Unit-II Cultivation and Collection fINAL -

Unit-II Cultivation and Collection fINAL -

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  Cultivation, Collection and Processingof drugs of natural origin Dr.J.S.Suryawanshi, M.Pharm (Pharmacognosy),Ph.D N.N.Sattha college of Pharmacy, A’nagar
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  • Cultivation ofmedicinal plants Factors affecting Maintaining quality/purity cultivation • Collection of Desired medicinal plant part • Post Harvesting Care (Drying, Garlbing, Storage Preservation)
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  Cultivation • Production orgrowing of crop or medicinal plant under suitable growing conditions in prepared land. • Growing plants in desired conditions and environment with controlled things. • Having more advantages over Wild collection
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  Advantages of cultivation •Ensures quality and purity of raw materials • Regular supply to Herbal drug industry • Better yield and therapeutic quality • Can know the collection time and season • Skilled persons can be used for collection • Disease free plants • Applications of modern technologies like polyploidy, mutation and hybridization. • Industrialization
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  Wild collection • Noassurance about the age of plant • No idea about quality of raw material • Difficulties in collection
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  Factors Affecting Cultivationof medicinal plants
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  • Cultivation ofmedicinal plants offers wide range of advantages over the plants obtained from wild sources. • There are few factors to concern which have a real effect on plant growth and development, nature and quantity of secondary metabolites. • The effects of these factors have been studied by growing particular plants in different environmental conditions and observing variations. • For example, a plant which grows in a particular environment is subjected to grow in other different environment, when analysed that plant showed low proportion of metabolites (chemical constituents) and the less vegetative growth or yield. • Nutrients present in soil have the ability to enhance the production of secondary metabolites, at the same time they may reduce the metabolites as well. •
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  Exogenous factors • Temperature •Altitude • Rainfall • Length of day • Day light • Humidity • Pest & Diseases • Pest management Edaphic factors • Soil types • Soil fertility • Soil air • Soil m.o. Endogenous factors/ Genetic factors • Plant growth regulators (PGR) • Auxins, cytokinins, Gibberillines, Ethylene, ABA Factors Affecting Cultivation of medicinal plants
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  1.Exogenous factors • Temperature: •Temperature is a crucial factor controlling the growth, metabolism and thereby the yield of secondary metabolites of plants. • Each species have become adapted to its own natural environment, they are able to exist in a considerable range of temperature. • Every plant requires a particular range of temp. for the optimum growth and production of secondary metabolites. • The sudden decrease in temperature caused the formation of the ice crystals in intercellular spaces of the plant. As a result, water comes out of the cells and ultimately plants die due to drought and desiccation. • The ice crystals also cause mechanical injury to the cells. • Temp. stimulates the growth of seedlings. • Water absorption decreases at low temperatures. • The rate of photosynthesis is affected by change in temperature. • The rate of respiration increases with increase in temperature. • Examples; Cinchona- 58-73°F; Tea- 75-90°F and coffee- 55-70°F
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  Optimum Temperature forDrug Cultivation
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  • Altitude: • Everyplant grows in its particular altitude. • The altitude is the most important factor influencing the vegetative growth and secondary metabolites. • With the increase in altitude the temperature and atmospheric pressure decreases while the wind velocity, relative humidity and light intensity increases. • Thus, as the climatic conditions change with height, they also produce change in the vegetation pattern. • The bitter constituents of Gentiana lutea increase with altitude, whereas the alkaloids of Aconitum nacelles and lobelia inflate and oil content of Thyme and Peppermint decrease. • Pyrethrum gives the best yield and Pyrethrum at high altitude.
