Ssrn id2170508

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND COST OF
EQUITY: EVIDENCE FROM CORPORATE TAX
DISPUTES

Mingjun Zhou
DePaul University

Key Words: cost of equity, tax disputes, corporate social
responsibility

JEL Classification(s): H25, G30

Abstract
This study examines the relation between social
concerns on firms' tax positions and their cost of
equity. Corporate social performance can influence
capital market processes but little empirical
evidence has been presented yet in terms of the
effects of tax disputes on shareholder preference. I
contribute by showing that tax concerns expressed
by a social monitoring index are associated with a
higher implied cost of equity capital. In other
words, firms may lower their cost of equity capital
and contribute to the community by acting as non-
aggressive taxpayers.

INTRODUCTION
Can a firm be socially responsible while making profits?
The advocate in the neo-classical economic school seems to
present a clear choice and dictates that the only legitimate purpose
of business was to make profit. Friedman (1962, 1970) wrote
"there is one and only one social responsibility of business – to use
its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its
profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game" However,

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358 Zhou: CSR and Cost of Equity

the "rules of the game" may not always be clear-cut. How would
stakeholders react, and what would be the capital-market reactions
when corporations take aggressive interpretations of the tax code?
The traditional view by Friedman seems to encourage
corporations to be aggressive in minimizing tax payments to the
community and government so long as it is "within the rules of the
game." Nevertheless, the nature of the tax code tends to be
complex and makes the interpretation of the rules a delicate and
sensitive matter. While firm management owes the fiduciary duty
to maximize shareholder returns by minimizing tax owed to the
government, societal controversy may arise from abusive corporate
tax avoidance and evasion. To this end, I investigate how tax
disputes between the firms and the government may affect investor
preference and firms’ cost of equity capital.
The issue is more pertinent now than ever with the new
storm of controversy surrounding the amount of tax risk and tax
aggressive behaviors that firms exhibit in society, and with the
political rhetoric for corporate citizens to pay their fair share of
taxes amid economic recession and government deficit. For
instance, a leading pension fund, the employees' pension plan of
the American Federation of State, County and Municipal
Employees (AFSCME), sought to place the matter of tax risks and
tax disputes on shareholders' proxy votes to mitigate risk exposure
facing prudent shareholders. In addition, it proposes the following
sample template for shareholders of other corporations to adopt on
their proposals for proxy votes:
"Resolved, that shareholders of [Company
name] request that [Company's] board of directors
annually assess the risks created by the actions
[Company] takes to avoid or minimize U.S. federal,
state, and local taxes and provide a report to
shareholders on the assessment, at reasonable cost
and omitting proprietary information." (Schlank
2011)
The shareholder proposal initiated by AFSCME sets an
important tone for the investing public on the risks of aggressive

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Journal of Accounting, Ethics & Public Policy 359
Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

tax behaviors and the importance of corporate social responsibility
to pay its fair share of taxes. For example, Home Depot was in the
spotlight due to the large size of the company's tax reserves ($659
million) of uncertain tax positions reported on Home Depot's 2010
10-K. As a result, AFSME filed a shareholder proposal for Home
Depot's annual proxy votes, arguing "...companies that rely on tax
avoidance practices could be exposed to greater risk and
decreasing earnings." Other large corporations cited in the
shareholder proposal include Amazon.com Lazard Ltd., Pfizer Inc.
and TJX Co. These high-profile proposals illustrate shareholders'
concern over a corporation's tax aggressiveness and the potential
tax audits and legal disputes that will negatively impact
shareholder welfare.
First, the negative effects could be due to the increased risk
of reduced cash flows out of fines and penalties upon settlement of
tax disputes. Second, and perhaps more importantly, the link
between shareholder welfare and tax disputes may be based on
reputational effects: the goodwill of public companies may suffer
when in the media spotlight for litigations with federal, state and
local authorities. For example, the mission statement of General
Electric's tax department emphasizes that corporate tax strategies
should not harm the company's reputation, or be identified by the
business press for its aggressiveness, casting an image of "poor
corporate citizen." This reputational concern is not limited to
negative press. Firms also want to emphasize their social
responsibility in paying the lion's share of federal income tax. In
the 2004 Wal-Mart annual report, CEO Lee Scott reported to its
shareholders:
"Wal-Mart paid $4 billion in U.S. federal income
taxes in fiscal year 2004. To borrow a page from
my friend Warren Buffet's annual report to the
shareholders of Berkshire Hathaway, this means
that if 446 other taxpayers paid the same amount as
Wal-Mart, no other business or individual in the
United States would have had to pay federal taxes
last year."


