Solution Manual for Methods in Behavioral Research, 14th Edition, Paul Cozby, Scott Bates

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Copyright © 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
C. Determining the Causes of Behavior
D. Explanation of Behavior
IV. Basic and Applied Research
A. Basic Research
B. Applied Research
C. Comparing Basic and Applied Research
Extended Chapter Outline
Please note that much of this information is quoted from the text.
I. Consuming Research
We are continuously bombarded with research results. Articles, books, websites, and social
media posts make claims about the beneficial or harmful effects of particular diets or vitamins on
one’s sex life, personality, or health. There are frequent reports of survey results that draw
conclusions about our views on a variety of topics—who we will vote for, what we think about a
product, where we stand on political hot topics of the day.
A. Why Learn About Research Methods?
Beyond learning to think critically about research findings, there are many ways that
research impacts today’s society, and so many reasons why learning research methods is
important. First, many occupations require the use of research findings. It is also important
to recognize that scientific research has become increasingly prominent in public policy
decisions. Research is also important when developing and assessing the effectiveness of
programs designed to achieve certain goals—for example, to increase retention of students
in school, influence people to engage in behaviors that reduce their risk of contracting HIV,
or teach employees how to reduce the effects of stress. Finally, research methods can be the
way to satisfy our native curiosity about ourselves, our world, and those around us.
II. Ways of Knowing
People have always observed the world around them and sought explanations for what they see and
experience. However, instead of using a scientific approach, many people rely on intuition and
authority as ways of knowing.
A. Intuition and Anecdote
When people rely on intuition, they accept unquestioningly what their own personal

IM – 1 | 3
judgment or a single story (anecdote) about one person’s experience tells them. The intuitive
approach takes many forms. Often, it involves finding an explanation for one’s behavior or
the behaviors of others. For example, one might develop an explanation for why he or she
keeps having conflicts with his or her roommate, such as “He hates me” or “Having to share
a bathroom creates conflict.” A problem with intuition is that numerous cognitive and
motivational biases affect one’s perceptions, and so one may draw erroneous conclusions
about cause and effect.
B. Authority
Many people are all too ready to accept anything they learn from the Internet, news media,
books, government officials, celebrities, religious figures, or even a professor. They believe
that the statements of such authorities must be true. The problem is that the statements may
not be true. The scientific approach rejects the notion that one can accept on faith the
statements of any authority; more evidence is needed before people can draw scientific
conclusions.
C. Empiricism
Scientific skepticism means that ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and
results from scientific investigations. The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method
is empiricism—the idea that knowledge is based on observations.
D. The Scientific Approach
Data Play a Central Role
For scientists, knowledge is primarily based on observations. Scientists enthusiastically
search for observations that will verify or reject their ideas about the world. They
develop theories, argue that existing data support their theories, and conduct research
that can increase their confidence that the theories are correct.
Scientists Are Not Alone
Scientists make observations that are accurately reported to other scientists and the
public. Many other scientists will follow up on the findings by conducting research that
replicates and extends these observations.
Science Is Adversarial

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Science is a way of thinking in which ideas do battle with other ideas in order to move
ever closer to truth. Research can be conducted to test any idea; supporters of the idea
and those who disagree with the idea can report their research findings, and these can be
evaluated by others. Some ideas, even some very good ideas, may prove to be wrong if
research fails to provide support for them. Good scientific ideas can be supported or
they can be falsified by data—the latter concept is called falsifiability.
Scientific Evidence Is Peer Reviewed
Before a study is published in a top-quality scientific journal, other scientists who have
the expertise to carefully evaluate the research review it. This process is called peer
review.
E. Integrating Intuition, Anecdote, and Authority with Skepticism
There is nothing wrong with having opinions or beliefs as long as they are presented simply
as opinions or beliefs. However, people should always ask whether the opinion can be tested
scientifically or whether scientific evidence exists that relates to the opinion. People should
also be skeptical of pseudoscientific research. Pseudoscience is the use of seemingly
scientific terms, and demonstrations are used to substantiate claims that have no basis in
scientific research.
F. Being a Skilled Consumer of Research
Sometimes study authors overreach, coming to conclusions that are not justified. Four
questions can be asked of any research study that will reveal a lot about how much the study
should be trusted:
1. “What was measured?”
2. “How do they know that one thing caused another?”
3. “To what or whom can we generalize the results?”
4. “Have other researchers found similar results?”
III. Goals of Behavioral Science
Scientific research on behavior has four general goals:
• To describe behavior
• To predict behavior

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• To determine the causes of behavior
• To understand or explain behavior
A. Description of Behavior
The scientist begins with careful observation because the first goal of science is to describe
behavior—which can be something directly observable or something less observable. Also,
researchers are often interested in describing the ways in which events are systematically
related to one another.
B. Prediction of Behavior
Once it has been observed with some regularity that two events are related to one another, it
becomes possible to make predictions. We can anticipate events.
C. Determining the Causes of Behavior
Cook and Campbell describe three types of evidence (drawn from the work of philosopher John
Stuart Mill) used to identify the cause of a behavior. To conclude causation, three things must
occur:
• There is a temporal order of events in which the cause precedes the effect. This is called
temporal precedence.
• When the cause is present, the effect occurs; when the cause is not present, the effect
does not occur. This is called covariation of cause and effect.
• Nothing other than a causal variable could be responsible for the observed effect. This is
called elimination of alternative explanations.
D. Explanation of Behavior
A final goal of science is to explain the events that have been described. The scientist seeks
to understand why the behavior occurs.
IV. Basic and Applied Research
A. Basic Research
Basic research tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Studies
are often designed to address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition,
emotion, motivation, learning, personality, development, and social behavior.

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B. Applied Research
Applied research is conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems and
potential solutions. A major area of applied research is called program evaluation, which
assesses the social reforms and innovations that occur in government, education, the criminal
justice system, industry, health care, and mental health institutions.
C. Comparing Basic and Applied Research
Both basic and applied research are important, and neither can be considered superior to the
other. In fact, progress in science is dependent on an interconnection between basic and
applied research. Much applied research is guided by the theories and findings of basic
research investigations.
Illustrative Article: Introduction
After reading the article, answer the following questions:
1. “What was measured?” All studies in the behavioral sciences start with measurement:
identifying the important concepts to be studied, and figuring out how to measure them. This
is related to the concept of construct validity, which will be covered in depth in later
chapters.
Student answers will vary. They should describe aspects of age-at-encoding (AaE) and
fictional first memories and the researchers’ analysis.
2. “How do they know that one thing caused another?” Many times—particularly in popular
media—there will be the claim that one thing causes another. It’s always important to ask:
How do they know? This is related to the concept of internal validity, which will be covered
in later chapters.
Student answers will vary. They should address the three things that must hold true to
conclude causation (temporal precedence, covariation of cause and effect, and alternative
explanations) as described in the chapter.
3. “To what or whom can we generalize the results?” This is related to the concept of
external validity, which will be covered in later chapters.
Student answers will vary. They should address how the researchers explained the behavior
they observed in the study.