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  • Examples: • Tea-950-1500 meters • cinnamon- 300-1000 meters • saffron- up to 1250 meters
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  • Rainfall: • Therainfalls are most important factor influencing of cultivation of medicinal plants. • Except the xerophytes most of other plants need water and proper irrigation and sufficient rain fall for their development. • The main source of water for the soil is rain water. • For the proper development of plant, rainfall is required in proper measurements. • The effects of rainfall on plants must be considered in relation to the annual rainfall throughout the year with the water holding properties of the soil. • Excessive rainfall could cause a reduction in the secondary metabolites due to leaching of water soluble substances from the plants. • Rainfall and snowfall have a large effect on the climate condition. • The minerals in the soil get dissolved in water and are then absorbed by plants. • Water influences morphological and physiology of plant.
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  • Examples: • continuousrain can lead to a loss of water- soluble substance from leaves and root by leaching; this is known to apply to some plants producing glycoside and alkaloids.
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  • Light: • Lightis the only external source of energy for the continuation of life of the plant. • It influences photosynthesis, opening and closing of stomata, plant movements, seed germination, flowering and vegetative growth like tuber formation. • Certain plants require dry sunny days to produce the secondary metabolites and change in the atmosphere may cause the damage. • Dry sunny weather increases the proportion of glycosides in Digitalis and of alkaloids in Belladonna.
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  • Humidity :- •It is present in the form of water vapours. This is called atmospheric humidity. Clouds and fog are the visible forms of humidity. The major sources of water vapours in the atmosphere are evaporation of water from earth surface. • The major effect of humidity on plant life that it affects structure, form and transpiration in plants. • It invites the disease and pests to attack on the plants and can cause the damage.
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  • Day Lengthand Day Light • It has been proved that even the length of the day has an effect over the metabolites production. • The plants that are kept in long day conditions may contain more or less amount of constituents when compared to the plants kept in short day. • For example Pippermint has produced Menthone, Menthol and traces of Menthofuran in long day conditions and only menthofuran in short day condition. • The developments of plants vary much in both the amount and intensity of the light they require. • The day light was found to increase the amount of alkaloids in belladonna, stramonium, cinchona, etc. • Even the type of radiation too has an effect over the development and metabolites of plants.
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  • Pests andPests Control • Pests are undesired plant or animal species that causes a great damage to the plants. There are different types of pests; they are • Microbes • Fungi, • Insects, • Non insect pests • Weeds.
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  • Microbes • Examples-Aspergillus niger, Alternaria tennis, Botrytis cinerea, Cladosporium herbarum, Rhizopus arrhizus, Penicillium sp., and others. • Fungi • Armil-laria mellea -Armillaria Root Rot • Uncinula necato - Powdery mildew • Insects • Spider Mites, Nematodes, Mites , Scale Aphids , Moths • Others – including mealybug, fruit fly, weevil, locust
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  • Other vertebrateinsects – Monkeys, rats, birds, squirrels Weed:- Bermudagrass , Dallisgrass, Parthenium grass, pigweeds , Amaranthus spp. , pineapple- weed, Chamomilla grass. etc.
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  Pest control
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  2. Edaphic factors •Soil is defined as surface layer of the earth, formed by weathering of rocks. • Soil is natural medium of plant growth. • The soil should contain appropriate amounts of nutrients, organic matter and other elements to ensure optimal medicinal plant growth and quality. • Soil provides mechanical support, water and essential foods for the development of plants. Soil consists of air, water, mineral matters and organic matters.
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  • Variations inparticle size result in different soils ranging from clay, sand and gravel. • Particle size influences the water holding capacity of soil. The type and amount of minerals plays a vital role in plant cultivation. • Calcium favours the growth of certain plants whereas with some plants it does not produce any effects. • The plants are able to determine their own soil pH range for their growth. • Nitrogen containing soil has a great momentum in raising the production of alkaloids in some plants.
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  • The soilmade of five components: • (i) Mineral matter. • (ii) Soil air. • (iii) Soil water. • (iv) Organic matter or humus. • (v) Soil organisms
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  Depending upon thesize of the mineral matter, the following names are given to the soil
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  Type of soilon the basis of particle size.