In this study, I use the ratings in a major social monitoring
index - the KLD Corporate Social Ratings Monitor - and find that
firms on the index rated as having concerns about their tax disputes
in the community are associated with a higher implied cost of
equity capital. The implied cost of equity is a recent measure
developed in the accounting and finance literature that differs from
the contemporaneous or ex-post stock return measure. This
measure of cost of equity captures the ex-ante valuation of
shareholders on a firm's operations when determining their long-
term expected returns. The statistical analyses suggest that ratings
of social concerns on corporate tax disputes are associated with an
increase in the corporation's cost of equity. In other words, public
companies can raise more capital less expensively if they are not
perceived as an aggressive player in the tax field. In the remainder
of the paper, I will first discuss the relevant literature and then
follow up with my empirical methods and results.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS

Corporate Social Responsibility and Capital Market
Performance
Prior research on the relationship between corporate social
ratings and capital market performance has not been conclusive.
Vance (1975) surveyed the social responsibility ratings from 86
corporate staffers and 300 graduate business students. The result
suggests that if investors buy the company common stock ranked
in the upper half of the socially responsible ratings, they would
lose 43.9% of their investment in 1974. This is in contrast with the
view by Moskowitz (1972) that a socially responsible company has
the stewardship and talent to produce greater financial profits.
Alexander and Buchholz (1978) also use a social rating by
corporate executives and business students but find no significant
relationship between social ratings and stock performance as
measured by the Capital Asset Pricing Model. They did propose a
possible explanation on the insignificance of this relationship: the

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

stock market may be efficient as described by Fama (1970) and the
measurement of stock return on an ex-post basis will likely detect
no difference as the market has already adjusted their expectations.
Therefore, it is important either to use an event-study approach
studying stock price fluctuations during a short event window, or
to measure investors' ex-ante expected returns as measured by
firms' implied cost of equity capital.
Recent research argues that firms with good social
responsibility build a good reputation among stakeholders (e.g.
Branco and Rodriguez). Barnett (2006) defines corporate social
responsibility as "a discretionary allocation of corporate resources
toward improving social welfare that serves as a means of
enhancing relationships with key stakeholders." From the
stakeholder perspective advocated by Barnett (2006), firms engage
in social responsibility issues when such actions may lower
operating cost and increase financial gain (e.g. increased employee
satisfaction leads to less union issues and helps with a firm's
bottom line). From this theory perspective, an enhanced
relationship should reduce the uncertainty facing the corporation
and bring down the required risk premium asked by investors.
Social performance incentive for a public company can also
include considerations of its reputation among the key
stakeholders, such as regulators, customers and shareholders.
Earlier research has documented that firms bear the reputational
and political costs on the capital markets after being convicted of
criminal fraud (Karpoff and Lott 1993): allegations or
investigations of corporate fraud were linked to an average
decrease of 1.34 percent, or $60.8 million, in the values of the
common stocks of affected companies.
Most recent literature (Cox and Wicks 2011) has examined
what types of investors care more (or less) about corporate social
responsibility. They find that corporate responsibility is a more
important factor in share selection for dedicated long-term
investors compared with short-term "transient" investors such as
open-ended mutual funds. This paper attempts to contribute by
focusing on the tax perspectives in the overall corporate social


performance picture. In this direction, I use a long-term measure,
the implied cost of equity capital (discussed more in detail in the
Methods and Results Section) to study the link between tax-dispute
concerns and investor preference.

