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The Standard Model and the LHC in the Higgs Boson Era

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The document discusses the Standard Model of particle physics and the role of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) following the discovery of the Higgs boson. It provides background on the development of the Standard Model and discovery of its key particles like quarks, gluons, and weak bosons. It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle collider built to explore physics at the highest energies and probe unanswered questions left by the Standard Model. Four main detectors at the LHC, including ATLAS and CMS, precisely measure collision products to explore fundamental particles and forces.

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! The Standard Model and the LHC! in the Higgs Boson Era Juan Rojo! ! Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics! Rudolf Peierls Center for Theoretical Physics! Oxford, 07/02/2015 1
! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model ! of Particle Physics 2
! ! ! ! ! ! Higgs Boson: most important discovery in particle physics in 25 years ! Completes the extremely successful Standard Model of particle physics ….! … but at the same time opens a number of crucial questions ! The LHC will play a central role in exploring the high-energy frontier in the next 20 years Particle Physics in the headlines 3
! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model: a history of success The Standard Model (SM) of particle physics explains a wide variety of microscopic phenomena in a unified framework: Quantum Field Theory! Matter content composed by six quarks and six leptons, organised in three families! Interactions between matter particles are governed by gauge bosons: photons (electromagnetism), W and Z bosons (weak force), and gluons (strong interaction)! The last ingredient is the Higgs Boson, provides mechanism by which particles acquire mass 4
! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model: a history of success Quantum Field Theory provides a consistent framework to describe all known particles and interactions (except Gravity) 5 The Standard Model (SM) of particle physics explains a wide variety of microscopic phenomena in a unified framework: Quantum Field Theory! Matter content composed by six quarks and six leptons, organised in three families! Interactions between matter particles are governed by gauge bosons: photons (electromagnetism), W and Z bosons (weak force), and gluons (strong interaction)! The last ingredient is the Higgs Boson, provides mechanism by which particles acquire mass
! ! ! ! ! ! The Dawn of the Standard Model 6 Status of high-energy physics in the early 60s: By early 30s, after discovery of electron, proton, neutron, and positron, we had a reasonable description of particle physics! The discovery of the muon (37) was completely unexpected: this new particle, a heavier electron, did not fit in!! To make things worse, a plethora of new strongly interacting particles (pions, kaons) with no role in Nature, was soon discovered! How to make sense of this chaos? Leptons: electromagnetic ! and weak interaction Hadrons: electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions Many conceptual questions unanswered:! How are atomic nuclei bound together?! What is the origin of the weak interaction?! Are hadrons fundamental particles or composite states?! What is the mathematical language to describe particle physics?
Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) The interactions of electrically charged particles are governed by electromagnetism (EM)! Making sense of EM once quantum corrections are accounted for was a theoretical tour de force that ended in formulation of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)! Starting from simple rules (Feynman diagrams), compute terms at any order in the perturbative expansion in the QED coupling! Some of the most precise calculations ever done have been obtained in QED: for instance, the muon anomalous magnetic moment known better than one part in one billion! 7 QED Feynman rules Feynman diagrams for muon ! anomalous magnetic moment
! ! ! ! ! ! Quarks: the inner life of protons Scattering of α particles (He nuclei) off atoms lead in 1911 Rutherford to discovery of internal structure of atoms: a point-like nucleus and layers of electrons! 70 years later, the scattering of energetic electrons off protons lead to equally surprising result: the internal structure of protons, composed by point-like quarks Rutherford experiment:! Atoms have internal structure! Electron-proton collisions at Stanford Linear Accelerator:! Protons have internal structure! 8 Quarks
! ! ! ! ! ! Quarks: charming, beautiful and top The Constituent Quark Model allowed to describe all known hadrons as composite states of only three types of quarks: up, down and strange, with fractional electric charge! Considered as a mathematical trick to organise hadrons, real existence confirmed only after SLAC experiments! Much to everyone’s surprised, two new, heavier quarks were soon discovered: the charm quark (73) and the bottom quark (77). Much heavier top quark had to wait until 1995 to be discovered 9 Quark Constituent Model: ! Hadrons composed by quarks Discovery of charm quark Evidence of new particle with mass 3 GeV:! the J/Psi, charm/anti-charm pair
! ! ! ! ! ! Eight Gluons to Bind Them All Electromagnetism can be understood as a renormalizable Quantum Field Theory (QFT), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). Compute scattering amplitudes as perturbative expansion in small coupling! Hadrons interact strongly: QED model cannot be applied to nuclear strong force?! In fact, strong force is also a renormalizable QFT but with asymptotic freedom: it looks like QED, but only at very high energies! The mediator of the strong force is the gluon (analog of the photon), responsible for binding the quarks together in the proton 10 Discovery of the Gluon (77): Three-Jet events in electron-positron collisions Quark Quark Gluon Quark Gluon High Scales,! >> proton mass:! Small coupling Low scales,! <= proton mass! Strong coupling! non-perturbative Strength of QCD interaction Quark
