People, work and society Work is something in which everyone is involved in one way or another. This applies to people across the whole world. And it has applied to the human species across its whole history. People may work in their own small field, growing food to keep themselves alive. They may work in an office or a factory and, after a day working in an employer’s premises for a wage or a salary, they may return to do their housework or to work in their garden. Even those who do not themselves perform any of these labours are nevertheless involved with work; as owners of land on which other people work, as investors in industrial enterprises or as employers of servants. To understand the way of life of people living in any kind of society we therefore have to pay close attention to work activities and to the institu- tions associated with those activities.
  • 24. If we intend to study work activities and the institutions associated with them systematically, we need to decide first just what we mean by ‘work’. This is not a matter of producing a final and absolute definition of work. Sociology, like all scientific and other forms of systematic study, proceeds by deciding what is likely to be the most useful way of characterising the topics being studied. Certain types of economic inquiry in a modern industrialised society might best be conducted by defining work in terms of task-based activities for which people are paid by an employer, client or customer. However, this would exclude all those tasks that we refer to as ‘housework’ for example. This would be a serious omission given that, in Brown’s (1997) words, ‘without the enormous volume and unremitting cycle of domestic labour the formal economy of jobs and pay packets would cease to function’. It is argued by Pettinger et al. (2006) that feminists in the 1970s crucially challenged traditional conceptual boundaries when they ‘questioned the taken-for-granted assumption that work undertaken in the private sphere of the home was not “work”’. And Pettinger et al. (2006) build on this new tradition to propose what they suggest might be a ‘new sociology of work’. At the heart of this is Glucksmann’s notion of the ‘total social organisation of labour’ (Glucksmann 1995, 2000). This involves emphasising what Pettinger et al. (2006) call the ‘blurry line between work and not-work’ and Glucksmann (2006) herself illustrates how far this approach might be taken by proposing a ‘new’ area of study, that of ‘consumption work’. Sociologists traditionally put a boundary between work and consumption but Glucksmann (2006) observes that engaging in consumption practices ‘often relies on the “work” of knowledge acquisition and learning specific practical skills, so raising the question of whether, or in what sense, the acquisition of skills necessary to undertake consumption constitutes work’. Although one can see the value of suggestions such as Glucksmann’s one that ‘cooking and preparing meals could be a fruitful example to investigate for a complex fusion of work, non-work and skill acquisition’, we need to be careful. If we include in the scope of the sociology of work all task-oriented activity in which effort is expended, then we risk extending our study to such activities as walking across a room to switch on a television set or packing a bag to take for a day on the beach. We need a compromise that gives sufficient focus to our studies without limiting them to activities with a formal economic outcome. There are two main aspects of work that a sociological concept of work needs to recognise. The first is the task-related aspect of work and the second is the part played by work in the way people ‘make a living’. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 2 Looking forward Work which is done outside the traditional ‘workplace’ is looked at in Chapter 6 in connection, for example, with domestic work (p. 197) and work in the informal economy (p. 196). Glucksmann’s notion of the Total Social Organization of Labour is returned to in Chapter 6 (p. 207). ➪➪➪➪➪ Work The carrying out of tasks which enable people to make a living within the social and economic context in which they are located.
  • 25. This way of thinking about work associates it with the expenditure of effort to carry out tasks but it limits it to something that has an economic element – in the very broad sense of dealing with problems of survival in a world of scarce resources. But the notion of ‘making a living’ implies much more than just producing enough material goods to ensure physical survival. People do not simply extract a living from the environment. Work effectively transforms environments in many ways, and, in the process, creates for many people a level of living far in excess of basic subsistence. But it does more than this. It also relates intimately to how people shape their very lives and identities. And people’s lives are significantly shaped by the circumstances in which they have to work. The work people do becomes closely bound up with their conception of self. In looking at how people ‘make a living’ we are looking at how they deal with both the economic and the social or cultural aspects of their lives. Work is a social, economic and social phenomenon. It is not simply a matter of behaviour. Work occurs in societies and, as with work, we have to conceptualise society before we can examine systematically the role of work in human societies. Each society has its own set of economic and legal arrangements and dominant values, and its members are often pressed to share a degree of communality of identity. Each society also has its own pattern of power and inequality. Precisely where each individual and family fits into that pattern will be fundamental to how they experience work and how well they share in whatever human benefits derive from the work carried out in that society. Nevertheless, in spite of the fact that we typically identify societies with nation states, it is vital to note that it is sometimes more realistic to talk of, say, a ‘society’ of small farmers to be found in a remote part of a large nation state such as India, and sometimes it is more helpful to think about, say, managerial workers in ‘modern industrial capitalist society’ as opposed to looking separately at the lives of British, Swedish or American managers. There are significant patterns to be observed within and across nation states. Thus, when we think about ‘society’ as the subject matter of the discipline of sociology, it is wise to think of it broadly in terms of ‘the social’ in people’s lives – ‘social’, that is, at the level of the larger patterns of culture, community and political economy within which the smaller scale social interactions and, indeed, individual efforts to ‘make a life’ and ‘make a living’ occur. Sociological study looks at all these levels of human existence but, as we shall now see, its characteristic feature is its relating of the small scale, the local, the intimate in people’s lives to the bigger social scheme of things – both within and across particular societies. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 3 Society The broad pattern of social, economic, cultural and political relationships within which people lead their lives, typically but not exclusively, in the modern world as members of the same nation state. Looking forward The question of how we deal with the notion of ‘society’ in the context of an allegedly ‘globalising’ world is considered in Chapter 3. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 26. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 4 Sociology The study of the relationships which develop between human beings as they organise themselves and are organised by others in societies and how these patterns influence and are influenced by the actions and interactions of people and how they make sense of their lives and identities. Thinking about work sociologically Sociology provides us with a range of insights, concepts, theories and research findings which help us understand the wide range of work and work-related activities that occur in the context of the broader social and cultural arrangements. The defining characteristic of the sociological perspective is that it ultimately relates whatever it studies back to the way society as a whole is organised. The essential insight which sociology provides is that no social action, at however mundane a level, takes place in a social vacuum. It is always linked back to the wider culture, social structure and processes of the society in which it takes place. These structures, processes, norms and values, with all their related inequalities, ideologies and power distributions, are the source of both constraints and opportunities which people meet in conducting their lives. The better and more widely these cultures, struc- tures and processes are understood and the better the connections between specific actions or arrangements and these basic patterns are appreciated, then the greater is the opportunity for the human control over work, industry and every other kind of social institution. Let us envisage trying to make sense, sociologically, of a simple piece of ‘everyday’ work-related human behaviour (Snapshot 1.1). In analysing this simple piece of mundane activity in this way, we are thinking sociologically. In asking these questions, we are asking socio- logical questions. And, in doing so, we would be engaging with issues of power and life-chances in a way that would not just enhance our ‘academic’ understanding of relationships at work but would, potentially, offer understandings of possibilities and practices that could inform human choices that might further – or, for that matter, resist – social change. Choices, constraints and opportunities in work and society Sociology’s potential as a resource for informing human choice is something to which we will return shortly. First, however, we need to reinforce the point about working arrangements and social patterns being both the outcomes of human actions and factors helping shape those actions. Sociology has been defined here as something that looks at how human beings organise both themselves and each other. In looking at how people think and behave, it looks for cultural patterns and ‘structures’ in social life. These patterns are seen as both the outcome of the activities of individuals and as things which, in turn, influence, encourage and constrain the individual. If, for example, it was the man in Snapshot 1.1 who was the more senior of our two social actors, he might tell us in an interview that
  • 27. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 5 SNAPSHOT 1.1 Two people arriving at work: a simple case of thinking sociologically A man and a woman get out of a car and walk into an office block. One of them goes into a large private office and closes the door. The other sits at a desk outside that office alongside several other people. The person in the private space telephones the one in the outer office and a few minutes later the latter individual takes a cup of coffee and a biscuit into the person in the inner office. If we were viewing this scene as strangers to the work organisation, whether or not we were formally trained as sociologists, we would be thinking about both the personal and the work relationship between these people: were they a married couple, lovers or simply people sharing a lift to work? We would wonder how this aspect of their relationship related to the authority relationship between them: presumably one of them was ‘the boss’, was the more highly paid, the more highly trained, and had the right to give instructions to the other. We would here be drawing on our knowledge of ‘sociological’ matters such as social class, educational and career opportunity structures, bureaucratic authority structures, culturally normal patterns of workplace layout and the patterns of behaviour, rules, assumptions and expectations associated with work activities in this particular society and culture at this particular time in history. If it were the man that entered the private office we might note that standard ‘norms’ were being followed with regard to gender relationships. But if it were the woman who ‘played the role’ of the senior person – the presumably higher paid, more qualified individual with greater authority – we might begin to reflect on how this individual has come to challenge established patterns. How had she come to break established norms? What opportunity structures had she used, what barriers had she overcome? To what extent were her actions and her relatively unusual position in the workplace part of a broader pattern of social change? his current role as the organisation’s head of information technology was the outcome of a series of choices that he personally made in his life. The woman, to whom he gives a daily lift in his company car, might talk to us about how she chose to train and work as an office secretary. As sociological observers we would not want to discount these claims to choice or ‘agency’ in these individuals’ career patterns. Nor would we say that there were no individual choices behind the pattern whereby the great majority of the important ‘decision-makers’ in this organisation are currently men and most of the secretarial and ‘personal assistant’ workers are women. Choices have clearly been made. Nobody forced these people into these jobs. Each human individual is an agent, with wants, aspirations and a sense of identity which they bring to any decision to speak or act. But, at the same time, we are likely to be aware that the pattern we have observed is, in some sense, an outcome of the way the ‘society’ in which these people grew up channelled male and female children into different spheres of activity. There were clearly pressures on each child from the world around
  • 28. them: from role examples observed as they grew up to the opportunities made available to boys and girls in both education and initial employment. It is easily possible to see two mutually exclusive alternative types of explanation emerging here: agency and choice on the one hand and structural ‘channelling’ on the other. Sometimes sociologists talk of making a choice between voluntarist and structural frames of reference and modern sociological thought is characterised, says Swingewood (2000), ‘by a continual tension between . . . a voluntarist model which emphasises the creative and active role of agents, and a structural model which focuses on institutions and processes which constrain and determine the course of action’. To use terms which have been around as long as there has been social thought, we can speak of explanations which emphasise free will and explanations which stress determinism. This is something that sociologists try to go beyond. To develop an explanation of the patterns observed we need an analysis which considers the way these individuals came to shape their career interests and ‘choose’ their aspirations in the light of their previous experiences in life and what they have learned from the cultural and parental influences upon them to be the appropriate and possible types of work for them to enter. There is an interweaving of individual and social factors, of free choice and of constraint. We might simplify this, as Figure 1.1 does, by saying that individuals make society and society makes individuals. The analytical distinction between individual actions, on the one hand, and ‘the social’ on the other does not fully parallel the free will and determinism distinction, however, because it is possible to talk of an individual’s actions being severely constrained, if not determined, by factors such as their individual genetic make-up. Equally, it is possible to see social structures as providing opportunities for individuals to realise their individual interests (‘climbing the ladder’ of the class structure, say) as well as seeing people constrained by such structures (being excluded from an activity because of one’s gender or race, for example). Human beings are makers of social patterns and are also made by them. These patterns both constrain us and enable us to achieve our purposes. But these patterns or SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 6 Individual actions Social processes, cultures and structures Figure 1.1 Individuals make society and society makes individuals Looking forward Work organisations are part of this ‘structural’ world and precisely to what extent organisations ‘exist’, apart from the actions of people involved in them, is an important matter which we look at in Chapter 4 (pp. 109–12). ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 29. ‘structures’ are not objectively existing entities outside of human patterns of interaction, even though it may at times feel as if they have this kind of forceful presence. Sociology is not simply the study of ‘the social’, of societies, of social structures. Neither, of course, is it a study of individuals’ activities, aggregated in some way to give us a view of societies as little more than the sum of their parts. It is, rather, a study of the interrelationships between the individual and the social whose greatest potential lies in examining the processes whereby human initiatives and choices shape and are shaped by patterns of human interaction and power. Work and the sociological imagination In one of the most influential considerations of what sociology can con- tribute to human life, Mills (1970) identified the sociological imagination as a way of switching ‘upwards’ from an initial focus on the private problems of individuals. Such problems arise in the case of Mathieu and Valerie, who face losing their jobs (Snapshot 1.2). Although, as human beings, we are likely to be very concerned for Valerie, Mathieu and for all the other families affected by this big business decision, our distinctively sociological interests move us to a further level of concern. The sociological perspective places human predicaments such as these in their broader context. Mills (1970) characterised this broader context as raising ‘public issues’ and this language immediately suggests to us a range of matters such as the levels of employment and unemploy- ment in the city, the quality of educational provision for young children in this society and the nature of housing markets. These issues would require us to draw on other social sciences in addition to sociology – economics in particular. We would look at issues ranging from the state of the inter- national market for manufactured goods and managerial, governmental and trade union policies, to patterns of technological change and patterns of business ownership. And within the analysis which we would undertake, there is considerable potential for distinctly sociological matters such as patterns of urban change, gender differences in careers and child-rearing, class and power in business decision-making, the relationship between work and personal identities, the impact of globalising trends on different nation states and so on and so on. Sociology, then, shifts the level of focus from that of the close-up on the individual and their working life to that of the ‘big picture’ of the society in which they live but sociology is not simply to do with ‘painting a picture’, however broad that might be. It goes beyond this to look for regularities, patterns, structures and processes. The events in Valerie and 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 7 Looking forward A valuable context in which to look at the interplay to be seen in social life between ‘choice’ factors and structural opportunity/constraint factors is that of people’s entry into particular types of work or occupation. This is covered in the ‘Entering work’ section of Chapter 7 (pp. 230–3). ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 30. Mathieu’s city will be set in their historical context and the overall structure of the several societies involved – the industrial bases, the political- economic systems of both eastern and western Europe and the ways in which these fit into patterns of global change. In analysing these structures and processes the sociologist would try to show how they potentially both constrain people as well as enable people to further their personal wishes, whether these people be corporate managers, politicians and trade union officers or ‘ordinary’ employees like Mathieu and Valerie. This distinctly sociological way of thinking means stepping outside our normal ‘everyday’ commonsense way of thinking about our working lives and adopting what is perhaps the most basic sociological insight of all; that there is more than one way and one way only for men and women to organise their lives. In other words, the way society is is not necessarily the way society has to be. In the realm of work this means that the way we currently organise production and distribution does not possess some immutable inevitability. It is only one of a range of possibilities. Baumann and May (2001) refer to sociology’s ability to help us appreciate its ‘anti- fixating’ power. We are reminded, they say, that what we might think of as the ‘natural, inevitable, eternal aspects of our lives’ have come into being as a result of the exercise of ‘human power and human resources’. This, in turn, suggests that social patterns are not ‘immune and impenetrable to human action – our own action included’. A world that might have seemed SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 8 SNAPSHOT 1.2 The personal troubles of Mathieu and Valerie Mathieu and Valerie are a couple in their thirties who have three young children, two at primary school and one at nursery school. For the past dozen or so years, they have both done assembly work at a car factory which, under a variety of owners, has been part of the industrial city in which they live for many years. The current owners have decided to move all the work to a newly built factory in eastern Europe – arguing that that the ‘cost patterns’ and the ‘potential for innovation’ in that setting make it imperative for them to cease operating the city in which Valerie was born and into which Mathieu moved when he and Valerie first set up home together. The first ‘personal trouble’ which confronts the couple is that of the large drop which is likely to happen in their family income. Neither of them knows of alternative jobs in the city, which they might investigate. They are distressed at the prospect of losing their heavily mortgaged home and they worry that, even if they choose to sell the house, they will have serious difficulties because many other redundant workers are likely to be putting their properties on the market at the same time. Also, if they are able to move, whether within the city or beyond it, they are very worried about the children’s education. They struggled to get the children into the schools in which they are currently very happy. They would hate to take their children away from these schools and from the various friends and relatives that are such an important part of the lives of the whole family. Valerie’s mother is seriously ill and . . .
