Solution Manual for Python for Everyone 2nd Edition Horstmann
- 1. Solution Manual for Python for Everyone 2nd Edition Horstmann download http://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-python-for- everyone-2nd-edition-horstmann/ Download more testbank from https://testbankbell.com
- 2. We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click the link to download now, or visit testbankbell.com to discover even more! Solution Manual for Python for Everyone, 2nd Edition https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-python-for- everyone-2nd-edition/ Test Bank for Python for Everyone, 2nd Edition https://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-python-for- everyone-2nd-edition/ Solution Manual for Fundamentals of Python: Data Structures, 2nd Edition Kenneth Lambert https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for- fundamentals-of-python-data-structures-2nd-edition-kenneth- lambert/ Solution Manual for Fundamentals of Python: First Programs, 2nd Edition Kenneth A. Lambert https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for- fundamentals-of-python-first-programs-2nd-edition-kenneth-a- lambert/
- 3. Solution Manual for Big C++: Late Objects 3rd Edition, Cay S. Horstmann https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-big-c-late- objects-3rd-edition-cay-s-horstmann/ Solution Manual for Introduction to Computing Using Python: An Application Development Focus 2nd Edition by Ljubomir Perkovic https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for- introduction-to-computing-using-python-an-application- development-focus-2nd-edition-by-ljubomir-perkovic/ Solution Manual Starting Out with Python 4th Edition https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-starting-out- with-python-4th-edition/ Solution Manual for Fundamentals of Python First Programs, 1st Edition https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for- fundamentals-of-python-first-programs-1st-edition/ Solution Manual for Starting out with Python, 5th Edition, Tony Gaddis https://testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for-starting- out-with-python-5th-edition-tony-gaddis/
- 4. Solution Manual for Python for Everyone 2nd Edition Horstmann Full download chapter at: https:/ /testbankbell.com/product/solution-manual-for- python-for-everyone-2nd-edition-horstmann/ TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface iii Special Features xviii 1 Introduction 1
- 5. 1.1 Computer Programs 2 1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer 3 CS 1 Computers Are Everywhere 5 1.3 The Python Programming Language 5 1.4 Becoming Familiar with Your Programming Environment 6 PT 1 Interactive Mode 8 PT 2 Backup Copies 9 ST 1 The Python Interpreter 10 1.5 Analyzing Your First Program 11 1.6 Errors 13 CE 1 Misspelling Words 14 1.7 PROBLEM SOLVING: Algorithm Design 15 CS 2 Data Is Everywhere 17 HT 1 Describing an Algorithm with Pseudocode 18 WE 1 Writing an Algorithm for Tiling a Floor 20 2 Programming With Numbers and Strings 23 2.1 Variables 24 Defining Variables 24 Number Types 26 Variable Names 27 Constants 28 Comments 29 CE 1 Using Undefined Variables 30 PT 1 Choose Descriptive Variable Names 30 PT 2 Do Not Use Magic Numbers 30
- 6. 2.2 Arithmetic 31 Basic Arithmetic Operations 31 Powers 32 Floor Division and Remainder 32 Calling Functions 33 Mathematical Functions 35 CE 2 Roundoff Errors 36 CE 3 Unbalanced Parentheses 37 PT 3 Use Spaces in Expressions 37 ST 1 Other Ways to Import Modules 38 ST 2 Combining Assignment and Arithmetic 38 ST 3 Line Joining 38 2.3 PROBLEM SOLVING: First Do It By Hand 39 WE 1 Computing Travel Time 40 2.4 Strings 41 The String Type 41 Concatenation and Repetition 42 Converting Between Numbers and Strings 43 Strings and Characters 44 String Methods 45 ST 4 Character Values 46 ST 5 Escape Sequences 47 CS 1 International Alphabets and Unicode 47 2.5 Input and Output 48 User Input 48
- 7. Numerical Input 49 Formatted Output 50 PT 4 Don’t Wait to Convert 53 HT 1 Writing Simple Programs 53 WE 2 Computing the Cost of Stamps 56 CS 2 Bugs in Silicon 58 2.6 GRAPHICS: Simple Drawings 58 Creating a Window 59 Lines and Polygons 60 Filled Shapes and Color 62 Ovals, Circles, and Text 64 HT 2 GRAPHICS: Drawing Graphical Shapes 65 TOOLBOX 1 Symbolic Processing with SymPy 68 3 Decisions 73 3.1 The if Statement 74 CE 1 Tabs 77 PT 1 Avoid Duplication in Branches 78 ST 1 Conditional Expressions 78 3.2 Relational Operators 79 CE 2 Exact Comparison of Floating-Point Numbers 82 ST 2 Lexicographic Ordering of Strings 82 HT 1 Implementing an if Statement 83 WE 1 Extracting the Middle 85 3.3 Nested Branches 87 PT 2 Hand-Tracing 89
- 8. CS 1 Dysfunctional Computerized Systems 90 3.4 Multiple Alternatives 91 TOOLBOX 1 Sending E-mail 93 3.5 PROBLEM SOLVING: Flowcharts 96 3.6 PROBLEM SOLVING: Test Cases 99 PT 3 Make a Schedule and Make Time for Unexpected Problems 100 3.7 Boolean Variables and Operators 101 CE 3 Confusing and and or Conditions 104 PT 4 Readability 104 ST 3 Chaining Relational Operators 105 ST 4 Short-Circuit Evaluation of Boolean Operators 105 ST 5 De Morgan’s Law 106 3.8 Analyzing Strings 106 3.9 APPLICATION: Input Validation 110 ST 6 Terminating a Program 112 ST 7 Interactive Graphical Programs 112 CS 2 Artificial Intelligence 113 WE 2 GRAPHICS: Intersecting Circles 113 TOOLBOX 2 Plotting Simple Graphs 117 4 Loops 125 4.1 The while Loop 126 CE 1 Don’t Think “Are We There Yet?” 130 CE 2 Infinite Loops 130 CE 3 Off-by-One Errors 131 ST 1 Special Form of the print Function 132
- 9. CS 1 The First Bug 132 4.2 PROBLEM SOLVING: Hand-Tracing 133 4.3 APPLICATION: Processing Sentinel Values 135 ST 2 Processing Sentinel Values with a Boolean Variable 138 ST 3 Redirection of Input and Output 138 4.4 PROBLEM SOLVING: Storyboards 139 4.5 Common Loop Algorithms 141 Sum and Average Value 141 Counting Matches 142 Prompting Until a Match is Found 142 Maximum and Minimum 142 Comparing Adjacent Values 143 4.6 The for Loop 145 PT 1 Count Iterations 148 HT 1 Writing a Loop 149 4.7 Nested Loops 152 WE 1 Average Exam Grades 155 WE 2 A Grade Distribution Histogram 157 4.8 Processing Strings 159 Counting Matches 159 Finding All Matches 160 Finding the First or Last Match 160 Validating a String 161 Building a New String 162 4.9 APPLICATION: Random Numbers and Simulations 164