! ! ! ! ! ! Weak vector bosons Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Fermi (30s) explained beta-decay of nuclei by a four-body interaction between neutrons, protons, electrons and neutrinos: the weak nuclear interaction! Weak interaction also similar to electromagnetism, but with massive vector bosons, the W and Z particles. Due to large masses (80 and 91 GeV) their interactions are point-like at low energies! Evidence for Neutral Currents (73) followed by the discovery of the W and Z bosons at the CERN (83) 11 Fermi picture of the weak interaction The weak interaction ! in the Standard Model Neutral currents in neutrino scattering:! indirect evidence for the Z boson Discovery of Neutral Currents Neutrino Hadrons
The Higgs Mechanism 12 In the SM, symmetries do not allow mass terms in the Lagrangian! The Higgs mechanism bypasses this restriction: laws are still symmetric, but the specific configuration chosen by Nature (Higgs potential) is not: Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking ! Thanks to the Higgs mechanism, SM particles can acquire a mass! As a byproduct, the Higgs particle, excitation of the Higgs field can also be produced if energy high enough! Predicted more than 50 years ago, it was finally discovered in 2012 at LHC Higgs Potential
! ! ! ! ! ! Exploring the high-energy frontier:! The Large Hadron Collider 13
Why high-energy colliders? Exploring the smallest possible lengths requires going to the high-energy frontier! Heisenberg uncertainty principle: if we want to resolve very small distances, we need use very energetic probes 14 In natural units, hbar=c=1, we can convert distances to energies:! ( 1 GeV )-1 = 0.2 fm = 0.2 10-15 m This conversion sets the energies needed to explore smaller and smaller objects: We need to reach energies of TeraElectronvolts to keep exploring the smallest distances E > 0.05 MeV E > 200 MeV E > 2 GeV E > 2 TeV E > 2 TeV mproton = 1 GeV! melectron = 0.5 MeV
High energy colliders: tools for discovery Since the first ever particle accelerator, Lawrence’s Cyclotron, bigger and more powerful colliders have been built to explore Nature at the highest energies 15 Lawrence’s Cyclotron! Length: 1.5 m! Energy: 500 MeV TeVatron (Chicago)! proton-proton collider! Length: 6.3 km! Energy: 1.96 TeV SLAC (Stanford)! linear electron collider! Length: 3 km! Energy: 90 GeV HERA (Hamburg)! electron-proton collider! Length: 6 km! Energy: 310 GeV PETRA (Hamburg)! electron-positron collider! Length: 2 m! Energy: 40 GeV
The Large Hadron Collider LHC tunnel length = 27 km Geneva Airport CERN 16 The LHC is the most powerful particle accelerator ever build by mankind! Hosted by CERN, the LHC is composed by a massive 27 km long tunnel with four gigantic detectors: ATLAS, CMS, LHCb and ALICE! At the LHC protons collide at the highest energies ever achieved: unique probe of the fundamental laws of Nature Jura Alps
The LHC Detectors Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201517 Where proton beams cross and collisions take place, huge detectors measure the products of the collision in an attempt to understand the laws of Nature at the smallest distances ATLAS CMS LHCb ALICE
The LHC Detectors Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201518 Where proton beams cross and collisions take place, huge detectors measure the products of the collision in an attempt to reconstruct the laws of Nature at the smallest distances ATLAS CMS LHCb ALICE Oxford plays a central role in building and operating the LHC detectors
19 Juan Rojo PDF@CMS Kick-off Workshop, CERN, 07/05/2012
Remarkable facts about the LHC 20 Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The data volume recorded is 1 TeraByte/ second: 10,000 sets of the Encyclopedia Britannica each second!! Gigantic technological challenge to efficiently reach for the relevant events One of coldest places in the Universe: the LHC magnets are kept at only 1.9 deg above absolute zero, colder than interstellar space! The emptiest place in the Solar System: vacuum in the beam pipe similar to interplanetary space One of hottest places in the Galaxy: collisions generate a temperature billions of times larger than the Sun, reproducing conditions of early universe
Rediscovering the Standard Model at the LHC 21 First major results from the LHC were the rediscovery of the Standard Model! Essential to verify performance of accelerator and detectors and to validate theoretical calculations of SM processes at the highest energies ! High precision SM measurements provide unique information to further sharpen our tools in searches like Higgs and New Physics Beyond the SM Dilepton Invariant Mass Rediscovering the J/Psi particle (charm), the Upsilon (bottom) and the Z boson
The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks Higgs Background 22 In July 2012, ATLAS and CMS announced the long-awaited discovery of the Higgs boson! Very challenging measurement, requires separating small signal from large background
The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks 23 Higgs Decays into Two Photons Higgs Decays into Four Leptons Mass of Photon Pair Invariant Mass of Four Leptons Peak at mH = 125 GeV! Evidence for Higgs Boson!
The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks 24 Higgs Decays into Two Photons Higgs Decays into Four Leptons Mass of Photon Pair Invariant Mass of Four Leptons
Beyond the SM: searching for the unknown 25 Despite the Higgs discovery, crucial questions are left open: stability of Higgs mass, nature of Dark Matter, the possible unification of forces, the role of gravity, origin of matter-anti-matter asymmetry! Motivation to develop theories beyond the Standard Model (BSM) to improve on its limitations, theories that can be scrutinised at the LHC! e.g. Supersymmetry: each SM particle has a superpartner with spin differing by 1/2. SUSY predicts unification of all forces (but gravity) at very high scales No hints of BSM physics at the LHC yet, though the upcoming Run II with increased energy opens a completely new region of the parameter space! New discoveries could be around the corner!