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4. “Have other researchers found similar results?” A single study can be interesting, but
scientific progress involves the accumulation of studies. We can be more confident in a study
if other studies have found the same thing.
Student answers will vary. They should address whether the study aligns with or diverges
from previous studies and what explanations of behavior could be either discarded or revised.
5. Finally, answer the following questions:
A. Would you describe this study being applied research or basic research? Why?
Student answers will vary, but they should explain their choice based upon the definitions in
the chapter. (Basic research tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of human
behavior; applied research is conducted to address issues in which there are practical
problems and potential solutions.)
B. Which goal of science (description, prediction, causation, explanation) do you think is
primarily targeted by this article? Why?
Student answers will vary. They should rely upon the definitions of each goal found in the
text and apply that in their answer. The key, of course, is “primarily targeted.”
Sample Answers for Review Questions
1. Why is it important for anyone in our society to have knowledge of research methods?
A background in research methods will help people read research reports critically, evaluate
the methods employed, and decide whether the conclusions are reasonable. Learning about
research methods will help people think critically. Many occupations require the use of
research findings. It is also important to recognize that scientific research has become
increasingly prominent in public policy decisions. Research is also important when
developing and assessing the effectiveness of programs designed to achieve certain goals.
Research methods can be the way for people to satisfy their native curiosity about ourselves,
our world, and those around us.
2. Why is scientific skepticism useful in furthering our knowledge of behavior?
Scientific skepticism means that ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and
results from scientific investigations. The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method
is empiricism—the idea that knowledge comes from observations. Data are collected that
form the basis of conclusions about the nature of the world.
3. How does the scientific approach differ from other ways of gaining knowledge about
behavior?

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In the scientific approach, data are collected and shared with peers. Adversarial conclusions
are drawn from the data, and those conclusions are also shared with and reviewed by peers.
4. Provide (a) definitions and (b) examples of description, prediction, determination of cause,
and explanation as goals of scientific research.
Description of behavior is based on careful observation and can be something directly
observable, such as running speed, or something less observable, such as self-perception.
Researchers often try to describe the ways in which events are systematically related to one
another. Prediction of behavior involves anticipating events based on observations and
descriptions, such as predicting that a physically attractive defendant in a criminal trial will
receive a more lenient sentence than an unattractive defendant guilty of the same offense.
Determination of cause involves correctly identifying the underlying reason for a behavior, such
as determining if the correlation between the level of a child’s violent behavior and the amount
of violent television programming the child has been exposed to is actually caused by exposure
to violent programming or is caused by some other element. Explanation is very closely related
to determining cause, and it seeks to explain reasons for observed behaviors. The previous
example about violent television programming would also be applicable to explanation;
however, the explanation may require modification if another cause or causes of the behavior
are identified.
5. Describe the three elements for inferring causation. Describe the characteristics of
scientific inquiry, according to Goodstein (2000).
The three elements for inferring causation include temporal precedence, which is an order of
events in which the cause precedes the effect; covariation of cause and effect, in which an effect
occurs if the cause is present and does not occur if the cause is absent; and elimination of
alternative explanations, in which nothing other than a causal variable can be responsible for an
observed effect. Goodstein’s (2000) characteristics for scientific inquiry are that data play a
central role, scientists are not alone, science is adversarial, and scientific evidence is peer
reviewed.
6. How does basic research differ from applied research?
Basic research differs from applied research because basic research tries to answer
fundamental questions about the nature of behavior, and applied research tries to address
issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions.
Sample Answers for Critical Thinking: Being a Skilled Consumer of Research
1. Read several editorials in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, USA Today, Washington
Post, or other major metropolitan news source, and identify the sources used to support the
assertions and conclusions. Did the writer use intuition, appeals to authority, scientific
evidence, or a combination of these? Give specific examples.

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Students’ answers will vary based on the examples that they choose. For instance, if a student
selects a story regarding the outbreak of a disease in a city, its purpose would be to generate
awareness, and it might use appeal to authorities to help contain this situation.
2. Imagine a debate on the following statement: Behavioral scientists should only conduct
research that has immediate practical applications. Develop “pro” and “con” arguments—
arguments that support or oppose the assertion.
Students’ answers will vary. Some may say that conducting research that would have
immediate practical applications would act as a source of relief for some people with an
obsessive–compulsive disorder. However, a disadvantage can be the fact that having a
consensus on what is meant by important would vary among scientists. Another disadvantage
is the people cannot always predict which research will have practical applications in the
future.
3. Imagine a debate on the following statement: Knowledge of research methods is unnecessary
for students who intend to pursue careers in clinical and counseling psychology. Develop
“pro” and “con” arguments—arguments that support or oppose the assertion.
Students’ answers will vary. Some may argue that sound theoretical knowledge in clinical
and counseling psychology would be adequate for students, and knowledge related to
research methods wouldn’t be necessary. However, others might argue that students who are
not aware of research methods would find it difficult to understand the methods used and its
implications while referring to other research papers.
4. You read an article that says, “Eating disorders may be more common in warm regions.” It
also says that a researcher found that the incidence of eating disorders among female students
at a university in Florida was higher than at a university in Pennsylvania. Assume that this
study accurately describes a difference between students at the two universities. Discuss the
finding in terms of the issues of identification of cause and effect and explanation.
There are three elements to consider when looking at cause and effect. First is a need to ask
about temporal precedence: Did living in a warm climate precede having the eating disorder?
Second is a need to look at covariation of cause and effect: Do female students in a warm
climate experience eating disorders more than do people in cold climates? Third, one would
want to eliminate alternative explanations: Could something besides the warm climate be
responsible for the higher incidence of eating disorders in Florida?

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Laboratory Demonstration: The False Consensus Effect
People often believe that others are more like them than they really are. Thus, one’s predictions
about others’ beliefs or behaviors, based on casual observation, are very likely to err in the
direction of one’s own beliefs or behavior. For example, college students who preferred brown
bread estimated that over 50% of all other college students preferred brown bread, while white-
bread eaters estimated more accurately that 37% showed brown bread preference (Ross et al.,
1977). This is known as the false consensus effect (Mullen et al., 1985; Ross et al., 1977). The
false consensus effect provides the basis for the following demonstration, which emphasizes the
need for systematic rather than casual observation.
Before describing the false consensus effect, have students answer the questions listed below.
Next, have students predict the class mean for each question. Collect the data sheets. According to
the false consensus effect, students’ predictions about the class mean should be influenced by their
own positions. Consequently, a student whose position is below the class mean is likely to make a
prediction that will be below the class mean as well.
To demonstrate the effect statistically, compute the class mean for each question using the
students’ personal data. To involve the students in this process, divide the class into six groups and
assign one question to each. Have them tabulate the answers for that question and calculate the
mean. (Be sure each group has access to all the data sheets—rotating six batches of data sheets
from one group to another until all groups have recorded data from all batches.) Put the means on
the board. Next, have students compute a score for each participant in the following way: For each
question, score a +1 if the participant’s personal answer and predicted class mean are either both
below or both above the actual class mean; score a −1 if the participant’s personal score and
predicted class mean are on opposite sides of the actual class mean. Sum all six questions so that
each participant now has a single score that ranges between −6 and +6. If people err randomly, the
average score for all students should be zero. In contrast, if people err in the direction of their own
beliefs, the average should be greater than zero. A simple, one-group t-test can be calculated using
m = 0 for the null hypothesis.
Behavior Questions
Personal prediction answer for class
1. How many loads of laundry do you wash per week?
2. How many times per year do you attend services at a place of worship?
3. How many times per week do you eat a meal from a fast-food restaurant?
4. How many times per year do you wash your car?