- 10. Generating Random Numbers 164 Simulating Die Tosses 165 The Monte Carlo Method 165 WE 3 GRAPHICS: Bull’s Eye 167 4.10 GRAPHICS: Digital Image Processing 169 Filtering Images 170 Reconfiguring Images 172 4.11 PROBLEM SOLVING: Solve a Simpler Problem First 174 CS 2 Digital Piracy 180 5 Functions 183 5.1 Functions as Black Boxes 184 5.2 Implementing and Testing Functions 185 Implementing a Function 186 Testing a Function 186 Programs that Contain Functions 187 PT 1 Function Comments 189 PT 2 Naming Functions 190 5.3 Parameter Passing 190 PT 3 Do Not Modify Parameter Variables 191 CE 1 Trying to Modify Arguments 192 5.4 Return Values 192 ST 1 Using Single-Line Compound Statements 193 HT 1 Implementing a Function 194 WE 1 Generating Random Passwords 196 5.5 Functions Without Return Values 201
- 11. CS 1 Personal Computing 202 5.6 PROBLEM SOLVING: Reusable Functions 203 5.7 PROBLEM SOLVING: Stepwise Refinement 205 PT 4 Keep Functions Short 209 PT 5 Tracing Functions 210 PT 6 Stubs 211 WE 2 Calculating a Course Grade 211 WE 3 Using a Debugger 214 5.8 Variable Scope 219 PT 7 Avoid Global Variables 221 WE 4 GRAPHICS: Rolling Dice 221 5.9 GRAPHICS: Building an Image Processing Toolkit 224 Getting Started 224 Comparing Images 225 Adjusting Image Brightness 226 Rotating an Image 227 Using the Toolkit 228 WE 5 Plotting Growth or Decay 230 5.10 Recursive Functions (Optional) 232 HT 2 Thinking Recursively 234 TOOLBOX 1 Turtle Graphics 236 LISTS 245 6.1 Basic Properties of Lists 246 Creating Lists 246 Accessing List Elements 247
- 12. Traversing Lists 248 List References 249 CE 1 Out-of-Range Errors 250 PT 1 Use Lists for Sequences of Related Items 250 ST 1 Negative Subscripts 250 ST 2 Common Container Functions 251 CS 1 Computer Viruses 251 6.2 List Operations 252 Appending Elements 252 Inserting an Element 253 Finding an Element 254 Removing an Element 254 Concatenation and Replication 255 Equality Testing 256 Sum, Maximum, Minimum, and Sorting 256 Copying Lists 256 ST 3 Slices 258 6.3 Common List Algorithms 259 Filling 259 Combining List Elements 259 Element Separators 260 Maximum and Minimum 260 Linear Search 261 Collecting and Counting Matches 261 Removing Matches 262
- 13. Swapping Elements 263 Reading Input 264 WE 1 Plotting Trigonometric Functions 265 6.4 Using Lists with Functions 268 ST 4 Call by Value and Call by Reference 271 ST 5 Tuples 271 ST 6 Functions with a Variable Number of Arguments 272 ST 7 Tuple Assignment 272 ST 8 Returning Multiple Values with Tuples 273 TOOLBOX 1 Editing Sound Files 273 6.5 PROBLEM SOLVING: Adapting Algorithms 275 HT 1 Working with Lists 276 WE 2 Rolling the Dice 278 6.6 PROBLEM SOLVING: Discovering Algorithms by Manipulating Physical Objects 282 6.7 Tables 285 Creating Tables 286 Accessing Elements 287 Locating Neighboring Elements 287 Computing Row and Column Totals 288 Using Tables with Functions 289 WE 3 A World Population Table 290 ST 9 Tables with Variable Row Lengths 292 WE 4 GRAPHICS: Drawing Regular Polygons 293 7 Files and Exceptions 299 7.1 Reading and Writing Text Files 300
- 14. Opening a File 300 Reading from a File 301 Writing from a File 302 A File Processing Example 302 CE 1 Backslashes in File Names 303 7.2 Text Input and Output 304 Iterating over the Lines of a File 304 Reading Words 306 Reading Characters 308 Reading Records 309 ST 1 Reading the Entire File 312 ST 2 Regular Expressions 312 ST 3 Character Encodings 313 TOOLBOX 1 Working with CSV Files 314 7.3 Command Line Arguments 316 HT 1 Processing Text Files 319 WE 1 Analyzing Baby Names 322 TOOLBOX 2 Working with Files and Directories 325 CS 1 Encryption Algorithms 327 7.4 Binary Files and Random Access (Optional) 328 Reading and Writing Binary Files 328 Random Access 329 Image Files 330 Processing BMP Files 331 WE 2 GRAPHICS: Displaying a Scene File 334
- 15. 7.5 Exception Handling 337 Raising Exceptions 338 Handling Exceptions 339 The finally Clause 341 PT 1 Raise Early, Handle Late 342 PT 2 Do Not Use except and finally in the Same try Statement 342 ST 4 The with Statement 343 TOOLBOX 3 Reading Web Pages 343 7.6 APPLICATION: Handling Input Errors 344 TOOLBOX 4 Statistical Analysis 348 WE 3 Creating a Bubble Chart 352 CS 2 The Ariane Rocket Incident 355 8 Sets and Dictionaries 357 8.1 Sets 358 Creating and Using Sets 358 Adding and Removing Elements 359 Subsets 360 Set Union, Intersection, and Difference 361 WE 1 Counting Unique Words 364 PT 1 Use Python Sets, Not Lists, for Efficient Set Operations 366 ST 1 Hashing 367 CS 1 Standardization 368 8.2 Dictionaries 368 Creating Dictionaries 369
- 16. Accessing Dictionary Values 370 Adding and Modifying Items 370 Removing Items 371 Traversing a Dictionary 372 ST 2 Iterating over Dictionary Items 374 ST 3 Storing Data Records 375 WE 2 Translating Text Messages 375 8.3 Complex Structures 378 A Dictionary of Sets 378 A Dictionary of Lists 381 ST 4 User Modules 383 WE 3 GRAPHICS: Pie Charts 384 TOOLBOX 1 Harvesting JSON Data from the Web 388 9 Objects and Classes 393 9.1 Object-Oriented Programming 394 9.2 Implementing a Simple Class 396 9.3 Specifying the Public Interface of a Class 399 9.4 Designing the Data Representation 401 PT 1 Make All Instance Variables Private, Most Methods Public 402 9.5 Constructors 402 CE 1 Trying to Call a Constructor 404 ST 1 Default and Named Arguments 404 9.6 Implementing Methods 405 PT 2 Define Instance Variables Only in the Constructor 407 ST 2 Class Variables 408
- 17. 9.7 Testing a Class 409 HT 1 Implementing a Class 410 WE 1 Implementing a Bank Account Class 414 9.8 PROBLEM SOLVING: Tracing Objects 416 9.9 PROBLEM SOLVING: Patterns for Object Data 419 Keeping a Total 419 Counting Events 420 Collecting Values 420 Managing Properties of an Object 421 Modeling Objects with Distinct States 421 Describing the Position of an Object 422 9.10 Object References 423 Shared References 424 The None Reference 425 The self Reference 426 The Lifetime of Objects 426 CS 1 Electronic Voting 427 9.11 APPLICATION: Writing a Fraction Class 428 Fraction Class Design 428 The Constructor 429 Special Methods 430 Arithmetic Operations 432 Logical Operations 433 ST 3 Object Types and Instances 435 WE 2 GRAPHICS: A Die Class 436
- 18. CS 2 Open Source and Free Software 439 10 Inheritance 443 10.1 Inheritance Hierarchies 444 PT 1 Use a Single Class for Variation in Values, Inheritance for Variation in Behavior 447 ST 1 The Cosmic Superclass: object 447 10.2 Implementing Subclasses 449 CE 1 Confusing Super- and Subclasses 451 10.3 Calling the Superclass Constructor 452 10.4 Overriding Methods 455 CE 2 Forgetting to Use the super Function When Invoking a Superclass Method 458 10.5 Polymorphism 458 ST 2 Subclasses and Instances 461 ST 3 Dynamic Method Lookup 461 ST 4 Abstract Classes 462 CE 3 Don’t Use Type Tests 463 HT 1 Developing an Inheritance Hierarchy 463 WE 1 Implementing an Employee Hierarchy for Payroll Processing 468 10.6 APPLICATION: A Geometric Shape Class Hierarchy 472 The Base Class 472 Basic Shapes 474 Groups of Shapes 477 TOOLBOX 1 Game Programming 480 11 Recursion 489 11.1 Triangle Numbers Revisited 490 CE 1 Infinite Recursion 493