! ! ! ! ! ! What’s Next? 26
Explorers of the high-energy frontier The LHC will lead exploration of the high-energy frontier for the next 20 years. ! Sharpening our theory predictions of the Standard Model, and a close interplay between theory and experiment, will be crucial ingredient to maximise the LHC potential! Two central ingredients of this LHC program will be:! Precision measurements of Higgs properties ! Direct searches for Dark Matter 27 LHC Schedule until 2035 We are here! Giulia Zanderighi’s talk Uli Haisch’s talk
The LHC: A Luminous Future Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 By 2022, a High-Luminosity upgrade of the LHC is scheduled: much higher number of proton collisions with better chances of interesting events! These extreme conditions will require to completely upgrade the LHC detectors 28 Oxford is playing a central role in this upgrade with the ATLAS Silicon Tracker A simulated High-Luminosity LHC collision
29 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Going Beyond: a Future Circular Collider? Juan Rojo SMatLHC14, Madrid, 09/04/2014 ! ! Planning of new facilities in High-Energy Physics, at cutting edge of technology, require long timescales ! The next machine could be a 100 TeV hadron collider, with also electron-positron and electron-proton modes! Sites in CERN and China proposed, technical feasibility and physics motivation now being assessed! Other proposed colliders are linear colliders, cleaner than hadron machines but with reduced reach in energy! ! ! ! ! !LHC FCC CLIC CLIC: Compact Linear Collider
30 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fascinating times ahead at the high-energy frontier! Stay tuned for news from the LHC!
31 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fascinating times ahead at the high-energy frontier! Stay tuned for news from the LHC! Thanks for your attention!
! ! ! ! ! ! Extra Material Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201532
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! ! ! ! ! ! Standard Model of Particle Physics 1" Higgs"boson"and"EWSB" !  Is"mH"natural"or"fine8tuned"?" """if"natural:"what"new"physics/symmetry"?" !  does"it"regularize"the"divergent"WLWL"cross8secEon" """"""at"high"M(WLWL)"?"Or"is"there"a"new"dynamics"?" !  elementary"or"composite"Higgs"?" !  is"it"alone"or"are"there"other"Higgs"bosons"?" !  origin"of"couplings"to"fermions""" !  coupling"to"dark"maKer"?"" !  does"it"violate"CP"?" !  cosmological"EW"phase"transiEon"" Neutrinos:" !  ν"masses"and"and"their"origin" !  what"is"the"role"of"H(125)"?""" !  Majorana"or"Dirac"?" !  CP"violaEon"" !  addiEonal"species"""sterile"ν"?" Dark"maKer:" !  composiEon:"WIMP,"sterile"neutrinos,"" """""axions,"other"hidden"sector"parEcles,".." !  one"type"or"more"?"" !  only"gravitaEonal"or"other"interacEons"?" The"two"epochs"of"Universe’s"accelerated"expansion:" !  primordial:"is"inflaEon"correct"?"" """""which"(scalar)"fields?"role"of"quantum"gravity?""" !  today:"dark"energy"(why"is"Λ"so"small?)"or" """""modificaEon"of"gravity"theory"?" Quarks"and"leptons:" !  why"3"families"?" !  masses"and"mixing" !  CP"violaEon"in"the"lepton"sector" !  maKer"and"anEmaKer"asymmetry" !  baryon"and"charged"lepton"" """""number"violaEon"" Physics"at"the"highest"E8scales:" !  how"is"gravity"connected"with"the"other"forces"?" !  do"forces"unify"at"high"energy"?" Outstanding**Ques-ons*in*Par-cle*Physics*circa%2014* …"there"has"never"been"a"beKer"Eme"to"be"a"parEcle"physicist!" List from Ian Shipsey Many of these crucial questions can be addressed at the Large Hadron Collider! Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201539
! ! ! ! ! ! Standard Model of Particle Physics 1" Higgs"boson"and"EWSB" !  Is"mH"natural"or"fine8tuned"?" """if"natural:"what"new"physics/symmetry"?" !  does"it"regularize"the"divergent"WLWL"cross8secEon" """"""at"high"M(WLWL)"?"Or"is"there"a"new"dynamics"?" !  elementary"or"composite"Higgs"?" !  is"it"alone"or"are"there"other"Higgs"bosons"?" !  origin"of"couplings"to"fermions""" !  coupling"to"dark"maKer"?"" !  does"it"violate"CP"?" !  cosmological"EW"phase"transiEon"" Neutrinos:" !  ν"masses"and"and"their"origin" !  what"is"the"role"of"H(125)"?""" !  Majorana"or"Dirac"?" !  CP"violaEon"" !  addiEonal"species"""sterile"ν"?" Dark"maKer:" !  composiEon:"WIMP,"sterile"neutrinos,"" """""axions,"other"hidden"sector"parEcles,".." !  one"type"or"more"?"" !  only"gravitaEonal"or"other"interacEons"?" The"two"epochs"of"Universe’s"accelerated"expansion:" !  primordial:"is"inflaEon"correct"?"" """""which"(scalar)"fields?"role"of"quantum"gravity?""" !  today:"dark"energy"(why"is"Λ"so"small?)"or" """""modificaEon"of"gravity"theory"?" Quarks"and"leptons:" !  why"3"families"?" !  masses"and"mixing" !  CP"violaEon"in"the"lepton"sector" !  maKer"and"anEmaKer"asymmetry" !  baryon"and"charged"lepton"" """""number"violaEon"" Physics"at"the"highest"E8scales:" !  how"is"gravity"connected"with"the"other"forces"?" !  do"forces"unify"at"high"energy"?" Outstanding**Ques-ons*in*Par-cle*Physics*circa%2014* …"there"has"never"been"a"beKer"Eme"to"be"a"parEcle"physicist!" List from Ian Shipsey For the next 20 years, LHC will be at the forefront of the exploration of the high-energy frontier Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201540