  • 31. ‘oppressive in its apparent fixity’ is shown to be a world that could be ‘different from what it is now’. We are thus encouraged not to surrender to what might, at first, seem to be irresistible pressures and circumstances. The original sociologists were thinkers striving to make sense of the dislocations of their age, as we shall shortly observe. The attempts by the classical sociological thinkers to make sense of their time are invaluable to us because, in an historical location more marginal than our own, they were better able to look at the industrial capitalist world in the light of conceptions of alternatives. This is the humanistic significance and the continuing relevance to us today of people like Marx, Weber and Durkheim. They were perhaps more aware of alternatives on a societal level than we are because they were better placed historically to contrast the modern and the industrial with the traditional, the urban with the rural, and so on. Sociology, critique and democratic debate about work The sociological imagination requires us to suspend our everyday common- sense assumptions about the world and, indeed, about the future of the world. But it also means being wary of styles of intellectual analysis that are more concerned with solving the problems of particular sections of society than with developing an analysis that would be relevant to members of society more generally. Jacques (1996) points out, for example, that many of the attempts currently being made to theorise work relations are producing their own kind of ‘commonsense’. At the heart of this is a standard body of relatively unchanging US-created ‘management know- ledge’ that takes for granted that the key ‘work’ issue is one of finding better ways to manage employees to enable organisations to achieve high productivity, international competitiveness and ‘world class efficiency’. Questions are not asked about the nature and legitimacy of work organisations or, for example, the role of non-managers in ‘managing’ work, in shaping ‘motivations’ or acting as social citizens within work arrangements in which relationships are built and balanced. To ask these questions, we might add, does not preclude an interesting issue of efficiency and productivity but it does mean asking ‘efficiency and productivity in whose interests?’ Tendencies in the sociology of work to play down the plurality of interests at work have been powerfully criticised by Castillo (1999a). He points to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a key purveyor (‘MIT Productions Inc.’) of analyses which, in effect, betray the critical legacy of sociology. He sees too many sociologists of work ‘penning pastoral odes to just-in-time production, to composing night serenades to work 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 9 Looking forward The elements of the contemporary sociology of work which have their roots in the thinking of Marx, Weber and Durkheim are examined in Chapter 2. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 32. commitment, almost Wagnerian symphonies to flexibility, or Mozartian divertimenti to lean production and “high technology work districts”’. There may be a degree of exaggeration in this attack. There is also perhaps a degree of over-excitement in the polemic (leading to the mistaken idea that Wagner composed symphonies) but, in Mills’ (1970) terms, the charge here is that the ‘private’ problems of members of society generally are not being related to broader ‘public issues’ in much of the contemporary social scientific study of work institutions and practices. In effect, the issues are less ‘public’ or democratic ones than issues for corporate, and especially American, capitalist interests (cf. Hutton 2002). In an address to the American Sociological Association, Burawoy (2004), a distinguished sociologist of work, argued for a greater engagement of sociology in public debates. This would entail harnessing sociology’s ‘longstanding critical imagination, reminding us that the world could be different’. Burawoy (2004) draws here on Mills’ (1970) notion of the sociological imagination, proposing that ‘as they turn private troubles into public issues, public sociologies should challenge the world as we know it exposing the gap between what is and what could be’. In the specific context of the sociology of work and employment, Stewart (2004) connects the notion of a public sociology to a recognition that there is ‘an ethical dimension underlying our work’. This might, in turn, be connected, in debates, to the ‘question[ing] of the hegemony of neo-liberalism and the need to challenge it in our work whenever relevant’. Stewart (2004), in addition to suggesting a critique of neo-liberal market-based political-economic philosophies is particularly concerned, alongside Fevre (2003), to counter the influence of what he refers to as ‘a range of actors obsessed with paying court to management as consultants peddling the verities of, for example . . . lean production and High Performance Work Systems’. Sociology and the emergence of industrial societies The sociological imagination requires a strong historical awareness. The sociologist of contemporary work studying, for example, lean production methods of high performance work systems is likely to consider these practices in the context of the continuing history of industrialisation. Sociology is itself a creature of the modern industrialised societies within which it developed as a form of critical reflection on the considerable social changes associated with industrialisation and the growth of capitalism. Sociology emerged in the nineteenth century as both a reaction to and a reflection of certain major social and cultural shifts which had been occurring for some hundreds of years in Europe. For some centuries prior to the emergence of sociology, the glue which held together the fabric of SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 10 Looking forward High performance work systems and lean production are some of the changing aspects of work design and control that will be examined in Chapter 5. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 33. European society, giving it stability and a widespread taken-for-granted- ness, had been weakening: • The Reformation in the sixteenth century saw a questioning of the authority of a centralised Catholic Church and, with the emergence of Protestantism and dissent, came a growing stress on the individual rather than the corporate and the rational rather than the traditional. • The Enlightenment in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries brought under rational and critical scrutiny institutions of religion, inequality, kinship, property and monarchy. • The Industrial and French Revolutions in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ensured that all of these institutions were further shaken and indeed often overturned. A bourgeois revolution occurred in England in 1688 limiting the power of the monarchy and, in France, the monarchy was toppled. Notions of democracy were becoming increasingly popular in the early decades of the nineteenth century but the problem of finding appropriate institutions for democratic politics was increased by the complications introduced by the Industrial Revolution. Capitalism had been growing in strength for centuries but by the early nineteenth century it had become combined with an industrial spirit and associated techniques which carried revolutionary structural implications. Arising partly within and partly from outside the established bourgeois class was the new industrial middle class and, even more threatening to stability, was the appearance of a new social phenomenon – an industrial working class. Some sense had to be made of these massive processes of change. How could people come to terms with processes of urbanisation, indus- trialisation, a growing division of labour, secularisation, bureaucratisation, democratisation, national state centralisation and the rest? Sociology can be seen as an intellectual coming to terms with these processes and as an attempt to understand their impact. The potential for a sociological way of coming to terms with these changes had developed during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period, prior to the full emergence of sociology in the nineteenth century. The scientific aspects of such a venture were implicit in the Enlightenment and its characteristic belief that ‘people could comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical research’ (Ritzer 2000). But also emerging in this period was the idea that human beings can be understood only in the context of the whole society in which they live. This was an insight that later sociologists were to take up from the eighteenth-century writing of Giambattista Vico. It was also a key idea of the Scottish Enlightenment, and two key figures in this – John Millar and Adam Ferguson – examined changing patterns of work specialisation and division 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 11
  • 34. of labour sociologically, stressing the social as well as the economic aspects of these changes and identifying their implications, both positive and negative, for human welfare and work experience (Swingewood 2000; Herman 2001). A near total breakdown in old assumptions about authority and social order followed the Enlightenment and the Industrial and French Revolutions, a breakdown which called for a reconstruction of the social order. Piecemeal reconstruction was seen as inappropriate, according to Fletcher (1971), when the ‘entire fabric of institutions was falling apart’ and a need for a ‘body of knowledge about society as a totality of institutions’ became apparent. It was this need that the founders of sociology were to try to meet. The key concepts or ‘unit ideas’ of sociology, Nisbet (1970) argues, were all developed as part of an attempt to achieve a ‘theoretical reconsolidation’ of the various elements on which social order had once rested – kinship, land, social class, religion, local community and monarchy – but which had now been ‘dislocated by revolution’ and ‘scrambled by industrialisation and the forces of democracy’. Sociologists, in this view, developed concepts like society and com- munity to provide a consolidating or overarching perspective which would counter the divisive, contradictory and individualistic tendencies of life in this period of emerging modernism. The founders of sociology were preoccupied with the analysis of industrialism and were engaged in creating a ‘powerful vision or “image” of a society in the making’ (Kumar 1978) and, says Giddens (1971), the overwhelming interest of Marx, Durkheim and Weber was in the ‘delineation of the characteristic structure of modern capitalism as contrasted with prior forms of society’. Contemporary sociology has inherited this role and has ‘as its main focus the institutions of “advanced” or “industrialised” societies, and of the conditions of trans- formation of those institutions’ (Giddens 1982). The continuing challenge It could be argued that the twenty-first century presents us with challenges of coming to terms with social and economic changes that are no less significant than those faced by the creators of sociology almost two centuries ago. Industrialisation continues apace, if unevenly, across the globe and links between different areas and cultures are becoming closer and more immediate with fast-developing information and communication tech- nologies. It sometimes seems that there are few choices left to us about how we live, at the level of the nation state let alone at the level of the local community or family. Technology, international corporations and pressures for capital accumulation sometimes seem to be pushing everyone towards SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 12 Looking forward Chapter 3 focuses on this question of how we can best characterise the types of society in which we currently live and understand the changes which are occurring in those societies. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 35. a globalised future within which some will be allocated rich, secure and fulfilling lives at the expense of a mass of materially and experientially impoverished insecure workers and an even more impoverished stratum of economically inactive groups. At other times, we are encouraged to believe that the best of all possible worlds is available to us all, if we take advantage of the great opportunities both for challenging work and exciting recreation made possible by the same technological, commercial and globalising forces. Sociology has to bring us down to earth with regard to all of this. It needs to analyse what is going on and help us make a balanced appraisal of trends. Such analysis and insight can be a valuable resource, informing us and encouraging us to think imaginatively about the alternatives and choices facing us in all aspects of our lives, in our families, our communities and the wider societies of which we are members. How we think about the part that work is to play in our lives is necessarily central to this. Sociology and the informing of democratic choices about work What role, then, is suggested for the sociology of work and industry by the above analysis? First, we must recognise that it implies a rejection of a role like that criticised earlier by Stewart (2004) and Fevre (2003) (see p. 10) where industrial sociologists function more or less as management consultants. This relates to what has been called a ‘servant of power’ role. Here, those trained as industrial sociologists would primarily be employed as specialist human manipulators by large organisations in the way Baritz (1960) saw beginning to happen in pre-war America where such people were ‘doing what they were told to do and doing it well – and therefore endangering those other personal, group, class and institutional interests which were opposed to the further domination by the modern corporation of the mood and direction of American life’. Sociological knowledge and insights inevitably have a relevance to practical problem-solving in large organisations and can be shown to help solve problems in certain relatively bounded situations (Klein and Eason 1991; Klein 2005). One would be naive and wrong to deny the right of any group to make use of knowledge in this way. What can be objected to, however, is the exclusive development of industrial sociology as a manipulative instrument for the pursuit of sectional interests. An alternative role for the sociology of work and industry would be as a resource which helps those living in the industrial capitalist type of society to understand better the possibilities and choices which exist with regard to how work is organised and experienced in those societies. Its role is thus to inform choice. Here, the subject is not the sole preserve of the expert – be they ‘servants of power’ or marginalised academic teachers too hung up 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 13
  • 36. on their naive political utopianism or too caught up in dense conceptual mystification to be seen as worthy of attention by other than their own acolytes. Instead, it is something to be disseminated through both formal and informal educational institutions and communication media. It becomes something in whose development the individual is first involved as a student, and something which is subsequently drawn upon and further engaged with in their later life and career as employees, managers, voting citizens, trade unionists, self-employers or consumers. It is a resource vital to a democratic society. Burns (1962) in discussing industrial sociology at a time when it scarcely had a foothold in Britain argued that it is the sociologist’s business ‘to conduct a critical debate . . . with the public about its equipment of social institutions’. As Eldridge et al. (1991) said about the role that industrial sociology might play in coming to terms with economic and social issues emerging later in the twentieth century, ‘To show what possibilities may exist for political choices in an active democracy is to exercise the sociological imagination’. Such an imagination is as relevant as ever in the twenty-first century. In the past, social thinkers were a tiny minority addressing a slightly larger minority of the population. The modern age is one of vastly increased literacy and access to schooling and communication media. This means that critical reflection on the values and institutions of society need no longer be the preserve of the privileged social philosopher or the dilettante intellectual of a leisured class. An ability to be analytical about social, economic and political issues can be developed in every citizen – this furthering the ideal of democratic control of society and its institutions. Institutions of work and industrial organisation are central to the very nature of society and they nowadays require perhaps closer and more rational scrutiny and rethinking than ever before. Sociology, as a science that looks critically, rationally and systematically at aspects of our social lives, has a great deal to offer. Sociology and the future of work Work institutions, organisations and processes are created by human beings and are not the outcomes of immutable historical forces. Recognition of this should make us cautious about associating the sociology of work with the popular activity of making predictions about the ‘future of work’. Prediction is often seen as a key aim of scientific research and theorising. But, until recently, many of the predictions about the future of work have been speculative, sometimes highly pessimistic and sometimes highly opti- mistic. Handy (1994), beginning with his influential The Future of Work (Handy 1984), put forward the notion of a revolutionary level of change in SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 14