- 19. ST 1 Recursion with Objects 493 11.2 PROBLEM SOLVING: Thinking Recursively 494 WE 1 Finding Files 497 11.3 Recursive Helper Functions 498 11.4 The Efficiency of Recursion 499 11.5 Permutations 504 CS 1 The Limits of Computation 506 11.6 Backtracking 508 WE 2 Towers of Hanoi 512 11.7 Mutual Recursion 515 TOOLBOX 1 Analyzing Web Pages with Beautiful Soup 519 12 Sorting and Searching 525 12.1 Selection Sort 526 12.2 Profiling the Selection Sort Algorithm 528 12.3 Analyzing the Performance of the Selection Sort Algorithm 530 ST 1 Oh, Omega, and Theta 531 ST 2 Insertion Sort 532 12.4 Merge Sort 534 12.5 Analyzing the Merge Sort Algorithm 536 ST 3 The Quicksort Algorithm 538 CS 1 The First Programmer 540 12.6 Searching 541 Linear Search 541 Binary Search 542 12.7 PROBLEM SOLVING: Estimating the Running Time of an Algorithm 544
- 20. Linear Time 545 Quadratic Time 546 The Triangle Pattern 547 Logarithmic Time 548 PT 1 Searching and Sorting 549 ST 4 Comparing Objects 549 WE 1 Enhancing the Insertion Sort Algorithm 549 Appendix A Python Operator Summary A-1 Appendix B Python Reserved Word Summary A-3 Appendix C The Python Standard Library A-5 Appendix D The Basic Latin and Latin-1 Subsets of Unicode A-22 Appendix E Binary Numbers and Bit Operations* Appendix F HTML Summary* Glossary R-1 Index R-6 Credits R-22 Quick Reference R-23
- 21. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 22. following specimens of ‘doublets’ which he gives: from BATTUERE, Low Latin for ‘to fight,’ he derived both battre (to fight) and tuer (to kill): from GRAVIS (heavy), grave, serious; brave, brave: from MARMOR (marble), marble, marble; marmot, guinea-pig.137 A. Brachet has collected many other specimens in the work cited below: Coelho has made a collection from the Portuguese in the Romania, II. 281, sqq.138 It must, however, be noticed that many of the doublets cited in these works stand outside of the class of those with which we have to deal, and such cannot be taken as real cases of differentiation. For instance, a loan word may immediately upon its introduction have been accepted in a sense different from that borne by the word of the same origin which already existed in the language: as in the case of chantée (sung, fem. past part.) and cantata (cantata, a piece which is sung, as distinguished from a sonata, a piece which is sounded or played), borrowed from the Italian by the French; of sexte (term in music and ‘the sixth book’) with its doublet sieste (the hour of rest) borrowed from the Spanish siesta, both derived from the Latin sextam; of façon (manner) with its doublet fashion, borrowed from the English, both from Latin factionem, ‘a making.’ Thus, again, the French chose (a thing) and cause (a cause) alike owe their origin to the Latin causam, but the meanings were not differentiated in France: cause was borrowed as a law-term long after chose had developed into the general meaning of thing. It is the same, moreover, with such English doublets as ticket, etiquette: army, armada: orison, oration: penance, penitence. Such doublets as these, and guitar, zither, cithara may be called pseudo-doublets, producing as they do the effect of differentiation, but serving really as labels to designate a foreign idea or object. Nor, again, must we include cases in which a word became grammatically isolated and then received a special meaning; such as where ‘bescheiden,’ in German, is now employed with the signification of ‘modest,’ while ‘beschieden’ is used as the true participial form, and never means, or has meant, ‘modest.’ Similarly, in French, we have savant (a scholar) originally used as synonymous with present participle sachant
- 23. (knowing) but in modern French as an adjective or noun only, whilst sachant has always remained present participle and no more: amant, the present participle of amare (to love) is used as a substantive only.139 There are, however, other cases in which words are really differentiated; that is to say, cases in which two words, whose meaning we know to have been identical, have come to be accepted in different meanings. This is a genuine process of economy in language. In French s’attaquer à and s’attacher à at one time were used with identically the same meaning and employed indifferently. Attaquer is used in the sense of ‘attacher’ in this line of the fourteenth century—Une riche escarboucle le mantel ataqua (‘a rich carbuncle attached (= held) the mantel’) (Bauduin de Sebourc, i. 370). On the other hand, attacher is used in the sense of ‘to attack:’ as in the following passage, quoted by M. Brachet140 from a letter of Calvin to the regent of England,—Tous ensemble méritent bien d’estre réprimés par le glayve qui vous est commis, veu qu’ils s’attaschent non seulement au roy, mais à Dieu qui l’a assis au siège royal, = ‘All together deserve to be put down by the sword which has been entrusted to you, seeing that they attack not merely the King, but God who has set him on the royal seat.’ (Lettres de Calvin recueillies par M. Bonnet, ii. 201). In modern French attacher is used exclusively in the sense of ‘to attach’ ‘to fasten;’ attaquer = ‘to attack.’ Another instance is found in chaire and chaise, both of which words came into French from cathedram, and both of which once signified the same thing (Theodore Beza, in 1530, complains of the faulty pronunciation of the Parisians who say chaise instead of chaire). At the present day, of course, chaise means ‘chair,’ and chaire is confined to the signification of ‘pulpit’ or ‘professor’s chair.’ In English, shoal and shallow seem to have been used synonymously, and to have become differentiated.141 Other instances are of, off; naught, not; assay, essay; upset, set up; Master, Mister (Mr.); Miss, Mistress, Mrs. (pronounced Missus). In these cases, the differentiation took place within the given language; and such cases should be carefully distinguished from those cases in