Precision measurements of Higgs properties Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The Higgs boson discovered by ATLAS and CMS has, within theory and experimental uncertainties, properties consistent with the SM boson! On the other hand, most scenarios of New Physics beyond the SM imply modifications to the Higgs properties, both in terms of couplings and of branching fractions ! Improving our calculations of Higgs production and decays is essential to fully exploit the physics potential of the LHC program for the next 20 years Expected precision for Higgs couplings ! measurements at the next LHC runsMeasurements of Higgs couplings from Run I! Normalised to the SM prediction Only experimental ! uncertainties theory+experimental ! uncertainties 41
Precision measurements of Higgs properties Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The Higgs boson discovered by ATLAS and CMS has, within theory and experimental uncertainties, properties consistent with the SM boson! On the other hand, most scenarios of New Physics beyond the SM imply modifications to the Higgs properties, both in terms of couplings and of branching fractions ! Improving our calculations of Higgs production and decays is essential to fully exploit the physics potential of the LHC program for the next 20 years Expected precision for Higgs couplings ! measurements at the next LHC runsMeasurements of Higgs couplings from Run I! Normalised to the SM prediction Only experimental ! uncertainties theory+experimental ! uncertainties Giulia Zanderighi’s talk 42
Dark Matter searches at the LHC Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Despite the great successes of the SM, recent astrophysical and cosmological data indicate that normal matter account for only 4% of the total energy budget of the universe! Most of the matter in the universe interacts only gravitationally, and not through electromagnetism (does not emit light), hence we can only ascertain its existence via indirect effects: Dark Matter! Many of the scenarios Beyond the SM provide neutral, stable particles: candidates for dark matter! The LHC has a unique potential for direct discovery of Dark Matter if some of these scenarios have been realised in Nature! For instance, Dark Matter should have a characteristic signature of SM particles with additional missing transverse energy in the detector! Extensive theoretical and experimental program ongoing to fully exploit the LHC potential, with active Oxford involvementDark Matter particles! Escape the detector,! signature: missing energy 43
Dark Matter searches at the LHC Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Despite the great successes of the SM, recent astrophysical and cosmological data indicate that normal matter account for only 4% of the total energy budget of the universe! Most of the matter in the universe interacts only gravitationally, and not through electromagnetism (does not emit light), hence we can only ascertain its existence via indirect effects: Dark Matter! Many of the scenarios Beyond the SM provide neutral, stable particles: candidates for dark matter! The LHC has a unique potential for direct discovery of Dark Matter if some of these scenarios have been realised in Nature! For instance, Dark Matter should have a characteristic signature of SM particles with additional missing transverse energy in the detector! Extensive theoretical and experimental program ongoing to fully exploit the LHC potential, with active Oxford involvementDark Matter particles! Escape the detector,! signature: missing energy Uli Haisch’s talk 44
Rediscovering the Standard Model at the LHC 45 Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The first major results from the LHC were the rediscovering of the Standard Model! Essential to verify the excellent performance of accelerator and detectors and to validate the theoretical calculations of SM processes at the highest energies ever explored! High precision SM measurements provide unique information to further sharpen our tools in searches like Higgs and Supersymmetry: improved structure of the proton, perturbative QCD dynamics, fundamental SM parameters. … Top quark pair production! compared to SM calculations J/Psi, Upsilon and Z production Quarks and Gluons seen ! from most the powerful ! microscope ever built The proton partonic ! content at the LHC
Higgs: from discovery to precision 46 Following the discovery, the LHC is now working in characterisation of properties of the new boson! Fundamental predictions that Higgs couples with strength proportional to mass verified, still with large uncertainties! The scalar nature of the boson has also been demonstrated: first fundamental (?) boson ever found in Nature! Higgs couplings proportional to Mass Spin 0 preferred over alternative hypothesis, like Spin 2
The Standard Model and the LHC in the Higgs Boson Era

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The Standard Model and the LHC in the Higgs Boson Era

  • 1. ! The Standard Model and the LHC! in the Higgs Boson Era Juan Rojo! ! Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics! Rudolf Peierls Center for Theoretical Physics! Oxford, 07/02/2015 1
  • 2. ! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model ! of Particle Physics 2
  • 3. ! ! ! ! ! ! Higgs Boson: most important discovery in particle physics in 25 years ! Completes the extremely successful Standard Model of particle physics ….! … but at the same time opens a number of crucial questions ! The LHC will play a central role in exploring the high-energy frontier in the next 20 years Particle Physics in the headlines 3