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  Types of Soil •Clay soil: • Clay soil is soil that is comprised of very fine mineral particles and not much organic material. The resulting soil is quite sticky since there is not much space between the mineral particles, and it does not drain well at all. • These fit together very closely and therefore, leave very less pore space. • These spaces get filled up with water very easily. Hence, the clay soil becomes quickly waterlogged. • Such soil have practically no air, therefore, the plants growing in these soil are not able to absorb water. • This soil known as physiologically dry soil. clay soil is plastic and forms a colloid when moist. It cracks and shrinks when conditions are dry.
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  • Sandy soil: •Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tend to be acidic and low in nutrients. • Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to their high proportion of sand and little clay. These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to work with. • Sand particles are large sized. These leave large pore spaces and therefore, water is not retained by them. • Most of the water is quickly drained off and reaches deep into the soil. As a result, roots spread and also reach a great depth. • The sandy soil is poor in nutrient elements; it is less fertile and plants growing in this soil have less dry weight.
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  • Loam soil: •The mixture of clay, silt and sand is known as loam. Loam is very useful for growth. It is fertile soil because it contains available nutrient elements in sufficient amounts. • It has a high water retention capacity and appropriate amount of soil air is also present. • The plants growing in loam are vigorous and have very high weight.
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  • Silt soil •Silt loam is considered to be the most fertile as it contains more amount of organic substances than others. • Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. • It is the smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake and other water bodies. • The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.
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  Silt soil Loam soil Sandysoil
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  • Soil Fertility •It is the capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in balanced proportion to plants. • If cropping is done without fortification of soil with plant nutrients, soil fertility gets lost. • It is also diminished through leaching and erosion. Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of animal manures, nitrogen-fixing bacteria or by application of chemical fertilizers.
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  3.Endogenous/Genetic factors
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  Plant Growth Regulators •For proper growth and development for plants, certain other chemical substances which are synthesized by the plant are required, such substances regulate growth of the plant, called Plant Growth Regulators. • They are transported from the region of their synthesis to growing region where they produce their effects on the process of growth and development, it is the function as like a hormone. • These sub. Are widely distributed in plants are very specific in their action in very low conc.
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  • These substancesare responsible for promotion as well as inhibition of growth in plants. • They regulate the growth by…. • Cell enlargement • Cell division • Cell differentiation • Organogenesis • Root growth, leaf growth • Senescence and dormancy
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  • These substancesare naturally present in plants as well as can be synthesized outside. • Synthetic PGR can be utilized for the improvement of yield of crude drugs as well as to increase the amount of active chemical constituents (secondary metabolites).
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  • Plant growthpromoters • PGR ( Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberilins) • Plant growth inhibitors • (Ethylene gas, Abscisic acid)
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  1.Auxins • Derived fromthe Greek word "auxein" means- "to grow/increase". • Auxins may be defined as growth promoting substances which promote growth along the vertical axis when applied in low concentration to the shoot of the plant. • Dutch workers isolated two growth regulating acids Auxin-a and Auxin-b form human urine and cereal products. • They noted that these have similar physical and chemical properties that of Indole-3-Acetic acid (IAA).
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  Indole-3-Acetic acid (IAA). •Thiscompound is considered as Auxin. • Auxin is a generic term used for a group of compounds characterized by their capacity to elongate the shoot cells. •Auxins are synthetic as well as natural.
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  Occurrence and Distributionof Auxins • Occurs universally in all plants. Where there is active growth there is auxin production. • Growing meristem and enlarging organs produces auxin. • Shoot apex produces much auxin than root apex. Apical bud synthesizes more auxin than lateral buds. • Developing seeds contain more auxin than matured seeds. • Apical bud synthesizes six times more auxin than expanding leaves.