- 24. which the differentiation was made outside of the language. For instance, in squandered and scatter, both of which seem to have signified the same thing, simply ‘to disperse’; cf., squandered abroad (Merchant of Venice, I. iii. 22). Indict and indite seem to have borne the same meaning, but are now differentiated. To these may be added the German doublets reiter (a rider) and ritter (a knight), which may be paralleled by the use of the English squire and esquire; of which the latter word has lately come into use simply as a title of society, whereas both forms were once used as in Scott’s nine and twenty squires of fame. Other instances are scheuen, ‘to fear,’ and scheuchen, ‘to scare:’ jungfrau, ‘maiden,’ and jungfer, ‘virgin.’ Double forms arising from the confusion of different methods of declension are often used in different senses, as in the case of the Latin locus, whose plurals loca and loci mean ‘places,’ and ‘passages in books’ respectively: the German Franke, the Franconian franken, ‘a franc’ (9½d.): this difference is utilised, together with a difference of gender, in the German der lump, ‘the worthless fellow;’ die lumpe, ‘the rag;’ etc. The difference of gender cannot be utilised in English, but is thus utilised—in German—in such cases as DER band, ‘volume;’ DAS band, ‘ribbon:’ DER see, ‘the lake;’ DIE see, ‘the sea:’ DIE erkenntniss, ‘the act of judging;’ DAS erkenntniss ‘the judgment:’—in French, UN foudre de guerre, ‘a thunderbolt of war’ (personified); UNE foudre, ‘a thunderbolt:’ UN critique, ‘a critic;’ UNE critique, ‘a criticism:’ UN office, ‘a duty;’ UNE office, ‘a pantry:’ LE mémoire, ‘memorandum;’ LA mémoire, ‘memory:’ LE politique, ‘politician;’ LA politique, ‘politics:’ LE Bourgogne, ‘Burgundy wine;’ LA Bourgogne, ‘Burgundy:’ LE paille, ‘straw colour;’ LA paille, ‘the straw.’ To these must be added the cases in which double plural formations are differentiated, as in English clothes, cloths; brothers, brethren; cows, kine (poetical); pence, pennies:—in German, Band, ‘bond’ and ‘ribbon;’ Bande, ‘bonds:’ Bänder, ‘ribbons:’ Bank, ‘bench’ and ‘bank;’ Bänke, ‘benches;’ Banken, ‘banks:’ Gesicht, ‘face’ and ‘vision;’ Gesichte, ‘vision;’ Gesichter, ‘faces:’ Laden, ‘shop’ and ‘shutter;’
- 25. Läden, ‘shops;’ Laden, ‘shutters:’ etc.142 In French, we have l’aïeul, ‘the grandfather;’ les aïeux, ‘ancestors;’ and aïeuls, ‘grandfathers:’ les travaux, ‘works;’ and les travails, ‘a minister’s reports:’ l’œil, ‘eye;’ les yeux, ‘eyes;’ and les œils (small oval windows commonly called œils de bœuf). The singular appât means ‘bait;’ les appas signifies ‘charms,’ and has a doublet, les appâts, meaning ‘baits.’ In Russian, the accusative plural is the same as the nominative in the case of inanimate objects: it is in the case of animate beings identical with the genitive form. In Dutch, the plurals in -en and -s are used in the case of some words indifferently, as vogelen and vogels, ‘birds:’ in the case of some others, one alone is commonly used, as engelen, ‘angels,’ but pachters, ‘farmers:’ again, in the case of others, both forms are used, but with different meanings; thus hemelen, ‘the heavens;’ but hemels, ‘canopies of a bed:’ letteren, ‘letters,’ or ‘literature;’ letters, ‘letters of the alphabet;’ etc. From the Danish, we may cite skatte, ‘treasures;’ skatter, ‘taxes;’ vaaben, ‘weapons;’ vaabener, ‘armorial bearings.’ From Italian, we may instance braccia, ‘the two arms of the body;’ bracci, ‘arms of the sea;’ membra, ‘the members of the body;’ membri, ‘the members of an association.’ Similarly, in Spanish the neuter of the second declension takes in many cases a feminine form in the plural; and in Portuguese this manner of differentiation is more common than in any other European language: cf. serra, ‘saw,’ ‘mountain ridge;’ serro, ‘a high mountain;’ etc. In Russian, synovya means ‘descendants’; synui, ‘sons;’ etc. The words (to) purvey and (to) provide have arisen from the same original form, as have respect and respite; deploy and display; separate and sever. The word as, like also, took its rise from the A.S. ealswâ; it is simply a short form of also; and an intermediate form exists in O.E. alse and als. In Maundeville, p. 153, we find the two forms used convertibly: As foule as thei ben, als evele thei ben = so evil they are; and again, als longe as here vitaylles lasten, thei may abide there, p. 130.
- 26. Than and thanne were used in Chaucer’s time where we should use then: Now thanne, put thyn hond down at my bak (Chaucer, Cant. Tales, 7721); and in comparisons then was used where we should employ than, as: ‘I am greater then (i.e. than) you.’ In German, the word verdorben means ‘spoiled’ in a material sense: verderbt is employed in a moral sense only. It is the same with bewegt, ‘moved,’ and bewogen, ‘induced.’ In English we employ aged mostly as a participle proper, but agèd as an adjective; cf. also molten and melted. The words formed with the suffixes -hood, -ness, -dom generally cover the same ground in English as in Anglo-Saxon. There are, however, here also, a few cases in which differentiation seems to have set in. Such are hardihood and hardiness; humble-hede, humble-ness, humility: young-hede, youth. In German, kleinheit and neuheit were used convertibly with kleinigkeit and neuigkeit: now the former = smallness, newness, the latter = trifle, novelty. In the case of adjectives, we may see the same process in mobile, movable: and in German, in ernstlich and ernsthaft which were once used convertibly, but are now differentiated. Sometimes a word originally of a different meaning encroaches on the domain of another word, and gradually arrogates the latter’s meaning to itself. Thus, in French, the meaning of en, the form taken in French for the Latin in, has been encroached upon by the preposition à, and by the adverb dans (O.Fr. denz = de intus), and dans has completely ousted the prepositional meaning of dedans. Molière could still write dedans ma poche = ‘in my pocket.’ Böse, in German, is now almost restricted to the sense of ‘morally bad’ by the encroachments of schlecht (originally ‘smooth,’ ‘straight’) English slight. The English word sick, once the general word for ill, has been restricted in meaning by the encroachments of the latter word.
- 27. Sometimes a newly formed word encroaches on the domain of meaning covered by a word in existence, as to utilise on to use; serviceable upon useful; gentlemanly upon genteel and gentle; magnificence on munificence:143 mainly is encroached upon by chiefly, pursuer by persecutor and prosecutor: and sometimes it practically ousts it from its previous meaning, as in the case of methodist, naturalist, purist, etc. The above examples may serve to show us some of the main factors in the differentiation of meaning, and with how little conscious design on the part of the speakers they were carried out.