  • 4. ! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model: a history of success The Standard Model (SM) of particle physics explains a wide variety of microscopic phenomena in a unified framework: Quantum Field Theory! Matter content composed by six quarks and six leptons, organised in three families! Interactions between matter particles are governed by gauge bosons: photons (electromagnetism), W and Z bosons (weak force), and gluons (strong interaction)! The last ingredient is the Higgs Boson, provides mechanism by which particles acquire mass 4
  • 5. ! ! ! ! ! ! The Standard Model: a history of success Quantum Field Theory provides a consistent framework to describe all known particles and interactions (except Gravity) 5 The Standard Model (SM) of particle physics explains a wide variety of microscopic phenomena in a unified framework: Quantum Field Theory! Matter content composed by six quarks and six leptons, organised in three families! Interactions between matter particles are governed by gauge bosons: photons (electromagnetism), W and Z bosons (weak force), and gluons (strong interaction)! The last ingredient is the Higgs Boson, provides mechanism by which particles acquire mass
  • 6. ! ! ! ! ! ! The Dawn of the Standard Model 6 Status of high-energy physics in the early 60s: By early 30s, after discovery of electron, proton, neutron, and positron, we had a reasonable description of particle physics! The discovery of the muon (37) was completely unexpected: this new particle, a heavier electron, did not fit in!! To make things worse, a plethora of new strongly interacting particles (pions, kaons) with no role in Nature, was soon discovered! How to make sense of this chaos? Leptons: electromagnetic ! and weak interaction Hadrons: electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions Many conceptual questions unanswered:! How are atomic nuclei bound together?! What is the origin of the weak interaction?! Are hadrons fundamental particles or composite states?! What is the mathematical language to describe particle physics?
  • 7. Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) The interactions of electrically charged particles are governed by electromagnetism (EM)! Making sense of EM once quantum corrections are accounted for was a theoretical tour de force that ended in formulation of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)! Starting from simple rules (Feynman diagrams), compute terms at any order in the perturbative expansion in the QED coupling! Some of the most precise calculations ever done have been obtained in QED: for instance, the muon anomalous magnetic moment known better than one part in one billion! 7 QED Feynman rules Feynman diagrams for muon ! anomalous magnetic moment
  • 8. ! ! ! ! ! ! Quarks: the inner life of protons Scattering of α particles (He nuclei) off atoms lead in 1911 Rutherford to discovery of internal structure of atoms: a point-like nucleus and layers of electrons! 70 years later, the scattering of energetic electrons off protons lead to equally surprising result: the internal structure of protons, composed by point-like quarks Rutherford experiment:! Atoms have internal structure! Electron-proton collisions at Stanford Linear Accelerator:! Protons have internal structure! 8 Quarks
  • 9. ! ! ! ! ! ! Quarks: charming, beautiful and top The Constituent Quark Model allowed to describe all known hadrons as composite states of only three types of quarks: up, down and strange, with fractional electric charge! Considered as a mathematical trick to organise hadrons, real existence confirmed only after SLAC experiments! Much to everyone’s surprised, two new, heavier quarks were soon discovered: the charm quark (73) and the bottom quark (77). Much heavier top quark had to wait until 1995 to be discovered 9 Quark Constituent Model: ! Hadrons composed by quarks Discovery of charm quark Evidence of new particle with mass 3 GeV:! the J/Psi, charm/anti-charm pair
  • 10. ! ! ! ! ! ! Eight Gluons to Bind Them All Electromagnetism can be understood as a renormalizable Quantum Field Theory (QFT), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). Compute scattering amplitudes as perturbative expansion in small coupling! Hadrons interact strongly: QED model cannot be applied to nuclear strong force?! In fact, strong force is also a renormalizable QFT but with asymptotic freedom: it looks like QED, but only at very high energies! The mediator of the strong force is the gluon (analog of the photon), responsible for binding the quarks together in the proton 10 Discovery of the Gluon (77): Three-Jet events in electron-positron collisions Quark Quark Gluon Quark Gluon High Scales,! >> proton mass:! Small coupling Low scales,! <= proton mass! Strong coupling! non-perturbative Strength of QCD interaction Quark
  • 11. ! ! ! ! ! ! Weak vector bosons Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Fermi (30s) explained beta-decay of nuclei by a four-body interaction between neutrons, protons, electrons and neutrinos: the weak nuclear interaction! Weak interaction also similar to electromagnetism, but with massive vector bosons, the W and Z particles. Due to large masses (80 and 91 GeV) their interactions are point-like at low energies! Evidence for Neutral Currents (73) followed by the discovery of the W and Z bosons at the CERN (83) 11 Fermi picture of the weak interaction The weak interaction ! in the Standard Model Neutral currents in neutrino scattering:! indirect evidence for the Z boson Discovery of Neutral Currents Neutrino Hadrons