  • 37. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 15 the so-called emerging ‘knowledge economy’. This envisaged bureau- cratically hierarchical work organisations being replaced by networks and partnerships in which people would undertake a variety or ‘portfolio’ of jobs instead of having a traditional career at a single employing organisation. This flavour runs through a great deal of the writing on work’s future. In optimistic versions of this kind of futurology we see visions like that of Leadbeater (2000) in which we move into a world of rewardingly cooperative, creative and socially useful work. On the pessimistic front, Beck (2000), on the European side of the Atlantic, sees a world of growing insecurity and risk, this being matched by the pessimism, on the American side of the ocean, of Bridges (1995) and Rifkin (1995) who titled his book The End of Work. However, all of these ‘grand narratives’, as Nolan and Wood (2003) call them, are produced with an ‘almost complete absence of any grounded theory or systematic data’. This comment is made in the course of explaining the importance of the major set of research projects funded in the UK by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) under the ‘Future of Work’ banner. Rigorous examination of trends that were actually emerging has been undertaken to provide a ‘check on the more extravagant claims about the likely pattern of work in the twenty-first century’ (Nolan and Wood 2003). As White et al. (2004) put it, this research asks the same questions as the ‘gurus and futurologists’ and in their own contribution to the broader project they follow the careful logic of closely examining the detailed managerial ‘decisions being taken and plans being laid in a million workplaces large and small . . . decisions and plans [which] will affect every working person, and the families, over the next 5–10 years’. This is sociological work which makes possible commentaries on the future of work which are ‘firmly rooted in the evidence base’ rather than relying on ‘anecdotes and speculation’ (Moynagh and Worsley 2005). Following a similarly cautious and critical overview of the range of diverse writings on the future of work, Williams (2007) concludes that a similar ‘storyline’ runs through them. Writers tend, first, to push eco- nomic activities onto one side or the other of a dichotomy such as Fordist/ Post-Fordist, bureaucratic/post-bureaucratic, informal work/formal work. Second, they identify a ‘one-dimensional linear trajectory’ towards an ‘-ation’ like ‘globalisation’, or an ‘-ism’ or a ‘post-something-or-other’ like post-capitalism or post-bureaucracy. (Littlewood et al. (2004), in reviewing the future of work in Europe, complain about all the ‘post-this-and-thats’ which ‘clutter the literature on change’.) Williams’ (2007) examination of the areas of activity covered by these analyses shows that this storyline ‘fails to do justice to lived practice by obfuscating the multiple and divergent trajectories, ignoring many other dimensions along which transitions are taking place’. There is a great deal of continuity in the way work is Looking forward The alleged ‘end of bureaucracy’ is critically examined in Chapter 4 (pp. 128–30) and the idea of portfolio jobs is discussed in Chapter 7. ➪➪➪➪➪ Looking forward Use will be made of this rich collection of research studies in various chapters, especially Chapter 5, which looks at the changing patterns of control in the organisation and management of work, and Chapter 7, which focuses on people’s experiences of work and careers and how it relates to their identities. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 38. organised and experienced. On the evidence of a detailed ethnographic study of an organisation which is engaged in a whole series of ‘new’ managerial practices and ‘change programmes’, McCabe (2007), for example, argues that they ‘reproduce much of our industrial past’. Yet Williams (2007) demonstrates that significant changes are occurring, alongside the continuities, with different patterns being apparent in different circumstances and in different parts of the world. In any attempt to use sociology to reflect on the future of work it is important to remember that we can only ever research what ‘is’, as opposed to what ‘might or will be’. Inferences about the future from whatever ‘evidence’ we gather about the present must be made with great care. While it is necessary, however, to avoid the exaggerations of much of the futurology and guru writing, this should not rule out the application of a degree of imagination in our writing on the sociology of work and industry. Castillo (1999b), for example, calls for sociologists of work to explore ‘work of the future’ instead of trying to predict the ‘future of work’. Perhaps the greatest promise of sociology is in making imaginative contributions to exploration and debate rather than producing predictions. This does not mean abandoning attempts to theorise in a scientific manner but perhaps, as Miles (2001) argues, we should evaluate a theory not according to the accuracy of its predictions about change but rather ‘according to how far it stimulates debate about that change’. ‘Good theories’, he suggests, are those that ‘bring the sociological imagination to life’. And Williams (2007) points out that recognising that the future is not ‘cast in stone’ frees us to ‘imagine all manner of alternative futures of work’ and that this, in turn, can help to stimulate ‘greater discussion of how to open up the future more for those who currently have little choice’. Sociology and theorising is not just a project of the imagination, however. Recognition that sociology is a scientific and research-based endeavour has been implicit in everything said so far. We must now look more explicitly at what this means and consider how it relates to the notion of theory. Researching and theorising work patterns and experiences Sociology as science Sociology’s history unfolded alongside the rise of democratic institutions in western societies. It is also a result of the rise of scientific ways of looking at the world. Sociology is a science. But what makes it a science is not a sterile value-neutrality or a concern with amassing facts uncontaminated by subjectivity. Neither is it a pursuit of final laws. Sociology uses insight, SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 16 Looking forward This mixture of continuity and change will be apparent in later chapters of this book in discussions of such matters as industrialism, capitalism, globalisation, postmodernity and McDonaldisation in Chapter 3; the ‘fantasy of the post- bureaucratic organisation’ in Chapter 4; standard and non-standard employment and patterns of gender relations in Chapter 6, and portfolio and ‘boundaryless’ careers in Chapter 7. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 39. imagination and even inspiration; it is motivated by moral concern and even by political commitment, and it is characterised by internal debate and rivalries of both method and interpretation, but, in the end, it falls into the category of the sciences rather than the arts. Sociology is a scientific pursuit because it goes about detecting regu- larities and because it makes its generalisations on as systematic a basis as possible given its subject matter. This involves the ‘testing’ of proposi- tions and the basing of statements on evidence – this being collected, explained and interpreted in such a way that others can scrutinise that evidence and make their own judgements on the generalisations which are offered. Sociology as a science is not essentially different from shrewd practical reasoning about our social lives. It is not radically distinguishable from informed journalistic critiques of social institutions and trends in social change. It is different from these other endeavours in degree rather than in essence, in three ways. It is • more formal, systematic and precise in its observing, classifying, conceptualising and interpreting; • more rigorous in the extent to which it submits its procedures to critical examination (seeking to falsify rather than prove its tentative explana- tions for example); • more committed to building up a body of knowledge and a series of generalisations which go beyond immediate and practical needs. This body of knowledge is, therefore, available to be drawn upon when there is a practical issue to which it may be relevant. Theory, work and society Science is concerned to make informed generalisations about the world. These are scientific theories. In part these are informed by rational and critical reflection about the world but, most characteristically, they are informed by careful and considered attention to systematically gathered evidence. It is unfortunate that many people use the term ‘theory’ in a derogatory manner to refer to ideas that do not effectively connect with human practices in the world. Facts about work, some people say, are interesting and useful but once we start to ‘get theoretical’ we start to become self- indulgent and irrelevant. However, once we recognise that sociological theories are essentially attempts to make sense of how society ‘works’, the nonsense of this becomes apparent. Indeed, ‘facts’ about society and work activities cannot really exist separately from the theoretical frames of reference within which they are expressed. How could we in subsequent chapters, for example, talk about the ‘facts’ of work security and insecurity 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 17 Science and sociology Science is a formal, systematic and precise approach to building up a body of knowledge and theory which is rigorous in examining propositions about the social world in the light of available evidence. Sociology is a science because it makes generalisations as systematically as possible in the light of available evidence. Sociological theories Systematic generalisations about how the social world ‘works’.
  • 40. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 18 without a theory of what constitutes ‘security’ and ‘insecurity’ in this context? How can we consider the extent to which the world is in fact ‘globalising’ without some reference to theories of globalisation? How can we even talk about ‘work’ and ‘society’ in a theory-free way? The way we conceptualised work and society earlier in this chapter was the start of the broader process of theorising the role of work activities and experiences in modern societies (and, yes, we will have to theorise ‘modern’ at the appropriate stage). The point of all of this is to deepen our understanding of what is going on in the world of work. Surely such an appreciation is valuable to all of us in shaping our social practices. A range of research methods Sociologists of work and industry use a variety of techniques of investigation when they undertake empirical research (‘empirical’ meaning dependent on observation and experience of phenomena rather than reflection on them ‘at a distance’ so to speak). At one end of a continuum are studies involving the manipulation of existing bodies of statistical information and research projects involving the analysis of quantitative information gathered through questionnaire-based surveys specially designed by the investi- gators. At the other end of the continuum are studies in which a large amount of time is spent interviewing in depth a small selection of people or projects in which the researchers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they are studying by becoming ethnographers and/or participant observers (Watson 2008d). In between these contrasting styles of investigation are studies in which relatively large numbers of people are interviewed by research teams to gather both quantitative information and more qualitative material, ‘qualitative’ information typically taking the form of statements made by the people interviewed or observations made by the researchers themselves during the process of investigation. Sometimes the research goes for breadth of coverage by looking at large numbers of instances of whatever is being studied or by checking samples large enough to be statistically representative of larger patterns. At other times the concern is to achieve depth of understanding by giving attention to close details of particular cases. Case studies might examine particular work organisations, particular events or even particular individuals. The logic of such work is to get a detailed understanding of the processes that occur when, say, two work organisations merge, a new occupation estab- lishes itself or an individual rises from being an ordinary worker to taking over the leadership of a large trade union. We will come across studies in subsequent chapters which use some of these different approaches to develop our understanding of what is generally Looking forward In Chapter 2, where the various analytical strands that make up the sociology of work and industry are examined, we will come across theories that have largely been developed at the desks of their creators – albeit, we would hope, within a well-informed general awareness of events going on in the social world outside of their libraries. These theoretical ‘strands’ are, in effect, broad conceptual schemes that we can take out into particular work contexts to make sense of what is going on there. In Chapter 3 we will come across large- scale generalisations about modern societies that are typically derived from critical reflection on broad trends in work aspects of the social world, often using evidence not especially gathered within specifically designed ‘research projects’. In Chapters 4 to 8 we will see, in addition to this kind of material, generalisations emerging from specifically designed research projects or ‘empirical’ investigations. ➪➪➪➪➪
  • 41. ‘going on’ in the work and industrial aspects of societies and the work dimension of people’s lives. It is possible, however, for a variety of tech- niques to be used within one study, as we see in the imagined research study in Snapshot 1.3. This design of this multi-technique research project is influenced by current theories of, for example, work design, organisational change and job ‘choice’. The information it produces will be analysed to develop further the theoretical understanding of these matters as well as, of course, present to the public and to policy-makers broad insights about what is occurring in an important aspect of contemporary employment. However, things are not as straightforward as our imagined case of a research project might imply. Sociologists who study work, industry, occupations, organisations and employment relations often differ from each other in quite significant ways in the assumptions which they bring to their studies. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 19 SNAPSHOT 1.3 Designing a study of call centres: making use of a variety of techniques A group of sociologists has decided to combine their efforts in a major piece of research to investigate in depth the large and growing phenomenon of work in telephone call centres (see pp. 170–1). After working together on reviewing the existing literature – academic and ‘popular’ – and agreeing on the concepts they want to use and the variables they want to examine they divide up the investigative labour. Researcher 1 concentrates on examining employment statistics across a range of developed and less developed economies in which call centres are located. Researcher 2 interviews workers and managers in a carefully selected sample of call centre companies of different sizes. Researcher 3 conducts a postal survey of members of the public who use or are contacted by such organisations. Researcher 4 obtains a job in a single case-study call centre to work as a participant observer and learn at first hand about working in such a setting. Researcher 5 is allocated to looking in depth at two comparative case-study call centres. One has been selected on the grounds that it has a generally good reputation as an employer. The other has a bad reputation. The researcher will use whatever methods she finds useful, from interviews and (non-participant) observation to documentary analysis and written questionnaires. The intention is to get as full a picture as possible of each of these work organisations so that the team can compare the two. The intention of the comparative case-studies is to give a focus to the group’s broad interest in the variety of work designs and work experiences which they believe are the case in this employment sector.