- 28. CHAPTER XV. CATEGORIES: PSYCHOLOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL. The divisions into which grammarians have distributed words, such as gender, number, and, in the case of verbs, voice and tense, are based upon the function which each word discharges in the sentence. Now, these functional differences rest ultimately upon psychological categories: that is to say, upon differences which depend upon the view taken by our mind of the natural grouping and classification of ideas. In other words, the divisions formed by grammarians depend ultimately upon the classification of the relations in which the ideas suggested by words stand to each other, as it appears to our imagination. Grammatical classification was, in fact, originally nothing but an attempt to express and group the order and connection of ideas as they were conceived of by the human mind. Immediately that this influence of imagination has made itself felt in the usage of language, it becomes a grammatical factor: and the groups which it forms become grammatical categories. But the action of the psychological category does not cease when it has thus produced the grammatical; and the difference between the two kinds is that, whereas the grammatical categories become, so to speak, stereotyped and fixed, those created by the imagination are ever changing; just as the human mind itself is ever changing its ideas. Besides this, changes in sound- groups are always occurring, and are constantly operating to prevent the grammatical categories coinciding with the psychological. Then, as a tendency makes itself felt to bring about a coincidence of the two categories, the grammatical category suffers a displacement, whence arise what we are accustomed to call grammatical irregularities. A consideration of the way in which these irregularities
- 29. arise may help us to understand the origin of the grammatical categories, to which we now proceed. Gender. The foundation of grammatical gender is the natural distinction between the sexes in mankind and animals. Fancy may endow other objects or qualities with sex; but sex, whether fanciful or real, has no proper connection with grammar. The truth of this may be well seen from the English language, in which we have in most cases discarded the use of grammatical gender. In order, therefore, to study the conditions of gender, we have to turn to languages more highly inflected than English. The test whereby we now recognise the grammatical gender of a substantive is the concord existing between the substantive and its attribute and predicate, or between it and a pronoun representing it —Domus nigra est, ‘The house is black;’ Domus quam vidi, ‘The house which I saw;’ It is the moon; I ken her horn (Burns); etc. The rise, therefore, of grammatical gender is closely connected with the appearance of a variable adjective and pronoun. One theory to explain this is, that the difference in form, before it yet marked the gender, had become attached to a particular stem-ending: as if, e.g., all stems ending in n- admitted the ending -us—as bonus, ‘good,’— and all those in g- the ending -ra—as nigra, ‘black;’—and that the ending may have been an independent word which, while yet independent, had acquired a reference to a male or female.144 Gender appears in English, in the first place, as an artificial and often arbitrary personification, as when the sun and moon are spoken of as he and she respectively, under the influence of the ideas attaching to Sol and Luna: Phœbus and Diana, etc.: and, again, as an expression of interest in objects or animals, it frequently occurs in the language of the people and of children; though it sometimes enters into the language of common life, as
- 30. when a dog is referred to as he and a cat as she, in cases where sex is not spoken of. (See Storm, die lebende Sprache, p. 418.) In the pronoun, as in the adjective, the distinction of gender may appear in the stem-ending: as ‘une’ (‘one,’ ‘a’); ‘quæ,’ (‘which’). It may, however, also be expressed by distinct roots, such as er, sie; he and she. It is, indeed, probably in substantive pronouns that grammatical gender was first developed, as in fact it has longest maintained itself; as in English, where, in adjectives and nouns, it has almost entirely disappeared. Grammatical gender probably corresponded originally to natural sex. Exceptions to this rule must gradually have come about, partly through changes of meaning setting in,—as where a word is used metaphorically, like love (neuter, abstract), love (masc. or fem.—‘the beloved object’); or where it has ‘occasionally’ modified its meaning, like Fr. le guide, strictly ‘the guidance,’ and so used in Old French; your fatherhoods (Ben Jonson). Consequently we find natural sex again influencing the genders as fixed by grammar. Thus, in German, Die hässlichste meiner kammermädchen = ‘the ugliest of my chambermaids’ (Wieland), where the article die is of the feminine gender, though the word kammermädchen, being a diminutive in chen is, like all others of that class, neuter. In French, we have UNE (fem.) brave enfant, ‘a brave girl.’ The word gens, again, is, properly speaking, feminine, like the word la gent, which still survives in the restricted sense of ‘a race:’ but in combinations like ‘tous les braves gens’ (‘all worthy people’) the grammatical gender is neglected; and this neglect is fostered by the use of such a word as braves, which in form might apply to either sex. On the other hand, in combinations like ‘les bonnes gens,’ (‘good people’), where an adjective with a specifically feminine termination is joined to the substantive, the grammatical gender maintains itself. Cf., also, instances like ‘un enseigne’ (‘an ensign’), ‘un trompette’ (‘a trumpeter’); and, in Provençal, ‘lo poestat,’ for ‘the magistrate’ (‘il podestà’). In Latin and Greek, these so-called violations of the concord in gender are very common; we are familiar with them as constructions πρός σύνεσιν,
- 31. i.e. according to the sense; cf. Thracum auxilia (neuter) ... cæsi (masc.) (Tac., Ann., iv. 48), ‘The Thracian auxiliaries were killed;’ Capita (neut.) conjurationis virgis cæsi (masc.) ac securi percussi (masc.) (Livy, x. 1), ‘The heads of the conspiracy were slain and their heads cut off;’ Septem millia (neut.) hominum in naves impositos (masc.) (Livy, xl. 41), ‘Seven thousand men put on board ships;’ Hi (masc.) summo in fluctu pendent ... tres Notus abreptas (i.e. naves—fem.) in saxa latentia torquet (Vergil, Æn., i. 106-8), ‘Some (of the ships) hang on the crest of the waves ...; three, swept away, the South wind whirls upon hidden rocks.’ In Greek, ὦ φίλτατ’, ὦ περισσὰ τιμηθεὶς (masc.) τεκνον (neut.) (Eur., Tro. 735), ‘O dearest, O much honoured child;’ τὰ τέλη (neut.) καταβάντας (masc.) (Thuc., IV. xv. 1), ‘The magistrates having descended:’ and similar instances frequently in Thucydides. We next find cases where the grammatical gender has completely changed. Thus, in Greek, masculine designations of persons and animals are turned into feminines by simply referring them to female objects: thus, we have either ὁ or ἡ ἄγγελος (‘messenger’), διδάσκαλος (‘teacher’), ἰατρός, (‘healer’), τύραννος (‘ruler’), ἔλαφος (‘deer’), ἵππος (‘horse’ or ‘mare’), etc. In Christian times, a form ὁ παρθένος (‘an unmarried man’) was constructed (Apocal., xiv. 4), translated into Italian by Vergine. Neuter diminutives in German readily become masculine or feminine when the diminutive meaning has been obscured: as, e.g., the occasional construction die Fräulein, ‘the young lady;’ cf., also, in Latin, Glycerium mea, Philematium mea (Plaut., Most., I. iii. 96), mea Gymnasium (Plaut., Cist., I. i. 2). In English, there are a great number of words which would, in the first instance, be thought of as masculines, as containing a suffix commonly associated with masculine words. These are, however, very frequently used as feminines; and, in some cases, even when a feminine termination exists side by side with the masculine one—as, She is heir of Naples (Shakespeare, Tempest, II. i.): others are enemy, rival, novice, astronomer, beggar, teacher, botanist, etc. Cf. she is a peasant (Longfellow); The slave loves her master (Lord Byron); His only heir a princess (Temp., I. 2); She is his