IM – 1 | 11
5. How many times per year do you see a movie at a theater?
6. How many times per week do you consume alcohol?
Mullen, B., Atkins, J. L., Champion, D. S., Edwards, C., Hardy, D., Story, J. E., & Vanderlok, M.
(1985). The false consensus effect: A meta-analysis of 115 hypothesis tests. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 262–283.
Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The false consensus phenomenon: An attributional bias
in self-perception and social perception processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13,
279–301.
Laboratory Demonstration: Single Versus Multiple Observations
The systematic observation employed by scientists generally relies on many independent instances,
while casual observation is often based on only a few instances. The following demonstration is
designed to show how misleading a small sample of observations may be. Divide the class into
groups of three or four students each. Fill a bowl or basket with a “population” of poker chips or
simple slips of paper. On each chip or piece of paper there should be written a single score. (An
approximate normal distribution of 200 numbers is provided below.) Have each group draw five
samples from the population and compute the mean for each sample. Each group, however, should
draw samples of a different size from the other groups. For instance, group one draws five samples
of Size 1, group two draws five samples of Size 3, group three draws five samples of Size 5, and so
on. The rate of progression from small to large samples depends on the number of groups. It is a
good idea to have the last group draw fairly large size samples (e.g., N = 20 or 25). Once the means
for each sample are computed, have each group plot the means on a graph on the board. It should
be obvious that with small samples we can easily get a distorted picture of the population mean.
Note how the variability from sample mean to sample mean decreases dramatically as we increase
the sample size. Discuss how many of our casual observations are based on relatively few
observations.
The following population of scores yields a population mean of 17 and a standard deviation of
4.66.
X f X f
5 1 23 7
6 2 24 5
7 2 25 4
8 3 26 3
9 4 27 2

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10 5 28 2
11 7 29 1
12 9 200
13 10
14 13
15 16
16 18
17 10
18 13
19 16
20 13
21 10
22 9
Note: This population of scores can be used for demonstrations suggested in Chapters 8 and 12.
Activity: Observing Behavior
It is often useful to have students immediately begin making observations of behaviors. In class,
students might generate a list of possible behaviors to observe on campus. For example, observe
the age, ethnicity, and dress of students in various campus locations, such as different
eating/gathering places, the library, and the computer center. How many students are alone, in
groups of two, or groups of three or more; are these same- or mixed-gender groups? Check door
cards on faculty offices to see whether the occupant is an assistant, an associate, or a full professor,
and note whether the office has a window. Categorize restroom graffiti; how much is aggressive,
sexual, humorous, or political? A discussion based on these observations in class can introduce
students to many topics and procedures of research methods.
Activity: Setting up a Research News Group
Research-related stories often appear on a variety of web-related sources. A news group may be set
up containing research-related stories from the American Psychological Association and American
Psychological Society Press releases, Yahoo news health section, and regional psychological
association press releases. Students could sign up for the newsgroup and receive e-mails with
stories relevant to topics dealing with research methods.
Additional Discussion Topics

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Discussion: The Gambler’s Fallacy
Another way to illustrate the limitations of intuition is to discuss the gambler’s fallacy. Ask
students the following: If they were in Vegas and they pulled a slot machine arm 25 times with
no payout, would there be a greater probability that the next pull would pay out? Or if one flips a
coin 20 times and gets heads each time, is one more likely to get tails on the next trial? Even
though students may understand probability intellectually, a part of their brain says, “Yes, it is
more likely!” That would imply that each trial is not independent, but rather it is dependent on
prior trials.
Discussion: Operational Definitions
Most students have not discussed operational definitions since Introduction to Psychology.
Explain that research hinges on an operational definition that specifically includes AND excludes
things from the definition. For example, ask students to define aggression. One can expect the
usual examples of hitting, pushing, punching, kicking, and so on; now ask about indirect forms,
such as spreading rumors, keying someone’s car, and so on. Now what about sports? Are hockey
players aggressive? What about football? What about consensual sex between adults that
involves harm to one of the participants? Remind students that the role of definitions is to both
include things, such as hitting and spreading rumors, while excluding other things, such as sports
and other consensual adult behaviors.
Suggested Readings
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods (2nd ed.)
Brems, C. (1994). Taking the fear out of research: A gentle approach to teaching an appreciation
for research. Teaching of Psychology 21, 241–243.
Johnson, D. E. (1996). A “handy” way to introduce research methods. Teaching of Psychology,
23, 168–170.
Also recommended:
Lakin, J. L., Giesler, R. B., Morris, K. A., & Vosmik, J. R. (2007). HOMER as an acronym for the
scientific method. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 94–96.
Marek, P., Christopher, A. N., & Walker, B. J. (2004). Learning by doing: Research methods with
a theme. Teaching of Psychology, 31, 128–131.

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At length she said hesitatingly, "I can't say exactly, but I think I
could do with four hundred francs."
He changed color because he was laying aside just that sum to buy
a gun and treat himself to a little shooting next summer on the plain
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to shoot larks. Nevertheless, he said: "Very well, I will give you four
hundred francs. Get a pretty dress."
The day of the ball drew nearer, and Mme. Loisel seemed
despondent, nervous, upset, though her dress was all ready. One
evening her husband observed: "I say, what is the matter, Mathilde?
You have been very queer lately." And she replied, "It exasperates
me not to have a single ornament of any kind to put on. I shall look
like a fright—I would almost rather stay at home." He answered:
"Why not wear flowers? They are very fashionable at this time of the
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But she was not to be persuaded. "No, it's so mortifying to look
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Then her husband exclaimed: "How slow you are! Go and see your
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She gave an exclamation of delight: "True! I never thought of that!"
Next day she went to her friend and poured out her woes. Mme.
Forestier went to a closet with a glass door, took out a large jewel
box, brought it back, opened it, and said to Mme. Loisel, "Here, take
your choice, my dear."
She looked at some bracelets, then at a pearl necklace, and then at
a Venetian cross curiously wrought of gold and precious stones. She
tried on the ornaments before the mirror, hesitated, was loath to
take them off and return them. She kept inquiring, "Have you any
more?"
"Certainly, look for yourself. I don't know what you want."