Ethical and Social Considerations on Corporate Tax Disputes
The justification for corporate tax avoidance can be
understood in the perspective of utilitarian ethics. If we believe
that the private sector makes more efficient use of resources than
the public sector, the ethical thing to do for the corporate citizens
would be to minimize their taxes owed to the government and let
the shareholders make their own decisions about charitable
contributions. John D. Rockefeller, for example, once said, "gain
all you can, save all you can, and give all you can". The
management of public companies has a fiduciary duty to maximize
shareholder returns by not dissipating corporate to unreasonable
tax levies by the government. 1 From this perspective, virtuous
corporate social behavior and tax compliance does not necessarily
require firms to accept the opinion of tax administrators in an
uncritical manner. It may be up to the courts to settle the disputes
between the corporate taxpayer and the government.
However, social concerns and negative press coverage may
arise from these litigations. There may be a reputational penalty
when public companies are put on the spot for being perceived as
not paying their fair share and aggressively minimize their taxes by
disputing their tax obligations. Investors also may not like the
uncertainty inherent in a litigation process with the government. In
general, the social process in the tax field involves more than
taxpayer rights and the efficient use of resources in the private
sector. Firms may adopt a continuum of strategies in their
interactions with the government. The most conservative will
follow the directives of the tax administrator without a question

1 I am deeply in debt to the reviewer on these philosophical insights.

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

and the most aggressive will challenge the authority at every
possible opportunity.

Hypothesis
As discussed earlier, the social process between the
government and corporations on the issue of taxation is an intricate
one. While it may be easy to define the distinction between full
compliance with tax law and illegal non-compliance (usually
described as tax evasion), activities that falls in between the two
extremes may become subjects of contestation. The boundary
between acceptable and unacceptable tax practices are not clear-cut
and corporate managers may use their discretions in taking
corporate tax positions. To ensure the functioning of tax collection,
a substantial part of the system may need to be socially
constructed. Braithwaite (2009) describes the relationship between
the regulator (the tax administrator) and the regulatee (the
corporate taxpayer) as a 'dance' in which a consensus is essential to
the operation of a tax system. For example, in 2010 the Internal
Revenue Service first announced proposed regulation to require
corporations to disclose their uncertain tax positions and the
maximum amount of potential tax liability for each position in
their tax returns. This move by the IRS, however, was widely
criticized by taxpayers and accountants as a departure from the
established IRS practice of "policy of restraint." Amid the strong
backlash, the IRS did take a step back and lowered the disclosure
requirement.
On the other side, the dance can be out of step when a
corporate taxpayer does not collaborate with the tax administrator
toward a mutual resolution but becomes confrontational by
challenging an existing regulation. Any open dispute with the
government is an underlying risk factor that investors will have to
take into account. Often, litigation is expensive and time-
consuming. Negative press coverage can arise from the cases in
litigation. For instance, anecdotal evidence from U.K. suggests that
larger companies are increasingly concerned with reputational
issues and the possibility of protests by activists (Cape and


Dayananda 2012). Any challenge on the regulatory regime may
also be countered with high-pressure tactics from the government
to ensure that other taxpayers do not follow the same practice.
From this perspective, corporate social responsibility in the tax
field may be constructed as a social process whose purpose is to
establish a social protocol to minimize stakeholder conflicts so that
the tax system can function in an efficient and effective manner.
To measure the construct of corporate social responsibility
in the field of tax aggressiveness, the social responsibility
measures in the Kinder, Lydenberg and Domini's (KLD) Stats
database are utilized to measure whether firms have rating of
concerns over their tax disputes with the authorities. The research
question is then whether firms rated as having concerns over their
tax practices are considered more risky and less appealing to long-
term investors, and thus they need to pay higher cost of equity
capital. The disciples of Friedman (1962, 1970) would argue that
aggressive positions in reducing tax liability should be the norm
and attractive more investors in a free capital market. On the other
side, as prior analyses point out, open tax disputes will bring
uncertainties and incur reputational and political penalties for the
corporation. Thus, the research hypothesis is stated in its null form:
Hypothesis (in the null form): Social concerns over a
firms' tax dispute will not affect its cost of equity

EMPIRICAL METHODS AND RESULTS

Implied Cost of Capital
Various approaches exist in the accounting and finance
literature on the measurement of cost of capital or investors’
required returns on their equity investments. Prior work mostly
employs ex-post realized stock returns as a measure of investors’
required returns, but this measure is not theoretically sound and
empirically satisfying in many aspects. In theory, realized returns
observed ex-post tend to reflect the expectations of minority
investors under heterogeneous expectations and short-selling
constraints (Miller, 1977). Empirically, Fama and French (1997)