- 32. only heir (Much Ado, I. i.); The daughter and heir of Leonato (ibid., I. iii.); She alone is heir to both of us (ibid., V. i.); etc. If collectives or descriptions of qualities become descriptions of persons, the result may be a change of gender. The Fr. le garde (‘the watchman’) was once identical with la garde (‘the watch,’ vigiliæ); cf. further, in Spanish, el cura (‘the priest’), el justicia (‘the magistrate’): the Old Bulgarian junota (‘youth’), as a masculine, means ‘a youth.’ The Russian Golova means ‘a head,’ and, in the masculine, ‘a conductor.’ Portuguese furnishes numerous instances of this; as, a bolsa (fem.), ‘the purse,’ ‘exchange;’ o bolsa (masc.), ‘the treasurer:’ a corneta, ‘the cornet;’ o corneta, ‘the trumpeter:’ a lingua, ‘the tongue;’ o lingua, ‘the interpreter:’ etc.145 In Italian, podestà (‘magistrate’) is an instance of this. Feminine surnames, again, are frequently added to masculine personal names: cf. Latin Alauda, Capella, Stella; Ital. Colonna, Rosa, Barbarossa, Malespina, etc. So, in French, we find names like Jean Marie. A word often takes a particular gender from the fact that it belongs to a particular category. The gender of the type of the species, in fact, fixes the gender for other members classed with it. Thus, in English, the word for beast comes from the O.Fr. beste (bête), which is feminine: but this word, and the names of beasts generally, are treated in poetry as masculines, because the Teutonic usage is to treat beasts generally as masculine. Cf. The beast is laid down in his lair (Cowper); And when a beste is deed he ne hath no peyne (Chaucer, Cant. Tales, 1321); The forest’s leaping panther shall hide his spotted hide (Bryant). Numerous other instances are given by Mätzner.146 It is probable that personification aids in fixing the gender in these cases. Similarly, in French, été (‘summer’), from æstatem, has become masculine because the other seasons of the year were masculine. Minuit (‘midnight’) has followed midi (‘midday’); val (‘valley’) has followed mont (‘mountain’), font (‘fount’) fontaine (‘fountain’); aigle (‘eagle’) is masculine because oiseau (‘bird’) is masculine; brebis (‘wether’) is feminine because ovis (‘sheep’) is feminine; sort (‘lot’) is masculine because bonheur
- 33. (‘happiness’) is masculine; art (‘art’) is masculine because métier (‘profession’) is masculine: mer (‘sea’) is feminine because terra (‘land’) is feminine. In German, again, the names of Tiber and Rhone have followed the model of most German river names, and appear as feminine. In Greek, many names of plants and trees have become feminine, following the model of δρῦς (‘tree’) and βοτάνη (‘grass’); cf. ὁ κύανος (‘steel’), ἡ κύανος (‘the corn-flower’), so called from a fancied resemblance between the plant and the metal. Towns, again, in Greek, show an inclination to follow the gender of πόλις, ‘a city:’ cf. ἡ Κέραμος, from ὁ κέραμος, ‘clay;’ ἡ Κισσός, from ὁ κισσός, ‘ivy;’ ἡ Μάραθος, from ὁ μόραθος, ‘fennel.’ In other cases formal reasons have brought about a change in gender. We have a striking example of this in the feminine gender assumed by abstract nouns in -or in the Romance languages, to which flos (‘flower’) has also added itself. The fact was felt that most abstract substantives were feminine, e.g. those terminating in -tas, - tus, -tudo, -tio, -itia, -ia; and, especially, the feminine termination - ura sometimes was employed as an alternative to -or; cf. pavor (‘fear’), Ital. paura. Again, in Latin, words in -a, when these were not, like poeta, the names of males, were commonly feminine. Consequently, we find that Greek neuters in -μα appear in popular Latin as feminines, a gender which they have in many cases preserved in the Romance languages. Examples of this are seen in schème, dogme, diademe, anagramme, énigme, épigramme, etc. In the same way, in Modern Greek, the old Greek feminines in -ος have in many cases became masculine, as ὁ πλάτανος, ὁ κυπάρισσος, ‘the plain,’ ‘the cypress.’ Sometimes the termination appears altered to suit the gender; thus the Lat. socrus (‘a father-in-law’) produces the Spanish word suegra (‘a mother-in-law’): and, again, sometimes the traditional was the natural gender; and this was an additional reason why the word should alter its termination, instead of being modified by the gender, —thus, in Greek, the α stems which have become masculine, like
- 34. νεανίας (‘a youth’), have adopted the characteristic s of the masculine nominative. The way in which natural gender, as viewed by imagination, has affected grammatical gender may be well seen in English. The personal pronouns give the only real traces of grammatical gender left in English, he, she, it; his, her, its, etc. On the other hand, substantives are very commonly referred to one sex or another by writers, and to some extent personified. In these cases sometimes a faint tradition of their Anglo-Saxon gender seems to have lingered, as when, for instance, mammals and reptiles are in poetry spoken of as masculine; e.g., Like the roe (A.S. rá, fem.) when he hears (Longfellow); I have seen the hyena’s (Lat. and Fr. fem.) eyes of flame, and heard at my side his stealthy tread (Bryant). Birds, on the other hand, are treated very often as feminines, irrespective of the grammatical gender possessed by their Anglo-Saxon or French original; cf. But the sea-fowl has gone to her nest (Cowper); A bird betrays her nest by striving to conceal it (Byron); Jealous as the eagle of her high aiery (ibid.); The raven flaps her wing (ibid.); A hawk hits her prey (Halliwell, s.v. ruff); The swan rows her state (Milton). We must mention one more point which ought not to be overlooked, though, owing to the scanty survival of grammatical gender in modern English, it cannot easily be illustrated by English examples. We have indicated some of the causes which have been active in producing a change of gender; but, besides these, there is a negative one, viz., the absence of impediment to such change, which, in a certain sense, may be said to have contributed to the same effect. The distinction in gender which is even yet marked in French and German by the different forms of the singular article (le, der, masc.; la, die, fem.; das, neut.) has long since disappeared in the plural. We find les, die for all genders. And hence it is clear that such words as were most frequently used in the plural were least closely associated with a particular gender, and were therefore more especially amenable to the influence of any force tending to group
- 35. them with words of a gender different from their own. For instance, most feminine nouns in German form their plural by adding -en to the singular, while few masculine and only six or seven neuter nouns do the like; as a result of which many nouns, formerly masculine, are now feminine, and this especially applies to cases where the plural was in frequent use. The neuter, the sexless, owes its origin as a grammatical category merely to the development and differentiation of the two other genders. Number. As in the case of gender, so, before number passed into a grammatical category, concord must have been developed. Even in languages which, like English, would naturally express the plural by some plural termination, we find words denoting a plurality, and, indeed, a definite number, conceived and spoken of as a unity. Such are a pair, a leash, a brace, a triplet, a trio, a quartette, a dozen, a score. We find similar cases in the most varied languages: cf. the Fr. une dizaine (‘a collection of ten’), une douzaine (‘a dozen’), centaine (‘a collection of a hundred’), etc.; Ital. una diecina, dozzina, etc.; trave, in Danish, means ‘a score of corn sheaves;’ schock, in German, means ‘sixty;’ tchetvero, in Russian, means ‘a set of four.’ We may add, the curious Latin word quimatus, ‘the age of five years.’ Thus, in like manner, so-called collective nouns are simply comprehensive singular designations of plurality. Now, the speaker or writer may choose to think of the collective of which he is speaking as a unity or as a plurality, and the way in which he chooses to regard it may affect the concord; nay, it may even affect the gender.