Suddenly Mathilde discovered, in a black satin box, a magnificent
necklace of diamonds, and her heart began to beat with excitement.
With trembling hands she took the necklace and fastened it round
her neck outside her dress, becoming lost in admiration of herself as
she looked in the glass. Tremulous with fear lest she be refused, she
asked, "Will you lend me this—only this?"
"Yes, of course I will."
Mathilde fell upon her friend's neck, kissed her passionately, and
rushed off with her treasure.
The day of the ball arrived.
Mme. Loisel was a great success. She was prettier than them all,
lovely, gracious, smiling, and wild with delight. All the men looked at
her, inquired her name, tried to be introduced; all the officials of the
Ministry wanted a waltz—even the minister himself noticed her. She
danced with abandon, with ecstacy, intoxicated with joy, forgetting
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She left about four in the morning.
Since midnight her husband had been sleeping in a little deserted
anteroom with three other men whose wives were enjoying
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ordinary, everyday garments, contrasting sorrily with her elegant ball
dress. She felt this, and wanted to get away so as not to be seen by
the other women, who were putting on costly furs.
Loisel detained her: "Wait a little; you will catch cold outside; I will
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But she would not listen to him, and hurried downstairs. When they
reached the street they could not find a carriage, and they began to
look for one, shouting to the cabmen who were passing by. They
went down toward the river in desperation, shivering with cold. At

last they found on the quays one of those antiquated, all-night
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display their dilapidation. It took them to their door in the Rue des
Martyrs, and once more, wearily, they climbed the stairs.
Now all was over for her; as for him, he remembered that he must
be at the office at ten o'clock. She threw off her cloak before the
glass, that she might behold herself once more in all her
magnificence. Suddenly she uttered a cry of dismay—the necklace
was gone!
Her husband, already half-undressed, called out, "Anything wrong?"
She turned wildly toward him: "I have—I have—I've lost Mme.
Forestier's necklace!"
He stood aghast: "Where? When? You haven't!"
They looked in the folds of her dress, in the folds of her cloak, in
her pocket, everywhere. They could not find it.
"Are you sure," he said, "that you had it on when you left the ball?"
"Yes; I felt it in the corridor of the palace."
"But if you had lost it in the street, we should have heard it fall. It
must be in the cab."
"No doubt. Did you take his number?"
"No. And didn't you notice it either?"
"No."
They looked at each other, terror-stricken. At last Loisel put on his
clothes.
"I shall go back on foot," he said, "over the whole route we came
by, to see if I can't find it."
He went out, and she sat waiting in her ball dress, too dazed to go
to bed, cold, crushed, lifeless, unable to think.

Her husband came back at seven o'clock. He had found nothing. He
went to Police Headquarters, to the newspaper office—where he
advertised a reward. He went to the cab companies—to every place,
in fact, that seemed at all hopeful.
She waited all day in the same awful state of mind at this terrible
misfortune.
Loisel returned at night with a wan, white face. He had found
nothing.
"Write immediately to your friend," said he, "that you have broken
the clasp of her necklace, and that you have taken it to be mended.
That will give us time to turn about."
She wrote as he told her.
By the end of the week they had given up all hope. Loisel, who
looked five years older, said, "We must plan how we can replace the
necklace."
The next day they took the black satin box to the jeweler whose
name was found inside. He referred to his books.
"You did not buy that necklace of me, Madame. I can only have
supplied the case."
They went from jeweler to jeweler, hunting for a necklace like the
lost one, trying to remember its appearance, heartsick with shame
and misery. Finally, in a shop at the Palais Royal, they found a string
of diamonds which looked to them just like the other. The price was
forty thousand francs, but they could have it for thirty-six thousand.
They begged the jeweler to keep it three days for them, and made
an agreement with him that he should buy it back for thirty-four
thousand, francs if they found the lost necklace before the last of
February.
Loisel had inherited eighteen thousand francs from his father. He
could borrow the remainder. And he did borrow right and left, asking
a thousand francs from one, five hundred of another, five louis here,
three louis there. He gave notes, assumed heavy obligations,

trafficked with money-lenders at usurious rates, and, putting the rest
of his life in pawn, pledged his signature over and over again. Not
knowing how he was to make it all good, and terrified by the penalty
yet to come, by the dark destruction which hung over him, by the
certainty of incalculable deprivations of body and tortures of soul, he
went to get the new bauble, throwing down upon the jeweler's
counter the thirty-six thousand francs.
When Mme. Loisel returned the necklace, Mme. Forestier said to
her coldly: "Why did you not bring it back sooner? I might have
wanted it."
She did not open the case—to the great relief of her friend.
Supposing she had! Would she have discovered the substitution,
and what would she have said? Would she not have accused Mme.
Loisel of theft?
Mme. Loisel now knew what it was to be in want, but she showed
sudden and remarkable courage. That awful debt must be paid, and
she would pay it.
They sent away their servant, and moved up into a garret under
the roof. She began to find out what heavy housework and the
fatiguing drudgery of the kitchen meant. She washed the dishes,
scraping the greasy pots and pans with her rosy nails. She washed
the dirty linen, the shirts and dish-towels, which dried upon the line.
She lugged slops and refuse down to the street every morning,
bringing back fresh water, stopping on every landing, panting for
breath. With her basket on her arm, and dressed like a woman of
the people, she haggled with the fruiterer, the grocer, and the
butcher, often insulted, but getting every sou's worth that belonged
to her. Each month notes had to be met, others renewed, extensions
of time procured. Her husband worked in the evenings, straightening
out tradesmen's accounts; he sat up late at night, copying
manuscripts at five sous a page.
And this they did for ten years.

At the end of that time they had paid up everything, everything—
with all the principal and the accumulated compound interest.
Mme. Loisel looked old now. She had become a domestic drudge,
sinewy, rough-skinned, coarse. With towsled hair, tucked-up skirts,
and red hands, she would talk loudly while mopping the floor with
great splashes of water. But sometimes, when alone, she sat near
the window, and she thought of that gay evening long ago, of the
ball where she had been so beautiful, so much admired. Supposing
she had not lost the necklace—what then? Who knows? Who knows?
Life is so strange and shifting. How exceedingly easy it is to be
ruined or saved!
But one Sunday, going for a walk in the Champs Élysées to refresh
herself after her hard week's work, she accidentally came upon a
familiar-looking woman with a child. It was Mme. Forestier, still
young, still lovely, still charming.
Mme. Loisel became agitated. Should she speak to her? Of course.
Now that she had paid, she would tell her all about it. Why not? She
went up to her.
"How do you do, Jeanne?"
The other, astonished at the easy manner toward her assumed by a
plain housewife whom she did not recognize, said:
"But, Madame, you have made a mistake; I do not know you.
"Why, I am Mathilde Loisel!"
Her friend gave a start.
"Oh, my poor Mathilde," she cried, "how you have changed!"
"Yes; I have seen hard days since last I saw you; hard enough—
and all because of you."
"Of me? And why?"
"You remember the diamond necklace you loaned me to wear at
the Ministry ball?"