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

conclude that cost-of-capital measures based on realized returns
are imprecise and noisy at best. Elton (1999, p.1199) also argues
that “realized returns are very poor measures of expected returns.”
As a remedy, recent research in accounting and finance has
proposed different methods to estimate investors’ ex ante required
return or implied cost of equity. Major estimation methods for this
ex-ante measure of cost of capital have been developed by
Gebhardt, Lee and Swaminathan (2001, hereafter GLS), Claus and
Thomas (2001, hereafter CT), and Gode and Mohanram (2003,
hereafter GM). Despite the use of different methods of estimation,
the implied cost of equity is essentially the required discount rate
or internal rate of return that equates an asset’s market value or
stock price to the present value of all expected future dividends.
However, market expectations for future dividends are not easily
observable. Thus, this stream of research uses analysts' earnings
forecasts as the baseline for market expectations of earnings and
dividends. For example, the GLS measure of implied cost of equity
capital is modeled with the following equation:

Et [ NI t  i  re Bt  i 1 ]
P  Bt 
t i 1
(1  re )i
(1)

where Pt and Bt are the stock price and book value per
share at the time of measurement, NI is the analyst earnings
forecast and re is the implied cost of capital or the internal rate of
return that equates the left and right-hand side of the equation.
While equation (1) is a theoretical valuation model, the following
is the empirical implementation of the GLS model:
11 FROEt 1  rgls FROEt 12  rgls
Pt  Bt    Bt i 1   Bt 11 (2)
t 1 (1  rgls ) (1  rgls )11
is the empirical measure of the cost of equity capital,
FROE is the forecasted return on equity. For year t from one to
three, FROE is the future return on equity estimate based on the
assumption of future book value as ,
where is the mean of the one-year-ahead analyst earnings
per share forecast in the Institutional Brokerage Estimate System


(I/B/E/S) summary data; and k is the dividend payout ratio. For t
beyond three, FROE is obtained through linear interpolation to
median return on equity based on Fama and French's (1997) 48
industries. The cost of capital estimate is the numerical value
obtained through an iterative computation that minimize the
difference between price calculated from equation (2) and the
actual market price at time t
The Claus-Thomas (CT) measure of the implied cost of
equity is estimated using the following equation:
AEt 1 AEt 2 AEt 5 AEt 5 (1  g ae )
Pt  B t    ....   (3)
(1  rct ) (1  rct ) 2
(1  rct ) 5
(rct  g ae )(1  rct )5
is the abnormal earnings for year t equal to
, which is analyst forecast earnings ( minus a charge
on the book value ( ) in the form of cost of equity ( ;
is the mean I/B/E/S analyst forecasted earnings ranging
from years t+1 to t+5. When I/B/E/S does not provide an earnings
forecast for year t+3, t+4 or t+5, the available forecast for the
preceding year is multiplied by one plus the consensus long-term
growth rate in I/B/E/S to arrive at an estimate for the relative time
horizon. The future estimated book value is arrived at in a way
similar to that in GLS. The dividend payout ratio of each period is
set to be at a fixed 50 percent of the forecasted earnings of the
corresponding period. g ae is the growth rate of abnormal earnings
beyond year t+5 and is set to be the yield on 10-year U.S. Treasury
bonds minus 3% in the CT measure
The GM measure does not require a computationally
iterative solution for the positive root of a polynomial equation, but
rather employs the following model:
FEPS t 1
re  A  A2  ( )( g 2  r f  0.03) (4)
Pt

where (( ) ) r f is the yield of 10-year

constant-maturity treasury bond and g 2 is the I/B/E/S consensus

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

long-term growth rate. is the forecasted earnings
( ) times dividend payout ratio k.

Data and Regression Model
I obtain analyst forecasts and growth estimates from
I/B/E/S unadjusted historical summary forecasts, book values from
the Compustat North America Fundamental Annual Xpressfeed
(XPF), and stock prices from CRSP. The three estimates of implied
cost of equity capital (GLS, CT and GM) are measured at June of
every year. The average of the three measures of cost of capital in
excess of the 10-year U.S. Treasury constant maturity rate is the
cost of equity (ceq) in the literature and the dependent variable in
the regression analysis
I use the Kinder, Lydenberg and Domini's (KLD) Stats
database for rating whether a firm is considered having social
concerns over disputes with the taxing authorities. The KLD Social
Index is a leading corporate social responsibility monitor and I use
its ratings to investigate the extent to which social concerns on a
firm's tax disputes affect firms' implied cost of equity. In addition,
I include variables identified in the literature to control for other
significant firm characteristics and risk factors that are associated
with its cost of equity:
(
( (
(
TAXD is and indicator variable based on the KLD Index. It takes
the value of one if the KLD index indicates social concerns over
the tax disputes and zero otherwise. Indus is the average of
industrial implied cost of equity premium based on Fama-French
(1997) 48 industries. Size is the market capitalization (in millions)
of the firm; BM is the book-to-market ratio; AFD is the analyst
forecast dispersion, measured as the standard deviation of one-
year-ahead analyst forecast divided by the mean of forecasts. I
include the natural log of BM, Size and AFD in the regression
analysis following the established empirical practice. Ltg is the
consensus long-term growth rate provided by I/B/E/S and Beta is