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  Synthetic Auxins • IPA(Indole Propionic Acid) • IBA (Indole Butyric Acid) • NAA (Napthalene Acetic Acid) • 2,4-D (2,4 – Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) • 2,4,5-T (2,4,5 – Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid)
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  Functions of Auxin •Cell Elongation and Cell Division Causes growth in coleoptiles and stem due to elongation of already existing cells. • Auxin also induces / promotes cell division within the cambial region. • Apical Dominance Apical or terminal buds of many vascular plants are very active while the lateral buds remain inactive. Removal of apical buds promotes lateral buds to grow. Apical dominance is due to much higher auxin content in the apical buds than lateral buds
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  • Geotropism •Movement of a plant’s organ in response to gravity is known as geotropism/ gravitropism. Stem and roots accumulate IAA on the lower side in response to gravity. Increased auxin concentration on the lower side in stems causes those cells to grow more than cells on the upper side. – stem bends up against the force of gravity
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  • Root initiation• Application of IAA to cut end of a stem promotes root formation. Control or Prevention of Abscission • Abscission does not occur when auxin content is high on distal end and low in the proximal end of abscission zone. • Parthenocarpy - Auxin induces Parthenocarpy. (development of fruit with out fertilization or seed. • Callus Formation Undifferentiated mass of parenchymatous tissue is known as callus. Application of IAA causes cells to elongate & adventitious root.
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  Use of Auxinsin Agriculture Rooting of Cuttings Application of NAA (in Mango) and IBA (in Guava) in stem cutting causes 100% success in vegetative propagation. Seedless Fruit Production (Parthenocarpy) In case of Banana, Grapes, Strawberry, Brinjal, Grapes – Application of IAA, IBA, and NAA show 100% success. Weedicide - 2, 4-D, MCPA (Methyl Chloro-Phenoxy Acetic Acid) are weed killer. • 2,4-D is highly toxic to broad leaved plants or dicotyledons. Tissue Culture - Auxin along with cytokinin shows successful callus formation, root-shoot differentiation etc.
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  Role of Auxinin Phytochemicals • Seedlings of Mentha pipperata when treated with NAA gave 40% increased yield of vol.oil with 5-9 % Menthol. • IAA,2,4-D ,NAA in the tissue culture of Ergot has led to increased Indole alkaloids.
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  2. Gibberilines • Discoveredby Kurosawa, a Japanese Plant Pathologist in 1928. • Rice plants infected by the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi showed excessive stem elongation. Symptom is called ‘Bakane’ diseases. • Kurosawa applied the extract of fungus to healthy rice plants and observed the same elongation of stem. • A Chemical was extracted & purified and named as Gibberellic Acid (GA). • • The most commonly occurring Gibberellins is GA3.
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  • In 1956,Gibberillinswere isolated from higher plants (Endosperm of wild Cucumber) for the first time. • In 1958, Macmillan and Suiter isolated crystalline GA from Phaseolus multiflorus. • Now 80 different Gibberellins are available- GA1 to GA80 is available.
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  Functions of GA •Gibberellic Acid are produced in the leaves, seeds and immature fruits and shoot apex primarily in the leaf primordial (leaf bud) and root system. • Stimulates cell division, cell elongation (or both) and controls enzyme secretions. • Ex: dwarf cultivars can be treated with GA and grow to normal heights – indicates dwarf species lack normal levels of GA • Involved in breaking dormancy in seeds and buds. • GA translocates easily in the plant (able to move freely) in both directions – because produced in not only shoot apex but also in the root structure. • Stimulates Stem growth dramatically, Fruit growth ,Root growth • Stimulation of seed germination by stimulating the activity of Gluconeogenic enzymes during early stages of seed germination. • (Rapid conversion of lipid to sucrose)
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  • The stemstarts to grow when it is applied in low concentration to a bush. • The internodes grow so long that the plants become indistinguishable from climbing. • The Gibberellins overcome the genetic limitations in different dwarf varieties. Used commercially in: • Increasing fruit size of seedless grapes. • Stimulating seed germination & seedling growth
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  Applications in Phytochemicals 1.Vol.oiland Terpenoid- • Increased vol.oil content in Chenopodium & Anethum spp. • Morphological changes in genera Citrus, Eucalyptus and Foeneculum. • 2.Alkaloids- • Morphological changes seen in Datura,Atropa but reduced Alkaloidal content. • 3.Glycosides- • Increased yield of Digitalis glycosides with root and leaf culture of Digitalis.