"Yes, I do. What of it?"
"Well, I lost it!"
"But you brought it back—explain yourself."
"I bought one just like it, and it took us ten years to pay for it. It
was not easy for us who had nothing, but it is all over now, and I am
glad."
Mme. Forestier stared.
"And you bought a necklace of diamonds to replace mine?"
"Yes; and you never knew the difference, they were so alike." And
she smiled with joyful pride at the success of it all.
Mme. Forestier, deeply moved, took both her hands.
"Oh, my poor Mathilde! My necklace was paste. It was worth only
about five hundred francs!"
—Henri Rene Albert Guy de Maupassant.
"Little Masterpieces of Fiction." Volume V. (Doubleday,
Page & Co.)
Andong
Andong was the only son of Isio, an ex-gobernadorcillo (president)
of Tuao, Cagayan. At an early age Andong went to Manila to study;
but, unfortunately, his father died and the boy could not finish his
career, but returned to his native town to take care of his helpless
mother. Shortly after his arrival at Tuao, his mother died, and
Andong became a poor orphan. During his orphanage he lived
miserably, but worked hard in order to release himself from poverty.
He cultivated, year after year, his small piece of land, which he
inherited from his father. After ten years he had earned a
considerable sum, and bought twenty-five carabaos and one
hundred hectares of land. He made a trip to Ilocos Norte, and

succeeded in getting several Ilocano families to live and to work on
his plantation.
One day, while he was working in his field, he received a message
from the gobernadorcillo, notifying him of his nomination as a
cabeza de barangay (councilor), and Andong, instead of insulting the
police, as many had done, said, "Well, leave with me the letter, and I
will call on the gobernadorcillo this afternoon." When Andong had
finished his work in the field, he called at the gobernadorcillo's
house, and talked with him about his unexpected nomination.
Andong said, "I have no objection to serving my municipality, for it is
the duty of every citizen to serve his town government the best he
can, and I am thankful to the government for having nominated me
as one of the principales; but before I accept the office, I wish to
see the tax list of my district to know whether any of the people are
in arrears, for I do not want to lose my property, which I have
earned by hard labor, to answer for the debts of the people of my
district, nor can I go to look for them in other provinces, nor—"
"Whether you are willing, or not, you are forced to accept your
nomination," interrupted the gobernadorcillo, "and to-day your
property is hypothecated to pay the debts of your people to the
government."
"But, sir, who has hypothecated my property? Is it possible that
anybody has the right to confiscate my property?"
"Surely," said the gobernadorcillo. "Some of the principales and I
have been informed that you own many hectares of land, and that
you are immensely rich, so the governor of our province has
confirmed your nomination as cabeza de barangay."
"I accept my nomination, but I do not want to answer for the debt
of the people under my command," said Andong.
"Whether you like it or not, you will be cabeza de barangay, and be
compelled to pay all the debts of your people," answered the
gobernadorcillo.

"Well, I will think about the matter first," replied Andong, and he
went to the house of Aning, an old ex-gobernadorcillo, to consult
him.
The gobernadorcillo was not surprised at Andong's nomination, for
he was one of those principales who had recommended Andong to
the council. Aning advised Andong to accept the office. "A cabeza de
barangay is always respected and honored by the people," said the
gobernadorcillo. "He receives no salary, to be sure, but he gets gifts
of eggs, chickens, pigs, fruits, which when sold bring much money.
Besides, when he wants to build a house for himself, some of his
people bring him lumber, rattan, cogon, and other materials, while
the others erect the house without any pay." "But I do not like to
molest my people, and I hate to see them serve me as a master, for
they are my brothers," answered Andong.
"Do you prefer then to die from hunger rather than to cheat your
people as your predecessors did?" asked Aning. "Yes, I prefer death,
to seeing my people oppressed," replied Andong. Disgusted at the
servile conversation of the ex-gobernadorcillo, Andong left him in
vegetating complacency, sitting on a bamboo chair with a fan in his
hand.
Unwillingly Andong became a cabeza de barangay. During the first
year of his office he gave eighty pesos to the government to pay the
debts of his runaway people.
Now his wealth was decreasing, for his duties made him neglect his
work in the field. The fact that he was becoming poorer each day,
led him into despair. He remembered the advice of Aning; but he
had no courage to abuse his poor people. He could not deceive
them, for to deceive such people would be the same as stealing. But
who would pay back the money lost? This was the question which
worried him many times.
To forget his painful situation he took to drinking basi (Ilocano wine
which is extracted from the sugar cane), and became a drunkard. He
forgot entirely his old business, and in his intoxicated moments he

often exclaimed: "While I live, let me enjoy the fruit of my own toil
instead of paying it all over to the government."
On account of his drunkenness, he neglected to collect the taxes
from his people, and the deficit doubled the following year. At first
nobody wanted to lend him money to pay his debt to the
government; for his property was already hypothecated; but, at last
a kind and rich officer lent him the money he needed, at twenty per
cent interest, and with the condition that if he could not pay his debt
within the period of two-years, his property would be pledged for the
second time in favor of the creditor. Andong fell into a long
meditation. He remembered once more the advice of Aning, and he
was revolving in his mind plans which might release him from
bankruptcy. Meanwhile, he decided to go to Ittong, an ex-cabeza de
barangay, to ask for advice.
Andong asked Ittong to work for his election to the office of
gobernadorcillo, in order that he might be saved from his critical
situation. But wise Ittong advised him not to seek such an office; for
it was worse than a cabeza de barangay: "The best thing for you to
do is to let the government confiscate your property, go to prison,
and then when you are released from jail, you can earn again your
lost property," he said.
"Your advice seems excellent to me," answered Andong, "but can't
they nominate me again as cabeza de barangay when I accumulate
more property?"
"Since you have not held the office during a period of ten years,
they can oblige you to accept the office again," said Ittong.
Andong, after a long pause, said to Ittong: "I want to be elected
gobernadorcillo so that I can save my property instead of going to
jail."
"If you desire it, I can recommend you to my friends Islao, Ansong,
Momong, Ipi, and Cadio, who will nominate you as the candidate of
our party for the coming election," said Ittong. "I thank you for your

kindness," said Andong, and bade good-bye to his future advocate,
Ittong.
Andong was nominated as the candidate of Ittong's party for
gobernadorcillo. Ambeng, the candidate of the opposing party, was
more popular than Ittong, consequently he was more sure to
succeed in the coming election. The critical day was approaching.
Many of the cabezas de barangay went to pay their contributions to
the municipal treasurer, in order to be allowed to vote. On the eve of
the election the drum of the tribunal never stopped beating and the
voters of the town kept flocking to the polling-place. On the morning
of the election, all the principales in their holiday dresses awaited
the governor at the tribunal. When the governor came, they took off
their hats and followed him. They entered the tribunal, and sat
around a long table, presided over by the governor. Before beginning
the election, the governor delivered a short speech of welcome and
he emphasized that they must elect that man who was rich, honest,
and capable. After a long discussion, Ambeng was elected by a big
majority.
Andong was disappointed and disgusted over his defeat. But while
Ambeng's party was still celebrating their triumph the governor of
the province received a telegram from the central government,
announcing Andong's nomination as gobernadorcillo of Tuao.
Ambeng was elected by the people, but Andong had been
recommended to the governor-general by the curate of the town,
the governor of the province, and the chief of the guardia civil; so
Andong was appointed to the office he sought.
On the day of Andong's possession, the people of Tuao held a
holiday in his honor. There was a land parade in which all the
princapales of the town took part. After the parade, Andong went to
the tribunal to take his oath before the justice of the peace. After
this ceremony the chief of police read his administrative program, in
which he obliged every one of his people to go to mass on Sundays
and holidays, and prohibited gambling, drunkenness, and stealing.