- 36. The most common case is where a plural verb follows a singular collective noun: as, ‘The whole nation seem to be running out of their wits’ (Smollett, Humphrey Clinker); ‘The army of the Queen mean to besiege us’ (Shakespeare, 3 Hen. VI., I. ii.);147 cf. ‘Even until King Arthur’s table, man by man, had fallen in Lyonness about their Lord’ (Tennyson, Idylls of the King); ‘Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Romam inermes delati sunt’ (Livy, ii. 14) = ‘A very small part, their leader lost, were brought unarmed to Rome;’ ‘Cetera classis, prætoria nave amissa, fugerunt’ (Livy, xxxv. 26) = ‘The rest of the fleet, with the loss of the prætorian ship, fled (plur.).’ Sometimes there is a mixture of singular and plural, e.g. ‘Fremit improba plebes (sing.) Sontibus accensæ (plur.) stimulis’ (Stat., Theb., v. 488) = ‘The impatient people murmur (sing.), inflamed (plur. part.) etc.:’ cf. the following examples from the Greek—Μέρος τι (sing.) ανθρώπων οὐκ ἡγοῦνται (plur.) θεούς (Plato., Leg., 948) = ‘A portion of mankind do not believe in gods;’ Τό στράτευμα ἐπορίζετο (sing.) σῖτον, κόπτοντες (plur.) τοὺς βοῦς καὶ ονους (Xen., Anab., II. i. 6) = ‘The army provided itself with food (by) cutting up (plur. part.) the oxen and asses.’ In A.S., when ðæt or ðis is connected with a plural predicate by means of the verb ‘to be,’ the verb is put in the plural: ‘Eall ðæt sindon micle and egeslice dæda’ (‘All that are great and terrible deeds.’) Conversely, where we should say ‘each of those who hear,’ the idiom in Anglo-Saxon was to say ‘each of those who hears:’ as, ‘Ælc ðára ðe ðás míne word gehyrð’ (= ‘Each of those who hears these my words’, where the verb is made to agree, not with ðara ðe, but with ælc. Cf. Sweet, Anglo-Saxon Reader, p. xci.). We find many words so commonly combined with the plural, that we more naturally apprehend them as plural than as singular; such a word is the English ‘people,’ which we instinctively connect with a plural verb. In such cases, we sometimes even find that the grammatical form actually assimilates itself to the psychological number, as when we speak of folks; cf. also sheeps in Shakespeare (Love’s Labour’s lost, II. i.); while from the French word gent, which
- 37. was used in Old French with the plural, we find formed, in the same way, the word gens: in Italian we find genti beside gente. In Anglo- Saxon, -waru denotes ‘a nation,’ ‘a defence:’ the plural -ware, ‘citizens;’ as Rómware, ‘the men of Rome;’ Cantwáre, ‘the men of Kent,’ etc. In Gothic, there is a collective neuter fadrein, which we may illustrate or parallel, though not exactly translate, by the word ‘fathership.’ In the singular (genitive) it is used in the meaning of ‘race’ or ‘family’ (Eph. iii. 15), thus showing its original abstract and then collective sense; and again it is found (Luke viii. 56) still singular but with a plural verb: jah usgeisnodedun fadrein izos = and were-astonished fathership (i.e. PARENTS) her = and her parents were astonished. We even find the singular noun with the article (i.e. demonstrative pronoun) in the plural: Andhofun ðan im ðai fadrein is jah qeðun = Answered then to him those fathership his and said = Then answered his parents and said (John ix. 20). It is, thus, this plural meaning which caused the word to be used in the plural form, exactly as we use folks quoted above, while the etymological meaning as abstract collective was overlooked. For example: Ni auk skulun barna FADREINAM huzdjan, ak FADREINA barnam = not eke shall bairns for FATHERSHIPS hoard, but FATHERSHIPS for bairns, i.e. For the children shall not hoard for the parents, but the parents for the children (2 Cor. xii. 14).148 The converse of this also happens. A plural expression receives the function of a singular when the parts thus indicated are thought of as a whole. Thus we can talk of another sixpence, another hundred yards; or even use phrases like There’s not another two such women (Warren); this seven year (Shakes., Much Ado, III. 3.); What is six winters? (Rich. II., I. iii.). Amends, gallows, sessions, shambles are plurals, but are generally treated as singulars; e.g., a shrewd unhappy gallows (Love’s Labour’s lost, V. ii. 12). So, too, works, scales, etc.: e.g., that crystal scales (Rom. and Jul., I. ii. 101); Stoppage of a large steelworks (Weekly Times and Echo, August 19, 1888); Fire in a Liverpool chemical works (Liverpool Daily Post, June 30, 1884, p. 7); This is good news; etc. Finally, such plurals become singular, not only in sense, but even in form, and are treated and
- 38. declined as such. Thus, in English, we talk of an invoice (Fr. envois, plur.). In Latin, castra (plur.) sometimes formed a genitive of singular form, castræ:149 the plural litteræ, in sense of ‘an epistle,’ has passed into the French lettre as singular, with a new plural, lettres; the Latin plural vela, ‘sails,’ into French une voile: minaciæ has become the French menace, ‘threat,’ and the Italian minaccia: nuptiæ, ‘nuptials,’ has become, in French, noce, ‘a wedding,’ as well as noces: tenebræ, ‘darkness’ has become, in Spanish, tiniebla, as well as tinieblas; deliciæ, ‘delights,’ in French, délice, as well as délices. Pâques, ‘Easter,’ Athènes, ‘Athens,’ are used as singulars. Pronouns referring to abstract expressions stand sometimes in the plural; as, Nobody knows what it is to lose a friend till THEY have lost him (Fielding). Again, the predicate may stand in the plural;150 as, Quisque suos PATIMUR manes (Verg., Æn., 743)—‘We each suffer our own ghostly punishment,’ where quisque ‘each’ in singular, but the verb patimur is plural. Similar are uterque educunt (Cæs., C., iii. 30); uter ERATIS (Plaut., Men., 1119); neuter ad me IRETIS; Every one of these letters ARE in my name (Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, II. v.); Neither of them ARE remarkable (Blair); Every one to rest THEMSELVES BETAKE (Rape of Lucrece, 125); when neither ARE alive (Cymb., IV. ii. 252). Most Indo-European languages possess pairs of pronouns, in each of which sets one properly denotes the singular, the other plurality; as in English all, every; or each, and any: and these are readily interchanged; e.g., without all doubt (Shakes., Hen. VIII., IV. i. 113), less attemptable than any the rarest of our ladies (Cymb., I. iv. 65). Thus, even in Latin, the singular omnis is used where we should have expected omnes; as, militat omnis amans (Ovid, Amor., I. ix. 1). Tu pulses omne quod obstat (Hor., Sat. II., vi. 30). Thus totus has passed into the French tout, ‘all.’ We find both in Shakespeare, connected with the singular; Both our remedies within thy help and holy physic lies, i.e. the remedy for us both (Rom. and Jul., II. iii. 51). Thus, also, autrui, ‘others,’ in French, really the oblique case of autre, is in fact a singular, but is looked upon as a plural; as, la rigueur envers autrui (Massillon).