  • 42. Methodological assumptions We have just noted the range of different methods that sociologists of work use. But they also vary in the methodological assumptions they bring to their research and theorising. It is unfortunate that the term ‘methodology’ is often used simply to mean ‘method’. This usage tends to divert people from some very important issues that need to be considered before a ‘method’, in the sense of an investigative technique, is chosen. Methodological assumptions are ones about the very nature of the ‘realities’ that we study, about how we can ‘know’ those realities and how we can make valid or ‘truthful’ general- isations about the social world on the basis of the very limited materials that we gather (whether these be numbers from surveys or statements and observations collected in ‘fieldwork’). There are many complexities involved here but it is vital to any student of the sociology of work to have a basic understanding of the main methodological choices that every researcher and theorist has to make. The choice is often taken to be one between ‘positivism’ and ‘inter- pretivism’ (sometimes the latter being labelled ‘phenomenology’, which is really only one version of interpretivist thinking). The term ‘positivism’ is often used to refer to any research which uses quantitative methods and is sometimes condemned for a naive belief in the validity of the social facts that it collects, regardless of the theoretical assumptions to which those alleged ‘facts’ relate. But this is, as Turner (2001) stresses, a ‘gross distortion’ of what was intended by Auguste Comte, the original advocate, in the 1830s, of a positivist sociology (and, indeed, the inventor of the word ‘sociology’). Comte conceived of sociology as a theory-driven activity. Data collection would be a means of formulating laws – laws that would enable positive social progress to be made and would replace superstition and guesswork as the basis for making decisions about the control of society. Positivists continue to seek ‘covering law’ types of generalisation about the social world, working on the assumption that the social world is not fundamentally different from the natural or physical world and that the social sciences can therefore adopt procedures similar to those of the natural sciences. Donaldson (2003), a leading proponent of ‘sociological positivism’ in the field of organisation studies says that the aim is to ‘reveal causal regularities that underlie surface reality’ and he follows Durkheim (1982) in arguing that the subject matter of sociology is ‘social facts’ or ‘causes that stand apart from people and constrain them, forcing them to behave in ways – even sometimes regardless of the ideas in the minds of the people involved’. And social facts ‘should only be explained by other social facts, i.e. objective conditions, rather than in the consciousness of social actors’. His example here is the explanation that Blau (1963) develops of how SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 20 Methodology A term often misused to refer to research techniques and which, more properly, refers to the philosophical issues raised by the attempt to investigate the world scientifically.
  • 43. organisations tend to become increasingly differentiated (broken down into more and more sub-units). The causal factor is not decisions or actions by organisational managers; it is organisational size. Differentiation is a social fact. And so is organisational size. Interpretivist sociologists, however, would not exclude from their accounts of such processes the meanings brought into play by organisational actors. If positivism, as a term, has been misrepresented and misunderstood at times, interpretivism has fared little better. All too often it is thought of as research that uses ‘qualitative’ (word-based) rather than quantitative (number-based) materials, with the researcher recognising that they have actively to interpret the material they collect rather than let the ‘facts speak for themselves’. This is not necessarily incorrect but it is utterly to miss the point about interpretivist sociology. Of course the interpretivist researcher acknowledges the need to interpret their research materials. So do most non-interpretivists. But the essential difference between positivists and interpretivists is that, whereas positivists see the social world as amenable to research procedures not dissimilar to those of the natural sciences, interpretivists do not. They see the social world as different in nature from the physical world. It therefore needs to be studied in a different way. Most significantly, this is because human beings, whose actions form the subject matter of social science investigations, are thinking, sensemaking, decision- making beings who could potentially choose to defy the predictions of social scientists. Humans, unlike physical entities, make interpretations for themselves of what is happening in the world. It is the interpretive or meaning-making interactions of people in societies that interpretivist sociologists focus upon. For the interpretivist, social reality (put simply, ‘what people take their social world to be like’) is something created by human beings, over history, through their interactions, interpretations and cultures. This contrasts with the positivist position that there is a social reality existing independently of the ways in which people in society interpret their social circumstances. They are thus generally said to be methodological realists. But positivism is not the only methodologically realist option. An alternative realist position that is attractive to some sociologists of work and industry is that of critical realism. If we take the key methodological choice to be between realism and interpretivism, as set out in Table 1.1, we can see that there are not two but three possible methodological positions for the researcher and theorist to choose from: interpretivism and two variants of metho- dological realism – positivism and critical realism. Positivism is interested in causes – in the covering law sense we saw Donaldson explaining earlier. But critical realists wish to go further and analyse the actual mechanisms by which any particular cause brings about any particular effect. They would 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 21
  • 44. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 22 not stop at saying that growth in organisational size, for example, causes structural differentiation in organisations. They would want to understand just how the one thing leads to the other. In Chapter 2 we will examine six strands of thinking that contribute to the sociology of work and industry. They vary in various respects but an important differentiating factor is the basic methodological stance that their proponents have tended to adopt. The managerial-psychologistic and the Durkheim-systems strands have more or less followed positivist assumptions while the Weber-social action, the interactionist and the discursive strands follow interpretivist principles. The critical realist approach that has emerged in recent years, very much influenced by the philosophical writings of Bhaskar (1986, 1989), incorporates some of the key ideas of Marxian thinking. One of its attractions to sociologists of work is that it stresses the reality of the underlying mechanisms of the capitalist mode of production while recognising that, at a level above this, inter- pretive processes and social construction processes do play a significant role in shaping social patterns and processes (Ackroyd and Fleetwood 2000). It might therefore seem, at first sight, to be a compromise between realist and interpretivist positions. It is, however, very firmly rooted in realist thinking, Table 1.1 Realist and interpretivist social science methodologies Realist methodologies Interpretivist methodologies Assume that social reality exists Assume that social reality is the outcome of independently of how people make people’s interactive and interpretive sense of it – or investigate it. activities – how they socially and pragmatically ‘construct’ and negotiate • Positivism devises covering laws meanings and patterns of relationship. about social reality through Theoretical approaches that work within testing hypotheses – propositions these broad assumptions include that can be tested against systematically gathered data • Weberian sociology (originating in which is typically analysed using Germany in the early twentieth century) quantitative methods. • Symbolic interactionism (originating in • Critical realism attempts to identify America in the early to mid twentieth the structures, processes and century) causal mechanisms that operate beneath the surface of social • Poststructuralism (originating in France reality and which are a constitutive in the late twentieth century). part of that reality.
  • 45. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 23 granting to patterns and causal processes outside of human actions a real and solid existence. To avoid this discussion sounding too abstract or esoteric we can outline three different ways in which researchers, adopting different metho- dological positions, might go about studying the relationship between people’s age and their experience of work. The three approaches take the form of research proposals which might, for example, be made to a research- funding body (Snapshot 1.4). SNAPSHOT 1.4 Three proposed studies of the relationship between people’s age and experience of work Proposal 1 (from a positivist researcher): A large survey will be designed in which a questionnaire will be posted to a sample of people, the sample being ‘stratified’ to ensure that there is a representative coverage of different age groups and occupations. Questions will be asked about respondents’ age and about the extent of their agreement with a variety of printed statements about work satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Once collected, these responses will be treated as data – unproblematic ‘givens’ or ‘findings’ – which can then be statistically analysed to test the hypothesis that job satisfaction increases with age in high status occupations and decreases in age in low status occupations. If the ‘data’ or ‘findings’ supports the original contention, then the researcher will be in a position where they can say they have developed a new ‘theory’ about age and job satisfaction. Strictly speaking, this will be a covering law. It will take the form of a statement about the relationship between work and age which has a degree of predictive power: suggesting to each of us, in our particular occupational context, how our happiness at work is likely to change as we get older. Proposal 2 (from a critical realist researcher): This project will be strongly influenced from the start by existing theories (in the sense of generalisations about how the social world ‘works’). The study might use either, or both, quantitative and qualitative techniques to reveal how ideologies influenced by the interests of employers in capitalist societies influence younger, and hence fitter and more flexible, people to regard their work positively while older, and potentially less productive, workers are discouraged from wanting to stay at work. Drawing on both existing theoretical assumptions about the social world and on the information gathered in the research, attempts will be made to identify the causal or ‘generative’ mechanisms within capitalist class and employment relationships using concepts like capital accumulation, labour process and false consciousness. These mechanisms will be taken to have a ‘real’ existence of their own, a reality operating at a deeper level than the actions and interpretations of the employers and workers involved. Proposal 3 (from an interpretivist researcher): A series of face-to-face interviews with people of different ages and in different occupations will be conducted. Additionally, time will be spent with some of these people in the workplace, or in a leisure context, in order to note how in group interactions they talk to each other about their work and their lives. It will not be assumed that words that people speak in the research context constitute ‘data’ – unproblematic ‘given’ statements of what people actually feel or think. They
  • 46. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 24 Coping with the variety of orientation in the sociology of work and industry From our examples of three possible research approaches it is apparent that there are significant variations of methodological orientation within the sociology of work and industry. There is also a variety of theoretical orientations – as we see in the six ‘strands’ of thought to be examined in Chapter 2. How is one to come to terms with a subject where there is such a variety of orientation? First, these tensions can be regarded as creative ones, and the multifaceted nature of sociological study seen as healthily reflecting and forcing us to confront the multifaceted nature of human society itself. Second, the notion of a sociological imagination (see p. 7) can bring a significant sense of unity to this variety. Whatever emphasis we adopt, we need to remember that sociology is essentially about relating the lives of particular individuals and the occurrence of specific and local events to wider patterns of society and the converting of ‘private problems’ into ‘public issues’. To undertake our own research does not necessarily mean having to join one or other of the various ‘camps’ that sociologists tend to set up with others of similar methodological or theoretical orientation. It has never- theless been suggested that the various theoretical, methodological and political orientations of people studying the organisation of work are fundamentally incompatible with each other and that each researcher needs to locate themselves within one particular box or paradigm (a cluster of assumptions about sociological knowledge), choosing between a func- would be treated as statements made in a particular context and at a particular time. The researcher will interpret what was said to them in the light of how they believe the subject was interpreting the context in which they spoke and how they were, at the time of their speaking, choosing to present a particular image of themselves to the researcher and perhaps to other people present. In the analysis of this research material, close attention will be given to the language used by the subjects, as well as other symbols like ‘body language’ and the clothing worn by subjects. This will be used to construct an understanding of how the people make sense, for themselves and for others, of the relationship between age and the experience of work. The ‘reality’ of the relationship between one’s age and one’s work experience is thus treated as something that emerges from human interactions, socially negotiated understandings and available discourses. It does not exist ‘out there’ separately from the people who bring that reality into existence. Taking this position does not mean, however, that they will not use concepts like ‘structure’, ‘society’ or, for that matter, ‘capitalist labour process’. They might be used, but, unlike the critical realist researcher, the interpretivist researcher will regard these terms as sense-making concepts for analysing the world sociologically rather than ‘actually existing real things’.