the market beta in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (Fama and
French 1993). As the measures of implied cost of equity already
consist of estimates on return on equity and profitability
(forecasted future return on equity and abnormal earnings
discussed in the previous section), I do not include return on equity
or firm profitability as separate control variables.
Table 1 has the descriptive statistics for the full sample
(1995-2009) and the samples partitioned by whether the firm-year
observation is rated to have social concerns over tax disputes. The
cost of equity premium (ceq) is presented in basis points. The
samples means of ceq in Table 1 suggest that observations rated by
KLD as having tax-dispute concerns incur higher cost of equity
capital. On the other hand, there appears to be no major differences
in the sample means between firm-years with tax concerns and
without tax concerns in terms of firms' debt-to-market level,
industry average premium, long-term growth, analyst forecast
dispersion and market beta. There seems to be some difference in
Size, or the market capitalizations between the partitions. Firm-
years with tax concerns seem to have larger market capitalization
than those that do not. Therefore, the hypothesis will be tested
using the regression model controlling for the effect of Size on
implied cost of equity.
Table 2 shows the Pearson as well as Spearman
correlations between the tax concern rating (TAXD) and other
factors influencing implied cost of equity. In general, the
magnitudes of the correlations are small. We may thus infer that
the rating about tax concerns in KLD measures a construct of
corporate social performance that is different from general
corporate financial performance.
Table 3 has the regression results on the relationship
between social concerns of tax disputes and firms' cost of capital
measured in basis points. The effect is both statistically and
economically significant. The coefficient on TAXD suggests that
the implied cost of equity premium is almost 100 basis points (one
percentage point) higher than observations without tax concern
ratings. This effect is after controlling for firm size and other major

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

factors related to cost of equity. In fact, the negative and
significant sign on Size is consistent with the asset pricing theory
in Fama and French: small-cap stocks have more risk than large-
caps and therefore investors should demand higher (lower) returns
based on Size. Since firms with social concerns about their tax
disputes are generally larger than those that are not (See Table 1),
it will only bias against finding a significant and positive
relationship between tax disputes and cost of capital if tax disputes
are just another manifestation of firm size. The significant and
positive coefficient on TAXD shows that social concern about tax
disputes is a distinct measure from other observable financial
measures. The signs of coefficients on other control variables are
also in line with prior literature. Book-to-Market is shown to be
another major risk factor. Higher growth firms generally are more
risky and need to offer higher returns. The negative sign on analyst
forecast dispersion is consistent with Miller (1977) in a capital
market with short-sale constraints and heterogeneous expectations.

CONCLUSION
I contribute to the research stream on corporate social
responsibility by focusing on the effect of social concerns about
tax disputes on firms' cost of equity. The regression analysis and
statistical evidence in the study suggests that firms could reduce
their cost of equity by not engaging in open tax disputes that lead
to social concerns. This economic effect on cost of equity is
significant, showing a nearly one-percentage point reduction in the
cost of equity if firms can improve their social performance rating
and avoid tax disputes with federal, state, local and foreign
authorities. The use of regression analyses, however, can only
suggest an association, rather than prove the causal relationship
between tax concerns and cost of equity. Future research using
surveys and interviews with corporate executives and investors
such as mutual fund managers can provide further insights on the
relationship between social ratings and capital market
performance.