  • 12. The Higgs Mechanism 12 In the SM, symmetries do not allow mass terms in the Lagrangian! The Higgs mechanism bypasses this restriction: laws are still symmetric, but the specific configuration chosen by Nature (Higgs potential) is not: Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking ! Thanks to the Higgs mechanism, SM particles can acquire a mass! As a byproduct, the Higgs particle, excitation of the Higgs field can also be produced if energy high enough! Predicted more than 50 years ago, it was finally discovered in 2012 at LHC Higgs Potential
  • 13. ! ! ! ! ! ! Exploring the high-energy frontier:! The Large Hadron Collider 13
  • 14. Why high-energy colliders? Exploring the smallest possible lengths requires going to the high-energy frontier! Heisenberg uncertainty principle: if we want to resolve very small distances, we need use very energetic probes 14 In natural units, hbar=c=1, we can convert distances to energies:! ( 1 GeV )-1 = 0.2 fm = 0.2 10-15 m This conversion sets the energies needed to explore smaller and smaller objects: We need to reach energies of TeraElectronvolts to keep exploring the smallest distances E > 0.05 MeV E > 200 MeV E > 2 GeV E > 2 TeV E > 2 TeV mproton = 1 GeV! melectron = 0.5 MeV
  • 15. High energy colliders: tools for discovery Since the first ever particle accelerator, Lawrence’s Cyclotron, bigger and more powerful colliders have been built to explore Nature at the highest energies 15 Lawrence’s Cyclotron! Length: 1.5 m! Energy: 500 MeV TeVatron (Chicago)! proton-proton collider! Length: 6.3 km! Energy: 1.96 TeV SLAC (Stanford)! linear electron collider! Length: 3 km! Energy: 90 GeV HERA (Hamburg)! electron-proton collider! Length: 6 km! Energy: 310 GeV PETRA (Hamburg)! electron-positron collider! Length: 2 m! Energy: 40 GeV
  • 16. The Large Hadron Collider LHC tunnel length = 27 km Geneva Airport CERN 16 The LHC is the most powerful particle accelerator ever build by mankind! Hosted by CERN, the LHC is composed by a massive 27 km long tunnel with four gigantic detectors: ATLAS, CMS, LHCb and ALICE! At the LHC protons collide at the highest energies ever achieved: unique probe of the fundamental laws of Nature Jura Alps
  • 17. The LHC Detectors Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201517 Where proton beams cross and collisions take place, huge detectors measure the products of the collision in an attempt to understand the laws of Nature at the smallest distances ATLAS CMS LHCb ALICE
  • 18. The LHC Detectors Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201518 Where proton beams cross and collisions take place, huge detectors measure the products of the collision in an attempt to reconstruct the laws of Nature at the smallest distances ATLAS CMS LHCb ALICE Oxford plays a central role in building and operating the LHC detectors
  • 19. 19 Juan Rojo PDF@CMS Kick-off Workshop, CERN, 07/05/2012
  • 20. Remarkable facts about the LHC 20 Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The data volume recorded is 1 TeraByte/ second: 10,000 sets of the Encyclopedia Britannica each second!! Gigantic technological challenge to efficiently reach for the relevant events One of coldest places in the Universe: the LHC magnets are kept at only 1.9 deg above absolute zero, colder than interstellar space! The emptiest place in the Solar System: vacuum in the beam pipe similar to interplanetary space One of hottest places in the Galaxy: collisions generate a temperature billions of times larger than the Sun, reproducing conditions of early universe
  • 21. Rediscovering the Standard Model at the LHC 21 First major results from the LHC were the rediscovery of the Standard Model! Essential to verify performance of accelerator and detectors and to validate theoretical calculations of SM processes at the highest energies ! High precision SM measurements provide unique information to further sharpen our tools in searches like Higgs and New Physics Beyond the SM Dilepton Invariant Mass Rediscovering the J/Psi particle (charm), the Upsilon (bottom) and the Z boson
  • 22. The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks Higgs Background 22 In July 2012, ATLAS and CMS announced the long-awaited discovery of the Higgs boson! Very challenging measurement, requires separating small signal from large background
  • 23. The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks 23 Higgs Decays into Two Photons Higgs Decays into Four Leptons Mass of Photon Pair Invariant Mass of Four Leptons Peak at mH = 125 GeV! Evidence for Higgs Boson!
  • 24. The Higgs discovered - 4th of July Fireworks 24 Higgs Decays into Two Photons Higgs Decays into Four Leptons Mass of Photon Pair Invariant Mass of Four Leptons
  • 25. Beyond the SM: searching for the unknown 25 Despite the Higgs discovery, crucial questions are left open: stability of Higgs mass, nature of Dark Matter, the possible unification of forces, the role of gravity, origin of matter-anti-matter asymmetry! Motivation to develop theories beyond the Standard Model (BSM) to improve on its limitations, theories that can be scrutinised at the LHC! e.g. Supersymmetry: each SM particle has a superpartner with spin differing by 1/2. SUSY predicts unification of all forces (but gravity) at very high scales No hints of BSM physics at the LHC yet, though the upcoming Run II with increased energy opens a completely new region of the parameter space! New discoveries could be around the corner!