  • 47. tionalist paradigm, an interpretive paradigm, a radical humanist paradigm or a radical structuralist paradigm (Burrell and Morgan 1979; Jackson and Carter 2000; Burrell 2002; Keleman and Hassard 2003). Some researchers are happy to move back and forth between these various paradigms to find insights to apply to their area of study (Hassard 1993) while others wish to seek integration across them all to find a shared set of assumptions that provide a single frame of reference for studying work and the way it is organised (Pfeffer 1993; Donaldson 1996a). A further approach is to reject the very notion of paradigms as irrelevant to the social sciences and to follow instead a strategy of pragmatic pluralism (Watson 1997). This encourages the researcher to utilise concepts and ideas from a whole range of different social science perspectives and traditions as long as, first, the chosen concepts are helpful in understanding the parti- cular aspect of social life being studied and, second, as long as they are brought together in a clearly expressed frame of reference which has internal conceptual consistency and methodological integrity. The researcher needs to be particularly clear that they are not, for example, claiming at one point that interview materials they have collected are ‘data’ (i.e. unproblematic ‘given’ facts) and, at another, claim to be doing interpretivist analysis (which insists that such material can only be analysed with reference to the particular context in which it was uttered and in the light of the ‘presentation of self’ processes that were engaged in by both the interviewer and the interviewee in that context). To put it another way, one cannot try to be a methodological realist and a methodological interpretivist at the same time. The structure of Sociology, Work and Industry has been devised to do justice to both unities and varieties of emphasis in the sociology of work and industry. The concern of this first chapter with achieving such a purpose is continued across the next seven chapters. Table 1.2 is intended to show how this is to be done. It recognises that, in addition to the six strands of thought that make up the sociology of work and industry, there are six areas of study to which these broad ways of thinking are applied. The six strands of thought (which form the subject matter of Chapter 2) are mapped in Table 1.2 against the six areas of study that form the subsequent six chapters which focus, each in turn, on: • the industrial-capitalist and ‘modern’ nature of contemporary societies • the organisational dimension of work structuring • changes in the organising and managing of work • the occupational dimension of work structuring • the patterns of meaning, opportunity and experience of work in modern society • the tendencies to conflict and resistance in work relations. 1: STUDYING WORK AND SOCIETY 25
  • 48. Table 1.2 How the six strands of thought to be considered in Chapter 2 bring different emphases to the six focal areas of the sociology of work and industry covered in Chapters 3 to 8 Focus Work and social Organisations Organisational Occupations Work experience, Conflict, resistance and change (Ch. 3) (Ch. 4) change and (Ch. 6) meaning and misbehaviour (Ch. 8) managerial identity (Ch. 7) initiatives (Ch. 5) Theory Managerial Increasing managerial effectiveness through Causes and correlates Overcoming worker psychologistic satisfying the economic wants or of job satisfaction ‘resistance to change’ emphasis on psychological needs of workers Durkheim-systems The ‘organic’ division Organisations as Social/cultural The role of occupa- Work meanings and The management of emphasis on of labour in modern ‘systems’ of roles integration of tional groupings in experiences related conflict within industrial societies individuals into maintaining social to one’s life in society relations systems enterprises cohesion as well as in the workplace Interactionist Division of labour as Organisations as ‘negotiated orders’ The significance of Identities and Defence of self and emphasis on part of the moral ‘dirty’ or deviant subjective careers resistance to power of order of society work others
  • 49. Weber-social Rationalisation of life The bureaucratic nature of organisations The tendency of Dynamic work The interplay of interests action in modern industrial and the tendency towards unintended groups to pursue ‘orientations’ and the and ideas in the shaping emphasis on capitalist societies consequences of managerial initiatives social closure to role of discursive of identities, discourses further shared resources in shaping and practices The social construction of the ‘realities’ of interests work-related aspects organisational activity of identities Marxian The exploitative Managerial shaping of labour processes in Decline of the social Work a source of human fulfilment only when emphasis on nature of capitalist organisations to serve interests of the division of labour a non-exploitative social order has been societies property owning dominant class established Poststructuralist/ The power of Organisations constituted by language – Worker subjectivities Human resistance to postmodern ‘modernist’ discourses understood as ‘texts’ rather than structures; the outcomes of subjugation by emphasis on in social life techniques of surveillance and attempts at power/discourse modernist/managerial identity-shaping at the heart of organisational discourses
  • 50. To try to find some overall patterns across all of this, Table 1.2 offers a matrix identifying how the six strands of thought to be outlined in Chapter 2 each bring a distinctive emphasis to the six substantive areas studied by the sociology of work and industry (these focusing on organisations; organisational change and managerial initiatives; occupations, inequalities and varieties of work; work experiences, meanings and identities; conflict, resistance and misbehaviour respectively). Summary In this chapter we have established that sociology developed historically as a discipline intended to help people understand and deal with processes of modernisation and industrialisation and that it has the potential to play an important role in informing the choices that are made about work in the twenty-first century. It can also help us think imaginatively about work in the future. Sociology is a scientific discipline concerned with developing theories and insights which can inform human choices and, to this end, it uses a variety of different research methods, with different sociologists working within a number of different methodological traditions. These can be ‘mapped out’ to help anyone interested in either reading or doing sociology to appreciate the options open to sociological researchers. SOCIOLOGY, WORK AND INDUSTRY 28
  • 51. Another Random Scribd Document with Unrelated Content
  • 52. bezat, en dat hij niet meer als zijn eigendom, maar als dat zijner huisgenooten beschouwde. Deze droegen hun leed, gelijk hij verwacht had. Emilia schreef haren bruidegom, dat ze in geen geval er aan denken kon, haar moeder in de tegenwoordige omstandigheden te verlaten. Ook het huis Borgers had, ofschoon het voor velen een geheim bleef, door het faillissement Howell en Co. een knak gekregen, en het zou veel moeite hebben, zich staande te houden. De beide families oordeelden, dat het voor het oogenblik de wijste partij zou zijn, te doen alsof de verloving van Emilia Roda en Herman Borgers niet had plaats gevonden. [14] Emilia betoonde zich de waardige dochter haars vaders; zonder klagen en zonder uiterlijke droefheid schikte zij zich in haar lot. Nog slechts een kort onderhoud had zij met haar bruidegom, dien ze sedert vele jaren kende en om zijn goed hart en standvastig karakter had leeren hoogachten en liefhebben. De week daaropvolgende vertrok hij naar Australië. Nu kon Emilia zich geheel aan haar moeder wijden. Roda en zijn dochter waren den geheelen dag om en bij de zieke vrouw. Zij beiden torsten op hun schouders den geheelen zwaren last der zorgen, en hielden dien zoo hoog, dat hij het hoofd der zwakke moeder nauwelijks raakte. Willem leerde zijn vader nu eerst recht kennen en liefhebben; het verdroot den jongen werkeloos te moeten blijven, terwijl hij zag, hoe zijn vader en zuster alle krachten inspanden, om met de geringe middelen, waarover zij te beschikken hadden, zijn fijnbeschaafde moeder de gemakken te verschaffen, waaraan ze van kindsbeen af
  • 53. gewend was, en die voor haar gezondheid, zoo meenden zij, onmisbaar waren. Als zijn moeder zich in ’t schemeruur bij ’t flikkerende haardvuur koesterde en langzamerhand indommelde, zetten Roda en zijn dochter zich aan het venster en ging Willem achter den stoel zijner zuster staan. Dan klaagden ze elkander hun nood en spraken ze over de beleedigingen, die ze te verduren hadden van hun voormalige kennissen, die hen bij elke ontmoeting zoo dikwijls en zoo medelijdend beklaagden; dan troosten zij elkander met de hoop op betere tijden, en weldra verjoeg de zorg voor de zieke moeder het verdriet: er was hun een taak tot plicht gesteld, die ze beiden met liefde wilden vervullen. Menigmaal had Willem, in de eerste dagen van hun armoede, zich in het gesprek gemengd; maar zijn zuster zeide dan telkens: „Pa en ik zullen dat samen wel bedisselen; jij bent nog veel te jong, om nu al zorgen in je hoofd te halen!” En vader voegde er met een handdruk bij: „Willem, nu nog niet, voor de toekomst hopen we op jou. Ga straks je mama wat opvroolijken!” Deze wist de zelfopoffering van haar huisgenooten naar waarde te schatten. Fijngevoelig als ze was, begreep ze zeer spoedig, dat de nauwlettende en liefderijke zorgen ten doel hadden, haar den nederigen toestand, waarin ze zoo plotseling was verplaatst, te doen vergeten, en al wat haar slechts eenigszins grieven kon, zoo ver mogelijk van haar te verwijderen. Ze betoonde haar dankbaarheid, door nooit te klagen. Ook bemerkte ze zeer goed, dat hun opgeruimdheid slechts schijn was en dienen moest, om haar niet treuriger te stemmen, dan ze reeds was: ze veinsde evenwel het niet te begrijpen, daar ze [15]zag, dat het haar man en haar kinderen een genot was, al haar wenschen te voorkomen.
  • 54. Allen ondervonden nu eerst, hoe menschen, die elkander liefhebben, elkaar het leven kunnen veraangenamen; ze gevoelden zich daardoor zoo opgewekt, dat de schijnbare opgeruimdheid, spoedig werkelijkheid werd en de gezondheid der moeder met den dag verbeterde. Het ongeluk had deze vier menschen, vroeger door een stoet bedienden en tallooze vermakelijkheden dikwijls gescheiden, saamgebracht en zoo innig verbonden, dat ze zich in hun armoede rijker gevoelden, dan ooit te voren; veel rijker en gelukkiger, dan hun vroegere kennissen wel konden vermoeden, als ze op hun partijtjes, met geveinsde of oprechte deelneming, de benarde omstandigheden van die arme Roda’s ter sprake brachten. Maar ’t schijnt wel, dat de nijdige tegenspoed bij één enkelen aanval geen leedvermaak genoeg smaakt, en er een wreed behagen in schept, juist, hen met zijne slagen te vervolgen, die na den eersten slag weder fier het hoofd opheffen. De familie Roda althans was zelfs dit bescheiden geluk niet gegund; een ramp wachtte hen, veel grooter dan de vorige, en van een zijde, vanwaar zij die het allerminst vermoedden. Twee maanden waren er verloopen sedert het faillissement van Willems vader, en Willem zou voor eerst weer naar school gaan. Drie klassen van het gymnasium had hij reeds doorloopen, en twee jaren was hij primus geweest. Hij was een van die gelukkige jongens, die alles leeren kunnen, zonder dat het hun veel inspanning kost, en tegen wie de andere
  • 55. jongens niet zelden met bewondering of met afgunst opzien. Hij verlangde er dan ook naar, weer naar school te gaan, maar nu zag hij tegen een ontmoeting met zijn schoolmakkers op als tegen een berg. Hij schaamde zich. Waarvoor? Daarvan wist hij zich geen rekenschap te geven. Den vorigen avond was er visite geweest. De huisheer, tevens een der nieuwe buren van Roda, had een beleefdheidsbezoek gebracht. Ofschoon het gesprek in het begin weinig aantrekkelijks voor Willem had, gebood de wellevendheid hem, zijn leesboek ter zijde te leggen. Hij luisterde onwillekeurig; eerst dwaalden zijn gedachten af, maar spoedig werd zijn aandacht geboeid, daar [16]er over hem werd gesproken. Zijn vader zeide namelijk, dat hij wel lust had Willem van school te nemen, indien hij hem in een flinke zaak geplaatst kon krijgen. Het vóór en tegen van vele zaken werd nu overwogen, en de bezoeker, die in den kleinhandel rijk was geworden, bleek een groote mate gezond verstand te bezitten. „Ja, mijnheer Roda, ik herhaal het, een boekhandel, goed opgezet en flink aangepakt, kan eene goudmijn worden. Ik voor mij, zou er niet meer aan denken, ik heb Goddank, mijne schaapjes op het droge, maar voor mijn zoon, ziet u! Die is nu al achttien jaar en ik weet werkelijk niet, wat ik met hem moet beginnen. Ik heb hem van alles laten leeren; ziet u, mijnheer, zoo’n pet vol gouden tientjes heeft me de jongen gekost. Maar waar het niet in zit, daar krijg je het niet in, al sta je er met de zweep achter.
  • 56. „Ik heb het al in de tabak met hem geprobeerd; hij is ook een paar maanden op een effectenkantoor geweest, maar daar had hij in ’t geheel geen zin in. Hij wou met alle geweld in een boekwinkel. Nu is hij al een jaar bij een boekhandelaar, en daar schijnt het hem te bevallen.” „Nu,” zeide Roda, tot de breedsprakigen kruidenier, „dan heeft hij toch eindelijk zijn bestemming gevonden, en zal wel vooruitkomen.” „Och het zou wat, mijnheer! Vooruitkomen in een winkel! Voor een paar gulden in de week knecht zijn voor een ander! Neen, mijnheer, niet voor niets heeft zijn vader een aardig kapitaaltje bij elkaar gespaard. Zoo gauw ik er kans toe zie, zet ik hem zelf in een flinke zaak.” „Waar wacht u dan op?” vroeg Willems vader. „Ja ziet u, hij is wel een flinke jongen, maar soms zoo kinderachtig, en ook, hoe zal ik het noemen, zoo onbestendig. Ik ben niet op de hoogte met de boeken, en als hij alleen voor zoo’n winkel moet zorgen, zal het hem spoedig vervelen, ziet u.” De kleine, doordringende oogen van den dikken kruidenier hadden Willem reeds geruimen tijd vervolgd en terwijl hij hem bleef aanzien zeide hij tot Roda: „Kijk, als uw zoon een paar jaar ouder was, zou ik zeggen: laat ze ’t samen eens probeeren! Die zoo lang in de boeken gestudeerd heeft, moet er dunkt mij, wel verstand van gekregen hebben. Geld om te beginnen heb ik genoeg, dat zou geen bezwaar zijn!” Willem’s oogen schitterden; hij dacht er niet aan, dat er iets beleedigends kon zijn in den klemtoon, dien de huisheer op het woordje ik legde. Zelf geld verdienen voor zijne ouders! [17]Een
  • 57. winkel met boeken, leesboeken en studieboeken, wat een luilekkerland! „Uw voorstel is zoo kwaad niet, mijnheer Van Dal”, zei Roda, wien de zaak toelachte, omdat ze hem zelf ook bezigheid kon bezorgen. „Willem is nu nog te jong; maar indien u uw zoon nog een jaar bij zijn patroon laat blijven, laat ik Willem nog een jaar naar school gaan. Na dien tijd zijn beiden nog wel wat jong, maar ik heb van boeken en platen ook wel een beetje verstand, en wij beiden kunnen immers altijd een oog in ’t zeil houden.” „Mijnheer Roda, ik geloof dat het wel lukken zal.… „Al tien uur! Wat zal de vrouw kwaad zijn; ik kom nog wel eens terug, om er over te spreken. Goeden avond, dames! Goeien avond, Willem, leer maar goed, dan zal het wel losloopen; kom eens kennis maken met mijn jongen! Goeien avond, mijnheer, nogmaals geluk gewenscht in de nieuwe woning; ik dank u wel voor de vriendelijke ontvangst! Als u me spreken wilt: een trapje hooger; onder één dak, ziet u! Zonder kloppen binnen! Wel te rusten!” Nadat de buurman vertrokken was, werd de zaak nog lang en breed besproken, en Willem ging naar bed met de troostrijke gedachte, dat hij over niet al te langen tijd misschien een steun voor zijn ouders zou worden. Toen de dikke huisheer reeds zijne slaapmuts had opgezet en met de eene hand de beddeplank vasthield, om met een wipje in bed te springen, mopperde hij nog tegen zijn vrouw, die kousen zat te stoppen. Ze had niet willen meegaan op bezoek bij de nieuwe huurders.