Time flew. After three months' administration, Andong became
worried over his business; for he was compelled to visit every day
his superiors, and to go to mass on Sundays and holidays. However,
he was a zealous ruler. He organized a militia. He succeeded in
pacifying the Igorrotes, who were fighting one another, and he
caught many of the bandits, who were ravaging the neighboring
towns.
Everything was going all right, when, unexpectedly, Andong
received an order from the court of justice to appear before the
judge to answer all the complaints of the people about his abuses in
the government. Andong, before going to court went to see Ittong,
his old advocate. Ittong advised him not to be afraid. "Call officially
your witnesses," he said, "and tell them that you will put them into
prison if they declare against you." The wind was strong against
Andong. Nobody could save him from his trouble. The prison was
awaiting him. Andong was perplexed; he did not know what to do.
While he was looking at the neighboring mountains, a wise thought
came to his mind. "I will go and live in those woods with the
Igorrotes, rather than to suffer the oppression of my superiors and
the hatred of my own people!" he exclaimed. Meanwhile, he
received an urgent despatch from a friend, announcing that the
government had discharged him from his office, and had sentenced
him to be put into prison. Immediately, Andong and one of his
servants fled from Tuao and sought refuge in the neighboring
forests, there to live like wild men, with no ambition above that of
the brute, caring only for their next meal, but harboring in their
hearts a deadly hatred of Spanish rule.
—Justo E. Avila.

PART II
NARRATIVES OF ACTUAL EVENTS

CHAPTER VII
PARTICULAR ACCOUNTS
The second large division heading explains itself. In an atmosphere
of facts all the true narrative types stand. Whether these types are
used as retainers of truth only is another question. Manifestly they
are not. Manifestly there is much fiction that succeeds merely
because it is cast in the true story mold. But the concern of the
writer who chooses any one of these forms is to pour truth into it,
whether the truth be historical actualities or only artistic
probabilities.
It is more helpful to consider the types on their simplest basis;
hence in a study like this, one would assume for content always real
happenings. The necessity that the story go unquestioned does not,
however, excuse the recorder of actual events from using his
imagination. Indeed, only by using it can he come to write true
history or true biography. Without "the inward eye" one cannot see
the past. Without sympathy—which is another word for imagination
—one cannot know his fellowman. A biographer, an historian, above
all else should be able to see the unseen, not the unseen of the
unreal, but the unseen of the real, a vastly different thing! The two
are exact opposites, the what-is and the what-was set over against
the what-was-not and the what-could-not-be.
In this chapter five types of narratives of actual events are grouped
as particular accounts, or adventitious history, in contrast with
continuous personal history, and continuous impersonal, or
community history.
Particular accounts have to do with those small happenings that
seem to come by chance, those events that form, as it were,
complete and detachable bits of life. That is to say, each relation is

Definition
How to tell an
incident
of something that has taken place or been witnessed in a
comparatively short time—an incident of a trip downtown, a
characteristic action of a great man, an important political event, an
adventure, a brief series of pleasures.
I. The Incident
The word "incident" comes from the Latin and
means "falling upon or into something, impinging
from without;" hence something depending upon or
contained in another thing, as its principal. In narrative, then, it is
the record of a subordinate act or of an event happening at the
same time as some other event and of less importance. Any little
occurrence may be considered an incident. The report of it generally
has excuse for being in the fact that knowledge of it throws light on
the main event or intensifies interest therein. Accordingly every good
narrative of this type possesses a horizon larger than itself.
Somewhere within the story there is a clause connecting the event
with other occurrences or with the prime occurrence.
An incident may or may not be an eye-witness
account. Indeed, an incident may be told by a
person removed the third, the hundredth degree
from the happening. The essential thing is the evidence of reality. Of
course there are fictitious incidents—like those in "Robinson
Crusoe"—but the whole care of the writer in such cases is to
simulate truth. Very often a work of fiction is but a skillful piecing
together of actual small happenings. An incident is valued in itself for
one of two reasons—either for the fact which it records or for the
author's humanity revealed in the narration. Though slight, an
incident should be well told. It need not be pointed, but it should
proceed in an orderly and interesting fashion. The diction should be
natural. As hinted before, an incident should have a setting. The
reader ought to be able to feel something of where the characters
have come from and whither they are going. The more nicely such a
coherence is suggested, the more pleasing the little story will be.

One thinks of the quiet delightfulness of Wordsworth's Incidents
which he calls "Poems on the Naming of Places." They are small
stories out of his life and the lives of his friends—natural records out
of natural living, but as charming and interesting as any tale of
"Naiad by the side
Of Grecian brook, or Lady of the Mere,
Sole-sitting by the shores of old romance."
Robert Browning's "Incident of the French Camp" is an example of
the more stirring small happening. Books of travel are largely series
of incidents, but because of the continued presence of the same
personality fall into a class distinct from this. Good letter-writers are
usually fascinating relators of incidents. Cowper, Jane Welsh Carlyle,
Dorothy Osborne, Gray, Lowell, Edward Fitzgerald, charmed not only
their correspondents but all their later readers. The earlier accounts
of his life away from home that "R. L. S." sent back to his mother
contain exquisite small bits of narration.
A Near Tragedy
A most tragical incident fell out this day at sea. While the ship was
under sail, but making, as will appear, no great way, a kitten, one of
four of the feline inhabitants of the cabin, fell from the window into
the water: an alarm was immediately given to the captain, who was
then upon deck, and received it with the utmost concern. He
immediately gave orders to the steersman in favor of the poor thing,
as he called it; the sails were instantly slackened, and all hands, as
the phrase is, employed to recover the poor animal. I was, I own,
extremely surprised at all this; less, indeed, at the captain's extreme
tenderness, than at his conceiving any possibility of success; for, if
puss had had nine thousand instead of nine lives, I concluded they
had been all lost. The boatswain, however, had more sanguine
hopes; for, having stript himself of his jacket, breeches, and shirt, he
leapt boldly into the water, and, to my great astonishment, in a few

minutes, returned to the ship, bearing the motionless animal in his
mouth. Nor was this, I observed, a matter of such great difficulty as
it appeared to my ignorance, and possibly may seem to that of my
fresh-water readers: the kitten was now exposed to air and sun on
the deck, where its life, of which it retained no symptoms, was
despaired of by all.
The captain's humanity, if I may so call it, did not so totally destroy
his philosophy as to make him yield himself up to affliction on this
melancholy occasion. Having felt his loss like a man, he resolved to
show he could bear it like one; and, having declared he had rather
have lost a cask of rum or brandy, betook himself to thrashing at
backgammon with the Portuguese friar, in which innocent
amusement they passed nearly all their leisure hours.
But as I have, perhaps, a little too wantonly endeavored to raise
the tender passions of my readers in this narrative, I should think
myself unpardonable if I concluded it without giving them the
satisfaction of hearing that the kitten at last recovered, to the great
joy of the good captain; but to the great disappointment of some of
the sailors, who asserted that the drowning a cat was the very
surest way of raising a favorable wind: a supposition of which,
though we have heard several plausible accounts, we will not
presume to assign the true original reason.
—Henry Fielding.
"Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon."
Birds Divulge Army Secrets
During the night, before the battle of Sadowa, an Austrian division
commanded by the archduke, retreating before the Prussian army,
had bivouacked near a town in Bohemia, facing north, says Sir
Evelyn Wood, in the London Gazette.
At midnight the archduke, when resting in a peasant's cottage, was
awakened by the arrival of a gypsy, having come to report the