  • 27. Explorers of the high-energy frontier The LHC will lead exploration of the high-energy frontier for the next 20 years. ! Sharpening our theory predictions of the Standard Model, and a close interplay between theory and experiment, will be crucial ingredient to maximise the LHC potential! Two central ingredients of this LHC program will be:! Precision measurements of Higgs properties ! Direct searches for Dark Matter 27 LHC Schedule until 2035 We are here! Giulia Zanderighi’s talk Uli Haisch’s talk
  • 28. The LHC: A Luminous Future Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 By 2022, a High-Luminosity upgrade of the LHC is scheduled: much higher number of proton collisions with better chances of interesting events! These extreme conditions will require to completely upgrade the LHC detectors 28 Oxford is playing a central role in this upgrade with the ATLAS Silicon Tracker A simulated High-Luminosity LHC collision
  • 29. 29 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Going Beyond: a Future Circular Collider? Juan Rojo SMatLHC14, Madrid, 09/04/2014 ! ! Planning of new facilities in High-Energy Physics, at cutting edge of technology, require long timescales ! The next machine could be a 100 TeV hadron collider, with also electron-positron and electron-proton modes! Sites in CERN and China proposed, technical feasibility and physics motivation now being assessed! Other proposed colliders are linear colliders, cleaner than hadron machines but with reduced reach in energy! ! ! ! ! !LHC FCC CLIC CLIC: Compact Linear Collider
  • 30. 30 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fascinating times ahead at the high-energy frontier! Stay tuned for news from the LHC!
  • 31. 31 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fascinating times ahead at the high-energy frontier! Stay tuned for news from the LHC! Thanks for your attention!
  • 32. ! ! ! ! ! ! Extra Material Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201532
  • 33. 33
  • 34. 34
  • 35. 35
  • 36. 36
  • 37. 37
  • 38. 38
  • 39. ! ! ! ! ! ! Standard Model of Particle Physics 1" Higgs"boson"and"EWSB" !  Is"mH"natural"or"fine8tuned"?" """if"natural:"what"new"physics/symmetry"?" !  does"it"regularize"the"divergent"WLWL"cross8secEon" """"""at"high"M(WLWL)"?"Or"is"there"a"new"dynamics"?" !  elementary"or"composite"Higgs"?" !  is"it"alone"or"are"there"other"Higgs"bosons"?" !  origin"of"couplings"to"fermions""" !  coupling"to"dark"maKer"?"" !  does"it"violate"CP"?" !  cosmological"EW"phase"transiEon"" Neutrinos:" !  ν"masses"and"and"their"origin" !  what"is"the"role"of"H(125)"?""" !  Majorana"or"Dirac"?" !  CP"violaEon"" !  addiEonal"species"""sterile"ν"?" Dark"maKer:" !  composiEon:"WIMP,"sterile"neutrinos,"" """""axions,"other"hidden"sector"parEcles,".." !  one"type"or"more"?"" !  only"gravitaEonal"or"other"interacEons"?" The"two"epochs"of"Universe’s"accelerated"expansion:" !  primordial:"is"inflaEon"correct"?"" """""which"(scalar)"fields?"role"of"quantum"gravity?""" !  today:"dark"energy"(why"is"Λ"so"small?)"or" """""modificaEon"of"gravity"theory"?" Quarks"and"leptons:" !  why"3"families"?" !  masses"and"mixing" !  CP"violaEon"in"the"lepton"sector" !  maKer"and"anEmaKer"asymmetry" !  baryon"and"charged"lepton"" """""number"violaEon"" Physics"at"the"highest"E8scales:" !  how"is"gravity"connected"with"the"other"forces"?" !  do"forces"unify"at"high"energy"?" Outstanding**Ques-ons*in*Par-cle*Physics*circa%2014* …"there"has"never"been"a"beKer"Eme"to"be"a"parEcle"physicist!" List from Ian Shipsey Many of these crucial questions can be addressed at the Large Hadron Collider! Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201539
  • 40. ! ! ! ! ! ! Standard Model of Particle Physics 1" Higgs"boson"and"EWSB" !  Is"mH"natural"or"fine8tuned"?" """if"natural:"what"new"physics/symmetry"?" !  does"it"regularize"the"divergent"WLWL"cross8secEon" """"""at"high"M(WLWL)"?"Or"is"there"a"new"dynamics"?" !  elementary"or"composite"Higgs"?" !  is"it"alone"or"are"there"other"Higgs"bosons"?" !  origin"of"couplings"to"fermions""" !  coupling"to"dark"maKer"?"" !  does"it"violate"CP"?" !  cosmological"EW"phase"transiEon"" Neutrinos:" !  ν"masses"and"and"their"origin" !  what"is"the"role"of"H(125)"?""" !  Majorana"or"Dirac"?" !  CP"violaEon"" !  addiEonal"species"""sterile"ν"?" Dark"maKer:" !  composiEon:"WIMP,"sterile"neutrinos,"" """""axions,"other"hidden"sector"parEcles,".." !  one"type"or"more"?"" !  only"gravitaEonal"or"other"interacEons"?" The"two"epochs"of"Universe’s"accelerated"expansion:" !  primordial:"is"inflaEon"correct"?"" """""which"(scalar)"fields?"role"of"quantum"gravity?""" !  today:"dark"energy"(why"is"Λ"so"small?)"or" """""modificaEon"of"gravity"theory"?" Quarks"and"leptons:" !  why"3"families"?" !  masses"and"mixing" !  CP"violaEon"in"the"lepton"sector" !  maKer"and"anEmaKer"asymmetry" !  baryon"and"charged"lepton"" """""number"violaEon"" Physics"at"the"highest"E8scales:" !  how"is"gravity"connected"with"the"other"forces"?" !  do"forces"unify"at"high"energy"?" Outstanding**Ques-ons*in*Par-cle*Physics*circa%2014* …"there"has"never"been"a"beKer"Eme"to"be"a"parEcle"physicist!" List from Ian Shipsey For the next 20 years, LHC will be at the forefront of the exploration of the high-energy frontier Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/201540