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  3. Cytokinins (Cytokinesis) •Auxin and Gibberellins increase growth mainly by increasing cell elongation. Growth involves another important process namely Cell division. • Miller (1954) discovered that autoclaved DNA from Herring sperm stimulated cell division ,that compound was Kinetin and was identified as 6-Furfuryl amino purine. • In 1964 Zeatin was isolated from liquid endosperm of coconut and maize embryo. • Developing embryo shows active cell division. Liquid endosperm of coconut called Coconut Water / Milk contain cell division causing factors (Kinetine).
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  • As rootsbegin to grow actively in the spring, they produce large amounts of cytokinins that are transported to the shoot, where they cause the dormant buds to become active and expand. • Tissue cultures use cytokinins to induce shoot development • Cytokinins may slow or prevent leaf senescence (leaf ageing or leaf fall).
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  4. ETHYLENE (CH2=CH2) •Ethylene promotes ripening . • Gaseous hormone Produced in the actively growing meristems of the plant, in senescing ripening or ageing fruits, in senescing (ageing or dying) flowers, in germinating seeds and in certain plant tissues as a response to bending, wounding or bruising. • Ethylene as a gas, diffuses readily throughout the plant. • May promote leaf senescing and abscission (leaf fall). • Degreening of oranges, lemons and grapefruit – ethylene gas breaks down chlorophyll and lets colors show through.
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  5. ABSCISSIC ACID(ABA) • Induce stomata closing. • Inhibition of bud growth and shoot formation. • Widespread in plant body – moves readily through plant • ABA appears to be synthesized (made) by the leaves. • Interacts with other hormones in the plant, counteracting the growth – promoting the effects of auxins & gibberellins.
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  • Involved withleaf and fruit abscission (fall), onset of dormancy in seeds and onset of dormancy (rest period) in perennial flowers and shrubs. • ABA is effective in inducing closure of stomata in leaves, indicating a role in the stress physiology in plants. (ex: increases in ABA following water, heat and high salinity stress to the plant)
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  Post-harvest Care The enzymaticprocesses continue after collection until they are deactivated by drying or other suitable treatment as the collected material is still live and carries out metabolic processes and respires. Post Harvest Care -Drying- Suitable method of Drying to be selected Packaging- Proper packing for particular drug Storage – Proper storage premises and conditions needed
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  Drying • Drying consistsof removal of sufficient moisture content of crude drug, so as to improve its quality and make it resistant to the growth of microorganisms. • Drying inhibits partially enzymatic reactions. Drying also facilitates pulverizing or grinding of a crude drug.
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  Garbling/Grading • Grading ofcrude drugs according to quality.
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  STORAGE OF CRUDEDRUGS • Preservation of crude drugs needs sound knowledge of their physical and chemical properties. • A good quality of the drugs can be maintained,if they are preserved properly. • All the drugs should be preserved in well closed and, possibly in the filled containers. They should be stored in the premises which are water-proof, fire proof and rodent proof.
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  PACKING OF CRUDEDRUGS • The morphological and chemical nature of drug, its ultimate use and effects of climatic conditions during transportation and storage should be taken into consideration while packing the drugs. • Aloe is packed in goat skin. Colophony and balsam of tolu are packed in kerosene tins, while asafoetida is stored in well closed containers to prevent loss of volatile oil. • Cod liver oil, being sensitive to sunlight, should be stored in such containers, which will not have effect of sunlight, whereas, the leaf drugs like senna, vinca and others are pressed and baled.