  • 58. „Hebben ze mij nou den neus afgebeten? Aardige menschen zijn het! Jij stoort je altijd aan praatjes van de lui: geen ziertje trotsch zit er in, zie je. Geen oogenblik hebben ze me laten merken, dat ze me liever zagen gaan dan komen, of me laten voelen, dat ze van fijner komaf zijn dan ik of jij. Daar kun je juist de voorname lui aan kennen, zie je?” „Willem, het is bijna schooltijd; je hebt een heel eind verder te loopen. Zou je niet heengaan, jongen?” zeide Emilia den volgenden morgen. „Ja, dadelijk. O, ’t is nog veel te vroeg!” antwoordde hij met een blik op de pendule. „Neen, Willem, ’t is hoog tijd; kom, hier zijn je jas en je pet. Niet kinderachtig zijn! De leeraren zullen nergens over spreken en mochten de jongens soms iets zeggen of iets doen, wat je niet bevalt, doe dan alsof je het niet merkt. Gedraag je verstandiger, dan die domme onnadenkende jongens, die hun [18]makkers voor de voeten gooien, wat de ouders misdaan hebben. Want je moet weten, dat er een paar jongens bij je op school zijn, wier ouders schade geleden hebben door pa’s faillissement; bij hen thuis zal wel niet met liefde over ons gesproken worden; misschien stoken deze jongens de andere op je te beleedigen. Houd je dan goed, word vooral niet driftig.” En hiermede schoof ze hem zachtjes de deur uit. Met een bezwaard hart trad Willem het schoollokaal binnen.
  • 59. De jongens hadden reeds plaats genomen, maar de les was nog niet begonnen. Bij Willem’s verschijnen verstomde plotseling het verward rumoer. Hij ging naar zijn plaats in de eerste bank. Alle blikken voelde hij op zich gevestigd; dit deed hem beurtelings blozen en verbleeken. Er viel hem een steen van het hart, toen de leeraar binnenkwam en de les begon. Maar den geheelen morgen bleven de jongens hem aangapen, alsof hij een vreemd dier was. Wanneer hij op een enkele vraag van den leeraar moest antwoorden, was het zoo onnatuurlijk stil in de klasse, dat men elkaar kon hooren ademhalen. Nu en dan werd de stilte verbroken door een onderdrukt gegiegel, dat Willem het bloed naar het hoofd joeg. De klok sloeg twaalf, en Willem slaakte een zucht van verlichting. Nog nooit had hem de schooltijd zoo lang geduurd. Voordat één van de jongens het lokaal verlaten had, was hij reeds op straat en sloeg een zijstraatje in, vast besloten dien middag niet weer naar school te gaan. Daar hij te veraf woonde om naar huis te kunnen gaan, zou hij zijn twaalfuurtje in een melkhuis gebruiken. Het had den geheelen nacht gestortregend en de straten geleken wel modderpoelen. Willem slenterde rond, gracht op gracht af, straat uit, straat in. Omstreeks half twee was hij in de Kalverstraat verzeild geraakt. Hij bleef voor een der boek- en plaatwinkels staan, en bekeek met welgevallen de fraaie boeken en platen in de uitstalkast; voor het eerst in zijn leven was hij nieuwsgierig den prijs ervan te kennen.
  • 60. Hij keek naar binnen, zag den bediende iets verkoopen en het geld in de lade strijken. Dit bracht hem het gesprek van den vorigen avond te binnen en herinnerde hem aan het plan van Van Dal. In zijn verbeelding ziet hij zich zelven als gelukkige bezitter van een boekwinkel achter de toonbank, bezig het geld van de klanten op te strijken. De lade vult zich meer en meer met zilver en goudgeld, en [19]is weldra niet meer te sluiten; geen nood, kisten en kasten zijn er genoeg in huis. Ook die zijn weldra vol. De koopers stroomen toe uit alle wijken der stad; zwart van volk is de winkel; het geld waait in huis, als eertijds op zijn vaders bankierskantoor. Al rijker en rijker wordt hij. Eindelijk heeft hij geld genoeg. De winkel zinkt weg in de diepte. Een groot gebouw rijst er voor in de plaats, met talrijke kamers, marmeren gangen, bronzen beelden en kostbare schilderijen; alles in stilte gekocht voor zijn geld. Nu naar huis! Vader, moeder en zuster van de armzalige bovenwoning gehaald, en in triumf naar het nieuwe huis gevoerd. Ook het hardsteenen gebouw verdwijnt als rook in den wind. Een ander doemt uit den nevel op. Ver van hier, te Königswinter aan den Rijn in Duitschland, staat een villa gereed om zijne mama te ontvangen; geen gehuurde zooals in vorige jaren, maar een eigen gebouw, het schoonste van de streek, met stalling en koetsen en paarden in overvloed. Kijk, mama en Emilia zitten in den mandenwagen, papa ment het vurige vierspan. Hoe de paarden over den straatweg vliegen, hoera! En door zijne gedachten
  • 61. medegesleept, rent Willem de Kalverstraat door, als wilde hij de paarden tot nog sneller vaart aanzetten. Helaas, de Kalverstraat is geen geschikte plaats om luchtkasteelen te bouwen. Bof! Daar vliegt hij tegen het lijf van een wandelaar op. Deze valt als een blok achterover en komt met zijne partes posteriores in een plas neer. Willem is in een oogenblik ontnuchterd, en herkent tot zijn schrik in den man, die midden in de Kalverstraat in de modder zit, den bewusten Van Dal. De dikke man doet vergeefsche pogingen, om op te komen, en kijkt daarbij zoo pijnlijk en tegelijk woedend, dat Willem het geraden oordeelt een steegje in te snijden. In een oogwenk heeft zich een standje om den man gevormd. Het voorval is koddig; aan kwinkslagen is dan ook geen gebrek. In plaats van hem te helpen gaat een dienstmeisje vlak voor hem op de hurken zitten, met de handen op de knieën. „Wil uwé soms een kussentje?” zegt de meid, „of heeft u zich bezeerd?” Een slagersknecht neemt het woord: „Geen nood, Mietje, het varkentje is op zijn spek te land gekomen.” „Een leelijk gevalletje!” meent een ander. „Mò, mò, mò, mòt meheer nou overreeje worre,” roept de schoenpoetser van den hoek, die haastig komt toeloopen. [20] „Laat ik mijnheer maar eris helpe.”
  • 62. De schoenpoetser aan de eene en de slager aan de andere zijde nemen den man, wien het huilen nader staat dan het lachen onder den arm en hijschen hem op. „Zie, zoo! daar gaat-ie! één, twee, drie, haal op de hei!” „Daar is-ie al! Schoonmake, meheer? Kom hier op de stoep, meheertje.” En met deernis ’s mans kleeren beschouwend, zegt de schoenpoetser uit den grond van zijn hart: „Zoo’n kwaaie jonge!” De „kwaaie jonge” was intusschen het steegje doorgeloopen en op het Singel uitgekomen. Hoewel hij er een vaag begrip van had, dat hij zooeven een huis en een villa had omvergeloopen, oefende het onthutst en nijdig gezicht van den zwaarlijvigen kruidenier zulk een invloed op hem uit, dat hij ondanks zijn schrik, glimlachend zijn weg naar school insloeg en zijn plan om te boemelen vergat. Op den hoek, niet ver van de school, stonden eenige jongens te praten en te stoeien. ’t Waren niet de netste en niet de beste jongens van de klasse; met de meesten stond hij op niet te besten voet. Zij konden het niet uitstaan, dat hij zich nooit met hen bemoeide en hen altijd op een afstand hield. Toen Willem hen uit de verte zag, kwam hem de akelige morgen, dien hij op school had doorgebracht, weer voor den geest. Hij stond in tweestrijd, of hij omkeeren en naar huis gaan of doorloopen zou, toen hij aan hun gebaren en bewegingen bemerkte, dat zij hem gezien hadden.
  • 63. „Jongens, daar heb je Willem Roda weer; hij durft niet voorbij!” begreep hij dat zij zeiden, al kon hij het door den afstand niet hooren. Nu verbood zijn gevoel van eigenwaarde hem, terug te keeren; met trotsche houding, misschien wel wat al te trotsch, doordat het opzettelijk geschiedde, stapte hij door. De jongens stonden midden op de gracht, zoodat hij moest uitwijken, om te kunnen voorbijgaan. „Daar heb je die bluffer, die praatjesmaker!” „Kijk die kale jonker nog eens deftig stappen!” klinkt het hem reeds tegemoet. Hij kijkt recht voor zich uit, maar ziet toch wel, hoe aller blikken uitdagend op hem gericht zijn. Een van de jongens, algemeen bekend onder den naam van „de schooier”,—een eerenaam, dien hij zich gewoonlijk liet welgevallen, —stak een hoofd boven alle anderen uit. Hij had een gemeen gezicht, en ofschoon van gegoede ouders, was hij altijd slordig in de kleeren. [21] Op het oogenblik, dat Willem voorbij wil gaan, werpt „de schooier” een kleinen jongen tegen hem aan. Willem blijft staan en keert zich driftig om naar de jongens. Deze heffen een hoeraatje aan. ’t Bloed stijgt Willem naar het hoofd; zijn vingers jeuken en hij drukt de gebalde vuisten tegen de zijden. ’t Liefst zou hij op een van de jongens zijn toegevlogen of er blindelings op losgeslagen hebben.
  • 64. Maar hij bedenkt zich, en nog bijtijds schieten hem de waarschuwende woorden van zijn zuster te binnen. Hij bedwingt zijn drift en wil voortloopen. Maar nu wordt hij van achteren bestookt, met boeken, tasschen en riemen. Met van drift bevende stem zegt hij, zich omkeerende: „Wat wil jullie van mij? Wat heb ik jullie gedaan? Laat me gaan; ik bemoei me ook met niemand!” Willem zag, dat „de schooier” de anderen van achteren tegen hem opduwde, en met tranen van woede in de oogen gilde hij: „Pas op, schooier, neem je in acht!” „Wie schooier, wat schooier!” roept deze, dringt naar voren tot vlak voor Willem, en kijkt uit de hoogte op hem neer. „Nu nog mooier! bemoei jij je niet met ons, dat wil ik wel gelooven, daar ben je nog te trotsch voor, al ben je nu ook zoo arm als de mieren, kale jakhals! Zeg, kijk me niet zoo voornaam aan, of ik zal je een slag op je bakkes geven, dat je den grond zoekt!” De jongens, belust op eene vechtpartij, vormen een kring en beginnen op te hitsen: „Schooier, geef hem er een!” Deze duwt met zijn schouder tegen Willems hoofd op. Willems bloed kookt, maar zijne tegenpartij schijnt hem een reus. Hij kijkt om, of hij op hulp kan rekenen, doch ontmoet achter en voor alleen blikken vol leedvermaak. Daar gooit een jongen achter hem, hem tegen zijn tegenstander aan.