- 39. Number, in the sense of singular or plural, cannot, again, be properly predicated of the simple names of materials. We do not think of them as individuals, except in connection with form as well as matter,—in fact, till we think of substances as divided as well as divisible. Hence it is that the names of materials occur mostly in the singular number; the fact being that if there were a neuter number, i.e. a grammatical form expressive of neither plural nor singular, we should naturally employ it. But the name of a material is readily used as that of an individual object, and, on the other hand, the name of an individual object may easily come to be the designation of a material. The imagination supplies or withdraws, as it may be, the form and definite shape which, as we have seen, is essential to number. Take such instances as hair, grass, bloom, fruit, weed, grain, cloth, stone, wood, field, meadow, marsh, heath, earth, land, bread, cake, etc. Similarly, when we talk of fowl as a viand, we individualise and give form to a general conception; as, in French, when we talk about du porc, du mouton. In the same way, we have in Latin such expressions as leporem et gallinam et anserem for ‘the flesh of the hare, the fowl, and the goose;’ and fagum atque abietem for ‘the beech tree and the fir-tree’ (Cæsar, Bell. Gall., v. 12). In the same way, we must explain the singular in cases like The enemy is approaching; The Russian is within hail. Similarly, Livy uses the singular, as Romanus for ‘the Romans,’ Poenus for ‘the Carthaginians,’ eques for ‘the cavalry,’ pedes for ‘the infantry,’ etc.; nay, he even goes as far as to combine Hispani milites et funditor Balearis (xxvii. 2). Thus, too, Horace ventures on the combination miles nautæque (Sat. I., i.). Vergil has plurima mortis imago, ‘many an image of death’ (Æn., ii. 369); in Seneca, we even find multo hoste, ‘many an enemy.’ In German, the singular of many words stands constantly after numerals; as, tausend mann, ‘a thousand men,’ zehn stück Pferde,
- 40. ‘ten head (lit. pieces) of horses.’ Similarly it was usual to write in English such expressions as many score thousand: twenty score paces.151 The fact is, that there is no need for any special designation of plurality to follow a number; the plurality is already sufficiently denoted by the number itself.152 We thus see that the form taken by such a word would naturally be numberless, or absolute, in fact, would be treated in the same way as it would have been treated before the rise of grammatical number. Tense. It is the function of the various ‘tenses’ to express the temporal relation of an event, when considered with regard to a certain moment. At the outset, however, we must observe that the tenses actually existing in any given language do not by any means perfectly correspond to the varieties possible and logically distinguishable in these relations. We will first consider what would be indispensable to a logically complete system. Any event whatever must necessarily be anterior, contemporary, or posterior, to the moment with respect to which it is considered; and this moment must itself be past, present, or future. Hence, according as the moment of comparison is varied, we get the following sets:— I. Moment of comparison Present. The event is stated as— (a1) NOW past. (b1) NOW present. (c1) NOW still to come.
- 41. II. Moment of comparison Past. The event is stated to have been— (a2) THEN already past. (b2) THEN present. (c2) THEN still to come. III. Moment of comparison Future. It is stated that the event— (a3) will THEN be past. (b3) will THEN be present. (c3) will THEN be still to come. The above nine subdivisions exhaust all possibilities as long as we employ but a single ‘moment of comparison’ in each case; and it is so important that this point should be fully realised, that, simple as it appears, we proceed to illustrate each division as follows:— (a1) Cæsar once said, ‘Veni, vidi, vici.’ (b1) I now believe that this is true. (c1) I expect that he will come. (a2) When I entered, he had gone. (b2) When I entered, he was speaking. (c2) When I entered, he was going to speak. (a3) On New Year’s day I shall have completed my fiftieth year. (b3) I shall then receive a letter. (c3) I shall then be going to write.
- 42. It is at once apparent here that in some of these cases we are forced to have recourse to periphrasis, and that in some we use tenses which might also serve in other divisions. This, for instance, may be seen by comparing b2 and a1, or, at any rate, c1 and c3. But before discussing these points we must pay a little more attention to the above scheme, not, indeed, as it actually exists, but as it might conceivably exist. It is by no means inconceivable, and quite in accordance with logic, that we should wish to employ two moments of comparison instead of one, especially in some of the cases falling under II. and III. In c2, for instance, the event might be then still to come, but now α) past, (β) present, (γ) even yet to come. This at first seems fanciful; but while the example we employed to illustrate c2 does not necessarily convey as much, still most hearers would naturally interpret it as follows: “When I entered, his speaking was still in the future, but now (unless some hindrance, as yet unstated, has intervened) it belongs to the past.” Again, if, on the other hand, we take a sentence like He has promised to do so; in the first place, it is found to STATE that the promise was given in the past, when as yet the action of fulfilment belonged to the future; and, secondly, to IMPLY that this action of fulfilment belongs to the future still. Further, it is logically possible, and often necessary, to make a statement about some event without any reference to time; when, for instance, a statement is true at any time, or at no time at all. The form employed in such cases ought, in strict agreement with our definition of ‘tense,’ to be called ‘tenseless’ or ‘absolute;’ but it is well known that, in English and all Indo-European languages, the ‘present’ is the tense employed. In Man is mortal the copula is cannot justly be called ‘present’ tense, for the statement is wholly abstract, and applies equally to past, present, and future; yet it is customary and convenient to apply the term ‘present’ even to the word is as thus used.
- 43. This use of the present sometimes gives rise to a certain ambiguity. If, in speaking of a child, we say He is very troublesome, the statement may mean He is at this moment very troublesome, in which case the verb is is present tense proper; or it may mean He is a troublesome child, whence the sentence becomes abstract- concrete153 and the verb is tense absolute. If, as in the case of grammatical gender and number, these distinctions of form are to be regarded as later developments in the case of the grammatical tenses of the verb, we must assume (i.) that the same form must once have served indifferently for all tense relations, and (ii.) expect that the tenses actually differentiated will (a) correspond only incompletely with the scheme of logical distinctions, (b) will in various languages show various deviations from the ideal scheme, and (c) will, in the same language at different periods of its history, show similar variations in those deviations. i. Though the conclusion under head i. is actually inevitable, it seems, at first sight, improbable and doubtful; but, in addition to the use of the present tense discussed and exemplified above, there is much in modern English which may help to illustrate and enable us to realise it, while older languages afford much more material for the same purpose. A usage closely akin to that of the present tense for tense absolute occurs when the present is used for the future, and more especially when some other word in the sentence definitely refers the event to the future. Thus, in I am going to London to- morrow, we actually employ that specially English periphrasis which is never used in the absolute sense, but, as a rule, emphatically expresses that the action belongs to the present time.154 Nay, where circumstances are sufficiently unequivocal to absolutely preclude the meaning of the present tense, the addition of such words as to- morrow, etc., is not even needed. If two friends, for instance, were speaking about some coming holidays, and the one had said, I think I will go to Wales, the other might answer, I don’t care for Wales, I am going to London; or, again, without such explanatory
- 44. circumstances, or any special words, the present in a subordinate clause can stand for a future event, provided that the main clause grammatically expresses the future; e.g., I will call you when he comes. We also sometimes use the PRESENT TENSE FOR THE PAST. This we do (a) where the event is equally true of the past as of the present; e.g., I know that = I know it, and knew it some time ago—a case in which the present tense expresses past AND present together: or (b) where the event belongs, indeed, entirely to the past, but the result is represented as actually present. Of (b) these are instances: ‘Master sends me to tell you,’ ‘He tells me that he is going away,’ ‘I hear he is better now.’ This usage approaches closely to a third (c), the so-called Historic present, which, however, we should probably not consider as a present tense expressing the past, but as a simple present, whose use is due to the vivid imagination of the speaker, when it leads him to regard the past as actually present. We have said that the consciousness of the result of an action sometimes causes the use of a present tense for a past event. The same cause may also lead to an exactly opposite usage, viz., that of a past tense for an event in the present. Thus, as the result of seeing is knowing, it came to pass that a form originally signifying I have seen acquired the meaning I know; the Ger. Ich weisz means ‘I know,’ but is derived from the same root as the Lat. Video, ‘I see.’ Thus, again, the root which we find in Lat. gno-sco (= I begin to learn, I get to know) appears in the English I can, which, exactly as the Lat. novi (for *gnovi, cf. agnovi for ad-gnovi), meant I have got to know (= I know), has developed its present meaning, I am able, from one expressive of something like I have become able, or I have learned. It is thus that arose the so-called ‘præterito-presentia,’ can, must, will, shall, etc., which still betray, one and all, their origin from a former grammatical past tense, by absence of s as a characteristic termination of the third person singular—a termination which we add to the stem in the case of all other present tenses.