advance of the enemy.
The archduke, who spoke Romany fluently, asked: "How do you
know? Our outposts have not reported any movement."
"That, your highness, is because the enemy is some way off."
"Then how do you know?"
The gypsy, pointing to the dark sky, lighted by the moon, observed:
"You see those birds flying over the woods from north to south?"
"Yes; what of them?"
"Those birds do not fly by night unless disturbed, and the direction
of their flight indicates that the enemy is coming this way."
The archduke put his division under arms and reinforced the
outposts, which in two hours' time were heavily attacked.
An Incident Related In a Letter
7:20 P. M.—I must tell you a thing I saw to-day. I was going down
to Portobello in the train, when there came into the next
compartment (third-class) an artisan, strongly marked with smallpox,
and with sunken, heavy eyes—a face hard and unkind, and without
anything lovely. There was a woman on the platform seeing him off.
At first sight, with her one eye blind and the whole cast of her
features strongly plebeian, and even vicious, she seemed as
unpleasant as the man; but there was something beautifully soft, a
sort of light of tenderness, as on some Dutch Madonna, that came
over her face when she looked at the man. They talked for a while
together through the window; the man seemed to have been asking
for money. "Ye ken the last time," she said, "I gave ye two shillings
for your lodgin', and ye said—"it died off in a whisper. Plainly Falstaff
and Dame Quickly over again. The man laughed unpleasantly, even
cruelly, and said something; and the woman turned her back on the
carriage and stood a long while so, and, do what I might, I could
catch no glimpse of her expression, although I thought I saw the

heave of a sob in her shoulders. At last, after the train was already
in motion, she turned and put two shillings into his hand. I saw her
stand and look after us with a perfect heaven of love on her face—
this poor one-eyed Madonna—until the train was out of sight; but
the man, sordidly happy with his gains, did not put himself to the
inconvenience of one glance to thank her for her ill-deserved
kindness.
—Robert Louis Stevenson.
In letter to Mrs. Stillwell, Sept. 16, 1873.
A Hero Dead
It was very dark in the east corridor of the Armory, and, save for
the quiet footfall of the ever-watchful orderly, there was no sound in
the silent room where the nation's dead lay wrapped in the great silk
flag. In the shadow of the stairway, a group of secret-service men
were nervously whispering among themselves, with occasional
glances that strove to penetrate the black void that lay beyond the
crape-hung doorway.
Their sergeant stood a little apart from the others, an alert figure,
with a hand that lingered suggestively about his hip-pocket. For
three days he had kept unwearied watch while thousands had paid
their last homage to the dead servant of the people, and the strain
was telling upon him. The nation had lost a hero, but John
MacDonald had lost his idol—and his best friend. Through his mind
was sweeping a strong revulsion at conditions which could have
fostered so wanton a murder; and a sudden and passionate hatred
of the dark race to whose salvation this man had been a martyr
threatened almost to unman this stern son of the service. That very
day he had sent away with a curse a paralytic old negro who had
brought his handful of field-lilies to the bier of the savior of his race.
MacDonald had felt no qualm at his action, and when, later, he had
found the poor flowers lying withered outside the closed door, he
kicked them aside with an oath. In a measure, the stern old

Scotchman had not been responsible for his actions at that time, for
it was just then that he had heard the dread rumor which was
spreading its dark wake through the crapehung corridors. That very
night while the whole nation was yet bowed in its sorrow, an
attempt was to be made to steal the body of the dead hero. The
crime seemed scarcely to be believed, but the men of the secret-
service, scattered throughout the dark corridor, were awake and
ready.
John MacDonald, striving vainly in his grief-saddened heart to
frame a reason for it all, wondered how he had been able to resist
the old negro with his tear-wet face and pleading voice. That black
creature was a man like himself, and he, also, had loved the great
man who was lying so quietly in the folds of his country's flag. "O
Lincoln," he spoke, raising a clenched hand toward the black
doorway, "they have murdered you, they have taken you from us,
but still—" Suddenly his muscles stiffened, and something very akin
to a chill crept about the roots of his hair. There had come the quiet
but unmistakable sound of a footfall from the room where the dead
lay. The Scotchman stood a man of stone, and while his very hair
stiffened with horror, a mighty wrath swept over his whole being.
They were at it, then, those fiends who dared to desecrate the body
of his lord with their filthy touch. With a movement like a cat,
MacDonald drew his ready weapon, and, with a call to his startled
subordinates, stepped boldly over the threshold.
In a moment, the room was filled with the glare of torches, and the
secret-service men, crowding in the doorway, saw the leveled
weapon of their chief sink inertly to his side.
On the black catafalque the hero lay, beneath the outstretched
wings of the eagle of the republic, and at his feet, sobbing out his
grief-stricken heart, knelt an old negro.
—Ida Treat.
My First Day at School

The room was not large enough for a schoolroom. The floor, the
wall, and the roof were all made of bamboo. In the center of the
room was a long, narrow, roughly-made table, at which sat closely
twenty or thirty pupils. There were also two or three benches here
and there, on which sat new boys and girls. At the end of the long
table sat a rather old but fierce-looking man, the schoolmaster. In
his left hand he held a book, and in his right, a whip; for at that time
the principle governing schools was that knowledge could not be
gained without severe bodily punishment.
When I entered the schoolroom, my "cartilla" in hand, this was the
first scene that met my eyes. It happened that Titay, a cousin of
mine, had been sent to school on that day also; so we had the same
lesson. In harsh tones the teacher ordered us to study the vowels of
the Spanish alphabet. And with a loud voice we repeated again and
again, a, e, i, o, u, until we knew them—at least we thought so—by
heart.
At last our turn came; and we were called to go to our teacher. My
cousin (a girl) was at his left side, while I was at his right.
"What is this?" the teacher asked my cousin.
"A," she answered, correctly.
However, at his second, third, and fourth questions, she was
confused and could not answer. But I really knew "a, e, i, o, u," by
heart, for my kind mother had taught them to me; so I proudly
corrected every mistake she had made. After every correction, the
teacher would say to me, "Tira la oreja" (meaning, "Pull her ears").
And with what boyish pleasure did I pull her ears! She cried and
resolved never to go to school again.
When I returned home, I was very boastful, and told everybody in
the household of my triumph. Thus I received encouragement in my
first school day, and after that I continued to study with interest till I
myself received some bodily punishment.
—Máximo M. Kalaw.