  • 65. „Zeg, sta op je lijf,” zegt deze, met een gevoeligen stomp tegen Willems kin. Nu kan hij het niet langer uithouden. Met een sprong als van een kat, springt hij tegen den schooier op, en grijpt hem in de borst. Een oogenblik later rollen ze over de steenen. Willem, hoewel minder sterk, is veel vlugger dan zijn tegenpartij; hij worstelt zich boven, en nu dalen de vuistslagen als hagelsteenen op het hoofd van den schooier neer. De jongens, die dezen eerst opgehitst hebben, verkneukelen zich nu van plezier, als zij zien hoe hij er van langs krijgt en worden met eerbied voor Willem vervuld. [22] Deze heeft er genoeg van; hij staat op, en zegt hijgend, terwijl hij zijn gehavende kleeren recht trekt: „Zie zoo! nu heb je gezien, dat ik niet bang voor je ben, nu zul je me in ’t vervolg met rust laten.” De overwonnene kan zijn spijt niet verkroppen: „Och, verbeeldt je maar niet, dat je de baas bent gebleven, ik ben uitgegleden door de modder, maar begin nu nog eens als je durft! Ja, strijk je boordje maar glad! Wat zal je moesje wel zeggen, dat er modderspatjes op je pakje zijn!” Willem is volstrekt niet van plan weder te beginnen en antwoordt slechts met een verachtelijken blik en een liptrekking. De schooier moet zijn spijt over de nederlaag lucht geven; de builen en schrammen op zijn hoofd doen hem geweldig pijn, en Willems schijnbare kalmte prikkelt hem nog meer. Met een sarrenden grijnslach roept hij Willem, die zich omgekeerd heeft om heen te gaan, na:
  • 66. „Zeg Willempie, is het waar, dat je pa zich doodgeschoten heeft?” Willem blijft staan. De grond golft onder zijn voeten, de hemel staat in vuur en vlam; razend van drift keert hij zich om en met een gebrul, als van een wild dier, vliegt hij op den laaghartigen jongen toe en geeft hem een hevigen schop tegen den buik. Een rauwe gil snijdt door de lucht en de schooier zakt ineen. Willem stond verpletterd: hij zag hoe het gezicht van den ongelukkige met een lijkkleur overtogen werd; hij zag nog hoe de jongens schreeuwend en gillend op de vlucht gingen, hoe van alle kanten de menschen kwamen toeschieten, hoe twee mannen zijn slachtoffer voorzichtig opnamen en wegdroegen, toen was het hem of een dikke mist voor zijne oogen zweefde en hem het zien belette, zijn ooren suisden en als aan den grond genageld bleef hij staan. Plotseling voelde hij de zware hand van een politieagent op zijn schouder. Een rilling voer hem door de leden, en willoos, zonder zich bewust te zijn, wat er met hem gebeurde, volgde hij den agent naar het bureau. Een half uur later viel de ijzeren deur van de gevangenis met een akeligen, doffen slag achter hem dicht. [23]
  • 68. HOOFDSTUK III. In den loop van dien noodlottigen dag ontving Roda een briefje van den commissaris van politie, het verzoek inhoudende, even aan het bureau te komen. Hij was zich niets kwaads bewust; toch schrikte hij bij het lezen. Wat kon het zijn? Allerlei gissingen kwamen snel na elkander bij hem op, de eene al ongerijmder dan de andere; maar even spoedig werden ze verworpen. Intusschen, iets moest er toch voorgevallen zijn. Als Emilia nu maar terugkwam; ze was even uitgegaan, om een luchtje te scheppen en meteen een paar noodzakelijke boodschappen te doen. Roda kon zijn vrouw niet alleen laten; daar hij en zijn dochter altijd zorgden, minstens één van beiden thuis te zijn, zou dat argwaan wekken, en hij wilde haar niet noodeloos ongerust maken. Met haastige schreden liep hij de kamer op en neer, en gaf zich moeite, zijn ongeduld en zijn onrust te verbergen. Emilia kon reeds terug zijn! Wat bleef ze lang weg! Dat was toch hare gewoonte niet! Hemel, als haar eens iets overkomen was! Onwillekeurig greep hij naar zijn hoed aan den kapstok. „Johan, wat mankeert je? Wat is er gebeurd?” riep zijne vrouw, ontsteld opstaande. „Och, niets van belang; ik moet even weg, en Emilia komt niet terug.”
  • 69. „Wel, ik ben niet ziek meer en kan wel een oogenblik alleen blijven.” Daar werd gescheld. Gelukkig, het was Emilia. In een oogwenk had haar vader zijn jas aangeschoten en zijn hoed opgezet. „Ik kom spoedig terug.” Zijn gejaagdheid ontging Emilia niet. Den schijn aannemend hem nog iets op te dragen, volgde zij haar vader in de gang. „Vader, wat is er te doen? Waarom zoo haastig?” Roda toonde haar het zoo even ontvangen briefje. Ook zij poogde tevergeefs de oorzaak te raden. Aan Willem dachten geen van beiden; die zat immers rustig en wel op de schoolbanken. Het gerust geweten van Willems vader gaf dezen spoedig zijn kalmte terug, en bedaard stapte hij de kamer van den commissaris binnen. Als een donderslag bij helderen hemel trof hem de jobstijding. Indien eenige beambten hem niet gegrepen hadden, zou hij tegen den grond geslagen zijn. Voorzichtig deden ze hem op [24]de bank plaats nemen, en boden hem een glas water aan. De commissaris en de agenten, ofschoon aan dergelijke tooneelen gewoon, waren met zijn leed begaan. De eerste bezorgde den ongelukkigen vader in zijn leuningstoel een gemakkelijker rustplaats, en bleef zelf staan. Met de ellebogen op de knieën en het gelaat in de handen verborgen, bleef Roda roerloos zitten. De commissaris was er verlegen mede; hij verweet zich, bij de mededeeling van het feit niet omzichtig genoeg gesproken te
  • 70. hebben, en wist niet, hoe hij zijn onhandigheid weer goed zou maken. „Mijnheer,” zei hij, na een poos, op eenig teeken van leven gewacht te hebben, „mijnheer, sta eens op, laat de droefheid u niet overmeesteren, er moet gehandeld worden. Is u in staat, mij aan te hooren?” Roda hief het hoofd op. „’t Eerste, dat u te doen heeft, is naar de ouders van den verslagene te gaan en te trachten, het hart van den vader te vermurwen. Ik heb den heer Walling hier ontboden, maar hij heeft tot nu toe geen gevolg aan mijn oproeping gegeven. Misschien kan hij uw zoon de voorloopige hechtenis besparen. „Stel u evenwel de zaak niet te licht voor, want al is de arme jongen nog niet dood, de geneesheer verklaarde mij, dat er weinig of geen hoop op herstel bestaat. Bovendien vernam ik, dat de heer Walling reeds eenigermate uw vijand is; bereid u derhalve voor op een onaangename ontmoeting. In elk geval kunt u beproeven, of hij tot gematigdheid te stemmen is; haast u dus.” Roda stond met knikkende knieën op. „Wil ik u een agent meegeven?” Nauwelijks had de commissaris de woorden uit den mond, of de deur werd driftig opengeworpen, en Walling zelf stond op den drempel. Niet zoodra werd hij Roda gewaar, of zijn gelaatstrekken verwrongen zich tot een onbeschrijfelijke uitdrukking van woede en haat, en met den brullend uitgestooten kreet: „moordenaar!” wierp hij zich op Roda.
  • 71. De agenten hadden moeite, dezen uit de handen van den razende te bevrijden. Op een wenk van den commissaris brachten ze den hevig ontstelden man uit de kamer in de voorzaal. Toen Roda eenigszins van den schrik bekomen was, verliet hij met loome schreden het bureau. Waarheen? Naar huis? De ontzettende tijding aan vrouw en dochter brengen? Hij had er den moed niet toe. Doelloos dwaalde hij rond. [25] Een ijzige Decemberwind woei hem om het verhitte hoofd, doch bracht geen verkoeling. Al zijne polsen klopten, als moesten de aderen barsten. De voorbijgangers staarden nieuwsgierig den armen man aan, die, met gebukt hoofd, van het trottoir op de straat, en van de straat weer naar het trottoir waggelde, als was hij beschonken. Zonder te weten, hoe hij er gekomen was, stond hij voor de gevangenis. Het deerde hem niet, hij bemerkte het nauwelijks, dat de leegloopers bleven staan, en hem brutaal aanstaarden. Hij schelt, een sombere klank galmt door de gewelfde gang. De schildwacht staakt, ondanks zijne verkleumde voeten, den haastigen tred en blijft trantelend staan. De sleutel knarst in het slot. Een cipier, met den onafscheidelijken, rammelenden bos sleutels, opent de deur op een kier. „Is mijn zoon hier?” „Zijn naam?” „Willem Roda.”
  • 72. „Zal hooren,” zegt de cipier en slaat de deur dicht; ’t is ook zoo koud buiten. Weer gaat de deur open. Men laat Roda binnen. Op eene tafel in het portierskamertje ligt het register. Een andere beambte bukt zich over de lange lijst. „Roda, zegt u? A, B, D, G, M, R, Ra, Re, Ro, Roda, juist, No. 41, van middag gebracht.” „Laat me, als het u belieft een oogenblik bij hem.” De cipier glimlacht om Roda’s onnoozelheid. Hoe kan iemand ook zoo dom zijn? „Onmogelijk, mijnheer! De directeur is er niet, maar spaar u de moeite van het wachten. Nu nog niet; hij is nog niet voor den rechter van instructie geweest. U kunt later terugkomen.” „Maar het is mijn zoon, mijn Willem, ik moet hem spreken, ik wil hem zien, ik ben zijn vader!” „Wel mogelijk, mijnheer: al was u zijn advocaat, het mag niet, de wet verbiedt het.” Roda strijkt de handen over het klamme voorhoofd. De wet! ja, hij is immers geen meester meer over zijn kind. De wet treedt in zijne rechten; toch aarzelt hij nog; zou hij trachten den cipier te verteederen? „Och, mijnheer, laat me hem slechts even zien. U kunt immers meegaan, ik zal geen woord spreken!”
  • 73. Doch den cipier heeft deze dagelijks terugkeerende scène reeds te lang geduurd. „Portier, laat mijnheer uit!” luidt het norsche antwoord. Deze opent de deur en Roda staat weer op straat. [26] De avond begint reeds te vallen. Reeds fonkelt in het Westen de avondster aan den zachtblauwen winterhemel. De zon zinkt weg achter de daken van de gevangenis; maar nog vergulden haar laatste, wegstervende stralen de nok van de tegenoverliggende huizen, en zetten de dakvensters in vuur. Met weemoed in het hart, ziet Roda de zon verdwijnen; met haar verdwijnt ook de zon van zijn hoop, van zijn leven. En niet voor één nacht, om morgen—zooals de avondster, het beeld der hoop, met haar liefelijk geflonker schijnt te beloven—even schoon en stralend te herrijzen; neen, zijn zon was, zoo hij meende, voor altijd ondergegaan in een akelige cel, achter de kille, koude muren van een gevangenis. De diep bedroefde man zal naar huis gaan; doch nu ontbreekt hem niet alleen de moed, maar ook de kracht, om een trooster te wezen voor de zijnen. Nu is zijn tred niet meer vast, zijn houding niet meer fier. Het verlies van zijn vermogen had den flinken man slechts kunnen buigen, de misdaad van zijn zoon heeft hem gebroken. Onder het gaan, overdenkt hij, hoe er niemand is, die deelneemt in zijn lot, wien hij zijn nood kan klagen. Daar schiet hem plotseling het woord van Omens te binnen: „En ik dan?”