  • 41. Precision measurements of Higgs properties Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The Higgs boson discovered by ATLAS and CMS has, within theory and experimental uncertainties, properties consistent with the SM boson! On the other hand, most scenarios of New Physics beyond the SM imply modifications to the Higgs properties, both in terms of couplings and of branching fractions ! Improving our calculations of Higgs production and decays is essential to fully exploit the physics potential of the LHC program for the next 20 years Expected precision for Higgs couplings ! measurements at the next LHC runsMeasurements of Higgs couplings from Run I! Normalised to the SM prediction Only experimental ! uncertainties theory+experimental ! uncertainties 41
  • 42. Precision measurements of Higgs properties Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The Higgs boson discovered by ATLAS and CMS has, within theory and experimental uncertainties, properties consistent with the SM boson! On the other hand, most scenarios of New Physics beyond the SM imply modifications to the Higgs properties, both in terms of couplings and of branching fractions ! Improving our calculations of Higgs production and decays is essential to fully exploit the physics potential of the LHC program for the next 20 years Expected precision for Higgs couplings ! measurements at the next LHC runsMeasurements of Higgs couplings from Run I! Normalised to the SM prediction Only experimental ! uncertainties theory+experimental ! uncertainties Giulia Zanderighi’s talk 42
  • 43. Dark Matter searches at the LHC Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Despite the great successes of the SM, recent astrophysical and cosmological data indicate that normal matter account for only 4% of the total energy budget of the universe! Most of the matter in the universe interacts only gravitationally, and not through electromagnetism (does not emit light), hence we can only ascertain its existence via indirect effects: Dark Matter! Many of the scenarios Beyond the SM provide neutral, stable particles: candidates for dark matter! The LHC has a unique potential for direct discovery of Dark Matter if some of these scenarios have been realised in Nature! For instance, Dark Matter should have a characteristic signature of SM particles with additional missing transverse energy in the detector! Extensive theoretical and experimental program ongoing to fully exploit the LHC potential, with active Oxford involvementDark Matter particles! Escape the detector,! signature: missing energy 43
  • 44. Dark Matter searches at the LHC Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 Despite the great successes of the SM, recent astrophysical and cosmological data indicate that normal matter account for only 4% of the total energy budget of the universe! Most of the matter in the universe interacts only gravitationally, and not through electromagnetism (does not emit light), hence we can only ascertain its existence via indirect effects: Dark Matter! Many of the scenarios Beyond the SM provide neutral, stable particles: candidates for dark matter! The LHC has a unique potential for direct discovery of Dark Matter if some of these scenarios have been realised in Nature! For instance, Dark Matter should have a characteristic signature of SM particles with additional missing transverse energy in the detector! Extensive theoretical and experimental program ongoing to fully exploit the LHC potential, with active Oxford involvementDark Matter particles! Escape the detector,! signature: missing energy Uli Haisch’s talk 44
  • 45. Rediscovering the Standard Model at the LHC 45 Juan Rojo Saturday Mornings of Theoretical Physics, Oxford, 07/02/2015 The first major results from the LHC were the rediscovering of the Standard Model! Essential to verify the excellent performance of accelerator and detectors and to validate the theoretical calculations of SM processes at the highest energies ever explored! High precision SM measurements provide unique information to further sharpen our tools in searches like Higgs and Supersymmetry: improved structure of the proton, perturbative QCD dynamics, fundamental SM parameters. … Top quark pair production! compared to SM calculations J/Psi, Upsilon and Z production Quarks and Gluons seen ! from most the powerful ! microscope ever built The proton partonic ! content at the LHC
  • 46. Higgs: from discovery to precision 46 Following the discovery, the LHC is now working in characterisation of properties of the new boson! Fundamental predictions that Higgs couples with strength proportional to mass verified, still with large uncertainties! The scalar nature of the boson has also been demonstrated: first fundamental (?) boson ever found in Nature! Higgs couplings proportional to Mass Spin 0 preferred over alternative hypothesis, like Spin 2