The Guinatan Prize
One day I came to the schoolhouse tardy. When I entered the door,
I saw the pupils standing side by side in a row and facing the
teacher. There was one column of numbers on the blackboard, near
which the teacher stood with a long wooden pointer in his hand. As
soon as I saw the numbers on the board, I knew at once that there
would be a contest. So I laid down my books on the floor, took off
my hat, and stood next to the last boy.
"Teacher, Leopoldo does not belong here. He is the captain-general.
Therefore, he should stand next to Federico," said the last boy as
soon as he saw me.
"No," said the teacher, "he came in tardy. Boys, you must learn to
come to school on time," he continued.
The teacher then gave us names: he named the first boy general,
the second major-general, the third captain-general, and so on. I,
being the last boy, was named ranchero, or the cook of the army.
"He who is the general at the end of the contest will be given a cup
of guinatan as a prize," said the teacher.
"Now begin, Martin," he continued. Martin began to add the
numbers on the board with accuracy, and finished within forty
seconds. The major-general did the same, but he finished within
forty-five seconds. The captain-general added the numbers within
forty-two seconds. So he pulled the ear of the major-general, and
they exchanged places. Before, my turn came, there had been many
changes already, a soldier had beaten a colonel, a sergeant had
passed a lieutenant.
"All right, Leopoldo," said the teacher.
"One—six—fourteen—twenty-two—thirty—thirty-six—forty-five.
Carry four. Eight—ten—fifteen—twenty-one—twenty-nine—thirty-five
—forty!" I said without stopping to take a breath.
"Forty seconds!" announced the teacher.

Meaning of the
term
The teacher wanted to try me again, but the boys said they should
like to hear the general first.
"All right. Go on, Martin," said the teacher.
This time Martin failed. He finished within thirty-seven seconds, but
he made a mistake. The boys shouted.
Fortunately, the time was up. So I was pronounced the victor. The
teacher bought a cup of guinatan, the sweet fruit mixture that
Filipino children so much love, and gave it to me. I was very proud
then. When I reached home, I told my mother all that had
happened. She was very happy.
—Leopoldo Faustino.
II. The Anecdote
In the sense in which a proverb is a condensed
parable, an anecdote is a condensed character-
sketch or biography. Like many of our other terms
the word "anecdote" itself reveals to an extent its present meaning.
It is derived from the Greek and signifies "something not published."
This is the sense in which Cicero uses it when he speaks of a book
of anecdotes on which he was engaged, but which he talks of
confiding to a single friend only, as if it were not intended ever to be
published. In literature the word has been used to denote either
secret histories or portions of ancient writers which have remained
long in manuscript and are edited for the first time. The anecdotes
of Procopius, which were published in London in 1674 under the title
"The Secret History of the Court of Justinian," are evidence of the
first significance; and Dr. Johnson's reference to the English-French
fashion of using the word for a "biographical minute passage of
private life" establishes the second meaning.
In our day, collections of anecdotes—criticisms and observations,
smart sayings and ludicrous tales, delivered by eminent men in
conversation and recorded by their friends or discovered among their

Ana
Eighteenth
century
collections
papers after their death, and put together with historical incidents
concerning them—are published under the term ana.
The ancients were in the habit of indulging in this
species of literature. From earliest periods Oriental
nations have preserved the intimate talk of their
wise men. From them the Greeks and Romans took up the practice.
Plato and Xenophon recorded the colloquially expressed ideas of
their master Socrates. It appears that Julius Cæsar compiled a book
of apophthegms in which he related the bon mots of Cicero; and a
freedman of that orator, taken with his master's liveliness and wit,
composed three books of a work entitled "De Jocis Ciceronis."
But the term ana seems to have been applied to
such collections only so far back as the fifteenth
century. The information and anecdotes picked up
by Poggio and his friend Barthelemi Montepolitiano
during a literary trip in Germany "are to be called," says another
friend in a letter, "Poggiana and Montepolitiana." Perhaps the most
typical, and surely a very famous and interesting, production of this
species of narrative in English is the "Walpoliana," a transcript of the
literary conversation of Horace Walpole, Earl of Oxford. Selden's
"Table Talk" was considered by Dr. Johnson good ana, better than
the French. But incomparably superior to all, a collection the most
remarkable in the English language-and indeed, in any language (as
a writer in the "Britannica" asserts)—is James Boswell's "Life of
Samuel Johnson." Though not conforming to the type of collection
either in name or in form of presentation, this, according to Carlyle,
"the greatest production of the eighteenth century," depends for its
value mainly upon its ana. "Its interest," the same writer goes on to
say, "arises, not from the details it furnishes of the events of Dr
Johnson's career, still less from any attempt at a discriminating
estimate of his work and character, but the graphic representation it
gives of his habitual manner of life and speech. The animate
greatness of Johnson appears, more than in all his writings, in his
portrait delineated with the exactness of sharply-defined

How to write an
anecdote
photograph, as he appeared, to the eyes of his admiring biographer,
in his daily deshabille."
That is the secret of anecdote—it must get at the real man in
however small a part.
While a book of ana is a collection of short, pointed, true colloquial
relations of more or less detached interesting particulars concerning
a person of consequence, a single anecdote is one of those
interesting particulars entirely detached, short, pointed, true, and
colloquial. A book of anecdotes is a group of stories, miscellaneous
so far as subject matter is concerned. Spence's "Anecdotes" is a very
famous eighteenth century literary set; and Percy's is an early
nineteenth, with the stories selected—as the preface ostensibly gives
notice—for their moral effect, and arranged according to the virtue
illustrated or the subject treated—humanity, generosity, kindness;
science, art, and so on.
As we have seen, to be most interesting an
anecdote must be singularly expressive of the
peculiarities of the person represented; or if the
event recorded is not in the form of a character episode, but rather
in the form of an unusual happening, it must be consonant with the
accepted popular notion of the man's personality. To write an
original anecdote you will need to pick out of your past experience
or the experience of some one of your acquaintances a story of a
more or less important personage in your neighborhood, a
happening that has never hitherto been written down. If the person
concerned is not very well known or if the trait of character revealed
would not be immediately recognized by his friends, you might prefix
a slight statement that will help point your narrative. Remember,
however, that an anecdote must be very brief; also that it must have
a single and complete climax; and that you must under no
circumstance be induced to add another word after the climax is
reached.
Coleridge's Retort

Samuel Taylor Coleridge was so bad a horseman that when he
mounted he generally attracted unfavorable notice. On a certain
occasion he was riding along a turnpike road in the country of
Durham, when he was met by a wag, who, mistaking his man,
thought the rider a good subject for sport. "I say, young man," cried
the rustic, "did you see a tailor on the road?" "Yes, I did; and he told
me that if I went a little farther, I should meet a goose."
An Inevitable Misfortune
When Boswell was first introduced to Dr. Johnson, he apologized to
him for being a Scotchman. "I find," said he, "that I am come to
London at a bad time when great popular prejudice has gone forth
against us North Britons; but when I am talking to you, I am talking
to a large and liberal mind, and you know that I cannot help coming
from Scotland." "Sir, replied the doctor, archly, "no more can the rest
of your countrymen."
A Point Needing to Be Settled
A Scottish clergyman, being one day engaged in visiting some
member of his flock, came to the door of a house where his gentle
tapping could not be heard for the noise of contention inside. After
waiting a little, he opened the door and walked in, saying with an
authoritative voice, "I should like to know who is the head of this
house?"
"Weel, sir," said the husband and father, "if ye sit doon a wee, we'll
may be able to tell ye, for we're just trying to settle that point."
Patience
When Lord Chesterfield was one day at Newcastle House, the Duke
happened to be particularly busy, so the Earl was requested to sit
down in an anteroom. "Garnet upon Job," a book dedicated to the

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