The inference in the study also indicates that public
interests and shareholder preferences are not mutually exclusive
propositions. The underlying reputational and political costs may
be an important risk factor for firms that are considered aggressive
players in the tax field. In addition to reputational and political
costs, it is also possible that investors also weigh the costs and
benefits of an uncertain cash-flow outcome based on open tax
audits. Taken together, the result in this research supports the effort
of developing a social agenda. A social performance monitor with
notes on corporate tax behaviors can have a positive effect in
raising the awareness of investors on the underlying risks when
firms choose to take a confrontational approach with the
authorities. In summary, this study suggests that public firms may
enhance their relationship with key stakeholders and lower the cost
of their equity capital by acting as non-aggressive taxpayers.

REFERENCES
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Responsibility and Stock Market Performance Academy of
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Barnett, M.: 2007, Stakeholder Influence Capacity and the
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Braithwaite, V. 2009. Dancing with the tax authorities. In Taxing
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Bronco, M and L. Rodrigues. 2006, Corporate Social
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Cape, J. and H. Dayananda. 2012. Tax Dispute Resolution
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October 2012: 389-390.

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Claus, J., and J. Thomas. 2001, Equity Premia as Low As Three
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Table 1: Summary Statistics

Sample without Sample with
Full sample
tax disputes tax disputes
(n=17,975)
(n=17,415) (n=560)
Mean
Variable Mean Mean
Ceq 464.92 462.40 543.40
Ln(DM): 0.25 0.25 0.27
Indus 0.06 0.06 0.07
Ln(Size) 14.52 14.47 16.05
Ln(BTM) 0.38 0.38 0.41
Ln(AFD) 0.07 0.07 0.07
Ltg 0.15 0.15 0.12
Beta_mkt 1.06 1.06 1.00

Ceq = implied cost of equity capital, in basis points
Ln(DM) = the natural log of the debt to market ratio
Indus = the average industry implied cost of equity premium by on
Fama-French 48 industries
ln_Size = the natural log of firms size in millions;
ln_BTM = the natural log of firms' book-to-market ratio
Ln(AFD)= the natural log of the dispersion of one-year ahead
analyst earnings forecast, measured as the standard deviation of
forecasts dividend by mean forecast;
Ltg = the consensus long-term growth rate provided by I/B/E/S;
Beta_mkt = the market beta relative to the market portfolio returns
in Fama and French (1997).

Volume 13, No. 3 (2012)

Table 2: Pearson (upper right) and Spearman (Lower Left) Correlation Matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Tax Disputes 1.000 0.045 0.013 0.009 0.179 0.022 0.007 -0.065 -0.013
<.0001 0.076 0.253 <.0001 0.003 0.339 <.0001 0.076
2. Ceq 0.044 1.000 0.189 0.097 -0.135 0.264 -0.069 0.033 0.025
<.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.001
3. Ln(DM) 0.042 0.203 1.000 0.039 -0.038 0.448 0.091 -0.298 0.012
<.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.116
4. Indus 0.033 0.440 0.087 1.000 -0.009 0.052 0.014 -0.025 0.012
<.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.254 <.0001 0.070 0.001 0.115
5. Ln(Size) 0.163 -0.175 0.062 -0.050 1.000 -0.335 -0.133 -0.129 -0.029
<.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.000
6. Ln(BTM) 0.013 0.330 0.452 0.178 -0.326 1.000 0.151 -0.286 0.027
0.083 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.000
7. Ln(AFD) 0.051 0.003 0.078 0.088 -0.155 0.231 1.000 0.071 0.096
<.0001 0.659 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
8. Ltg -0.084 0.022 -0.467 -0.048 -0.149 -0.364 0.041 1.000 0.167
<.0001 0.003 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
9. Beta_mkt -0.009 0.033 -0.044 0.032 0.009 0.022 0.223 0.204 1.000
0.219 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001 0.219 0.003 <.0001 <.0001


Table 3: Implied cost of equity premium (in basis points) and
Social Rating on Tax Disputes: 1995 -2009
n=17,975

Parameter Standard
Variable Estimate Error t Value
Intercept 352.672 27.061 13.03
TAXD 104.394 12.824 8.14
Ln(DM 128.416 7.884 16.29
Indprem 382.905 31.899 12.00
Ln(Size) -11.439 1.595 -7.17
Ln(BTM) 379.690 13.557 28.01
Ln(AFD) -269.307 14.026 -19.20
Ltg 618.637 32.309 19.15
Beta_mkt 1.421 2.689 0.53

Adjusted R-square=12.19%

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