  • 74. Zijn besluit is genomen. Onverwijld begeeft hij zich naar de woning van den advocaat. Gelukkig treft hij hem thuis. In onsamenhangende woorden deelt hij hem de noodlottige gebeurtenis mede, zoodat Omens, meer door vragen dan door de mededeeling van zijn vriend, tot een juist begrip van het gebeurde kwam. Ook hij was hevig ontsteld. „En je vrouw en je dochter?” „Weten nog niets,” zegt Roda zuchtend. „Ik begrijp je, ik zal gaan, maar wanneer een man als jij den moed laat zinken is alles verloren.—Blijf zoolang hier.” Den smeekenden blik van Roda opvangende ging hij voort: „Wees gerust; ik krijg, helaas! zoo langzamerhand een zekere vaardigheid in het behoedzaam overbrengen van ongelukstijdingen.” En na een oogenblik nadenkens voegde hij er bij: „God geve, dat ik je nog eens een blijde boodschap mag brengen!” Roda begreep zijne bedoeling: „Och Omens, of het je ook al gelukt hem vrij te doen spreken; de schande neem je niet van mijn hoofd en nog minder van het zijne. Tweemaal binnen één maand zijn we de fabel van de stad!” En in snikken uitbarstend: „God! mijn kind een moordenaar! Wie had dat ooit kunnen denken!” [27] Omens liet wijselijk den ongelukkigen man met zijne smart alleen en kweet zich zoo goed mogelijk van de ondankbare taak, die hij met
  • 75. alle omzichtigheid ten einde bracht. Al viel de slag niet plotseling, het verdriet werd er niet door verminderd. Nadat Roda dien avond door Omens thuis was gebracht, spraken geen van drieën één woord meer; zwijgend zaten zij tegenover elkander en staarden met bleeke wangen en sombere blikken voor zich uit. Schijnbaar waren ze in gedachten verdiept, in werkelijkheid echter bedwongen ze slechts met moeite de uitbarsting van hun smart. Eerst nadat zij de kamer verlaten hadden, om zich ter ruste te leggen, kon ieder voor zich aan zijn overkropt gemoed lucht geven. ’t Duurde lang eer Willem in zijn cel tot bezinning kwam. Alsof hij uit een droom ontwaakte, keek hij zijne gevangenis rond, en begreep niet eens, hoe hij er in gekomen was. Het ging hem als iemand, die bewusteloos uit het water gehaald is, en in een vreemd huis bij kennis komt. Maar langzamerhand doemde de herinnering aan de gebeurtenissen van dien dag weder in hem op. De beelden warrelden eerst door elkander als de sneeuwvlokken bij een wervelwind, eindelijk kwam er orde in den chaos. Achtereenvolgens kwamen ze op, verflauwden en verdwenen als de lichtbeelden van een tooverlantaarn; eerst de school, daarop zijne luchtkasteelen, het omverloopen van Van Dal, de vechtpartij en eindelijk het wegdragen van den stervenden jongen. Kijk, ’t is of dat akelige gezicht daar op den muur geschilderd is; het verdwijnt niet zooals de andere beelden. Een rilling vaart Willem door de leden; hij kan zijn blik er niet van afwenden; met geweld keert hij zich om; ook op dien muur staat
  • 76. het. Zijn slapen bonzen, of er in zijn hoofd gehamerd wordt. Hij sluit zijn oogen; tevergeefs! Het spooksel wijkt niet. Het verdraait de oogen en schijnt te spreken. Daar hoort hij weer den sarrenden toon en de tergende woorden van den „schooier”: „Is ’t waar, dat je vader zich doodgeschoten heeft?” En zonderling, het grijnzend spook is verdwenen. Nu beseft hij ook opeens, waar hij is, en waarom hij hier is. Schuw kijkt hij om zich. Zijn cel is een meter of vier lang en ruim half zoo breed. Tot op eenigen afstand van den asphalten vloer zijn de wanden zwart geteerd, overigens wit gepleisterd en bedekt met tallooze namen, woorden en teekeningen; de meeste letters en de figuren zijn met de nagels of een scherp voorwerp ingekrast, [28]sommige met potlood gekrabbeld, en enkele met bloed geschreven. In een der smalle wanden is, niet ver van de deur, een tralievenster aangebracht, dat de cel slechts spaarzaam verlicht. De eenige meubelen zijn een houten stoel en een tafeltje onder de gaspit en bovendien tegen den anderen wand drie boven elkander geplaatste planken. Op de middelste een bijbel en eenige andere boeken; op de onderste kammen en verdere benoodigdheden. Onder den stoel ligt een mat, en op de tafel staat een met water gevulde aarden kruik en een tinnen beker. Gretig drinkt Willem beker op beker ledig. De nieuwsgierigheid en ’t vreemde van een gevangenis verbannen voor een oogenblik zijn vrees, maar de nieuwsgierigheid is spoedig bevredigd en de angst keert terug; ook het woelen en bonsen in zijn hoofd begint opnieuw. Opgewonden loopt hij nu heen en weer, als een tijger in zijn kooi; honderd malen heeft hij de lengte van zijn cel met haastige schreden gemeten. Allerlei gedachten bestormen hem. Zouden ze
  • 77. het thuis al weten? Zou hij hier lang moeten blijven? Bij elk geluid dat door de dikke muren dringt, staat hij stil. Nu eens is het boven hem een voetstap, dan weer in de gang het dichtslaan van eene deur of gerammel van sleutels. ’t Begint te schemeren, en de uiterste hoeken van de cel zijn reeds onzichtbaar; het kleine stukje hemel, dat hij door de tralies kan waarnemen, verwisselt zijn blauw met grijs. Als ze hem nu eens vergaten? De naderende duisternis vermeerdert zijn angst; ’t is of de wanden naar elkander toe komen, om hem te verpletteren. „Ik wil er uit, laat me er uit!” gilt hij en schopt en trapt, bonst en beukt met hakken en vuisten tegen de eikenhouten deur, tot de hielen hem pijn doen en de vuisten bloeden; doch de deur wijkt niet, alles blijft stil als het graf. Afgemat door de vruchtelooze poging, gaat Willem op den stoel zitten en kijkt nog eens rond. Als hij dat venster maar open kon krijgen! Maar hoe er bij te komen? Wacht, als dat tafeltje er onder staat, zal het gelukken. Snel als de gedachte springt hij op, en grijpt het tafeltje bij den rand. IJdele poging, het is aan den grond vastgeklonken. De stoel dan: ook die is onwrikbaar bevestigd. De tegenstand maakt zijn verlangen des te vuriger; of er zijn leven van afhangt, haakt hij er naar; het venster moet open. Al zijn denken trekt zich op dit eene punt samen en dit maakt hem vindingrijk. Eén voet op het scharnier van de deur, de andere op de verwarmingsbuis, dat gaat; het is wel wat hoog; nog maar wat
  • 78. [29]uitgerekt.…. een ruk, het venster vliegt open—en Willem valt achterover op den vloer. Tegelijk met een kouden wind, dringt een verward gedruisch door de tralies, niet ongelijk aan het ruischen der golven, als ze breken tegen het strand. Het is rumoer van de straat, doch verzwakt door den afstand en de hoogte. De gillende stemmen der venters, het schellen der trams, het geratel der wielen, alles is saamgesmolten tot één golvenden toon, die nu eens zachter dan weer luider klinkt, naarmate het grootste geraas, dat den grondtoon vormt, dichtbij of veraf is. Daar buiten is het leven, hier in de cel is de dood. Het wordt Willem te moede of hij in eene doodkist met eene opening ligt, en het leven der wereld hoort uit een graf. Hij heeft zich bij zijn val zoo geducht bezeerd, dat hij van eene tweede poging, om op dezelfde wijze de tralies te bereiken afziet. De vertwijfeling nabij valt hij op den vloer neer. „Toreador en ga-a-a-ar-de. Toreador, Toreador.….” klinkt het eensklaps, wel wat zwak, doch duidelijk hoorbaar. Een orgeldraaier heeft vlak voor den muur van de gevangenis post gevat. Hij heeft ook een proefje van het leven daarbinnen gehad en weet hoezeer zijn anders zoo geminacht instrument door de gevangenen wordt op prijs gesteld. Elken namiddag als zijn eentonige dagtaak is volbracht, en hij zijn koperen ontvangst heeft nageteld, denkt hij aan zijn vroegere lotgenooten in de ellende. En al hebben de menschen hem met verkleumde vingers tevergeefs laten draaien, en de meiden hem afgesnauwd, omdat zij voor dat bedelvolk telkens naar de schel moesten loopen, voor de gevangenis speelt hij zijn geheel repertorium nog eens om Godswil; en, indien hij slechts eenig teeken van bijval bemerkt, drie-, viermaal over.
  • 79. Daar hij langen tijd hetzelfde publiek houdt, verwisselt hij dikwijls tegen den avond zijn gewoon instrument voor dat van een collega, om eens wat afwisseling in het programma te brengen. Op dien avond gebeurde het, dat een dame, die toevallig voorbijwandelde, staan bleef en nieuwsgierig vroeg: „Orgeldraaier, voor wie speel je daar?” „Voor de gevangenen, mevrouw! Kijk ze eens de neuzen door de tralies steken, om beter te hooren. Allen zijn present, op één na; die is zeker ontslagen of anders bepaald ziek; ik wou dat ik wat dichter bij kon komen.” „Hier man, heb je een gulden voor je moeite!” „Vraag wel excuus, mevrouw, als ik morgen bij u kom, zal ik voor u spelen. Ik neem nu al vast uw geld dankbaar aan, zeg me uw adres maar. Hier speel ik voor mijn plezier.” [30] „Zeg, kameraad, steek eens op!” fluistert de schildwacht, die het gesprek heeft gehoord, en kijkt behoedzaam rond, want hij mag op wacht niet spreken; „’t mot een fijne wezen, ik heb hem van den sergeant en die heeft hem van den oppasser van den kapitein; ik heb net zoo lief een flinke pruim.” „Nou, in Gods naam dan, voor van avond bij een slokkie thee. Kijk, daar heb je no. 41 ook. Dat hokkie ken ik: daar heb ik ook een half jaar gebromd. Voor dien moet ik het nog eens overdoen.” Inderdaad was het Willem gelukt weer bij de tralies te komen. Niet voor niets had hij gymnastiek geleerd. Met een aanloop, zoo groot als de lengte van de cel het toeliet, en een hoogsprong zooals hij er nog nooit een over het lijntje had gemaakt, bereikte hij de tralies;
  • 80. klemde zich met beide handen vast en bleef hangen. Met de knieën werkte hij zich zooveel mogelijk op, om zijn zwaarte te verminderen. De schorre tonen van het draaiorgel klonken hem als hemelsche muziek in de ooren. Op het lied uit Carmen volgde „Die schöne blaue Donau”, nog eene polka van Strauss en lest best, het lied „An den Abendstern” van Wagner. De goedhartige liereman vertrok en nam den hartedank mede van velen, wier eenige troost en opwekking hij was. Ofschoon zijn armen hevig pijn deden, bleef Willem nog hangen. De binnenplaats was van de tralies uit niet in haar geheel te overzien, daartoe was de muur te dik en het venster te hoog boven den grond; maar in de verte zag hij, tusschen de omringende huizen door, in eene drukke straat. De winkels waren helder verlicht en eene haastige menigte krioelde er als mieren door elkander. Een oogenblik dacht hij aan ontvluchten, maar ook één oogenblik slechts. De hoogte, de breede muren zonder houvast en de stevige arm-dikke tralies waren even zoovele onoverkomelijke hinderpalen. Uit zoo’n gevangenis kon geen kat ontsnappen. Zijn handen begonnen te verstijven van de koude en het krampachtig vasthouden der tralies; hoewel tegen zijn wil, moest hij loslaten. De sprong achteruit gelukte zonder veel pijn. Tot zijne verbazing was de cel helder verlicht door een groote gasvlam boven het tafeltje. Verschrikt kneep hij de oogen dicht, die zoo lang in de duisternis hadden getuurd. Bijna op hetzelfde oogenblik werden de grendels weggeschoven, knarste het slot en kwam een kreupele bewaker binnen. Deze zette, zonder te spreken, een tinnen bord met gesneden roggebrood en eene kan—van hetzelfde metaal—met melk op het tafeltje. Een pakje, dat hij onder den arm had gedragen,
  • 81. legde hij in een hoek op den grond en sloot het venster met een haak. [31] Het was een kleine man met een ruw, bijna woest uiterlijk. Zijn lange, vuile haren hingen verwilderd om zijn hals en op zijn voorhoofd. Zijn kleine, grijze oogen, sluw en wreed als van een vos, keken Willem doordringend aan; zijn bovenlip was gespleten en lieten twee vervaarlijk groote, zwarte tanden zien. Blijkbaar maakte Willems nette kleeding hem nieuwsgierig; hij bekeek hem van het hoofd tot de voeten, en nam eene houding aan, alsof hij een vraag verwachtte; toen die niet kwam, vroeg hij met piepende stem, die zonderling bij zijn roofdierkop afstak: „Al meer in de cel geweest?” Willem schudde nauw merkbaar het hoofd, en gevoelde zich lang niet op zijn gemak. „Niet? De hangmat vasthaken, stroo en dekens er op leggen, op die plank alles wat er noodig is.” Hij scheen meer mededeelzaamheid bij de gevangenen gewoon te zijn; ten minste hij wachtte nog en bleef Willem met zijn gluipende oogen aanzien; deze echter sloeg de zijne neer en bewaarde een hardnekkig stilzwijgen. „Bent er vroeg bij, maatje, zeker gestolen op een kantoor.” „Dat lieg je!” schreeuwde Willem driftig opspringend; maar hij bedwong zich en herinnerde zich de oorzaak van zijn gevangenschap. Misschien ook wist die man iets van „den schooier”. Zich tot vriendelijkheid dwingende, vroeg hij zonder den man aan te zien:
  • 82. „Kunt u mij ook iets vertellen van dien jongen, dien ik.… dien ik zoo bezeerd heb; weet u ook soms, of het gevaarlijk is, of hij soms.…” „Zoo, hm, niet gestolen, dacht het wel, veel te mooi gekleed, rijkelui’s kind, vechtpartij, vrijkomen, morgen uit de cel, pistole, duitje afhalen,” piepte de bewaker voor zich ziende en hardop denkende. „Zegt u wat, mijnheer?” vroeg Willem, die met angst op een antwoord wachtte. „Neen, weet niets, mag niets zeggen, morgen misschien voor den rechter van instructie.” „Wie? Wat bedoel je, spreek duidelijker!” „Neen, weet niets, mag niets zeggen, anders weggejaagd, arm,— vrouw en kinderen hongerlijden,—morgen alles krijgen voor geld;”— hij kwam dichter bij Willem, die onwillekeurig terugdeinsde, en siste hem toe, met een grijns van verstandhouding: „Zal stil nog eene deken brengen,—niemand zeggen, boter op het brood morgen.” Willem kon zijn afkeer van den hatelijken man nauwelijks [32]verbergen en vroeg niet verder, zoodat de bewaker met een „goeden nacht,—tien uur licht uit”—heenging. Veel wijzer was Willem niet geworden; alleen had hij begrepen, dat hij den volgenden dag voor den rechter zou verschijnen. Hoewel hij sinds dien morgen negen uur niets gegeten had, gevoelde hij toch geen behoefte aan voedsel; hij liet dan ook het brood staan en dronk alleen de melk.
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