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Unit-I (C).ppt
- 2. Developmental Psychology • It gives an idea on how we change over time? • Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span • Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective – biological development – social development – cognitive/perceptual development – personality development
- 3. Fundamental Issues: Is Development Continuous? • Development means change; change can be abrupt or gradual • Two views of human development – stage theories: there are distinct phases to intellectual and personality development – continuity: development is continuous
- 4. Physical and Psychological Development Related • Physical development begins at conception • Physical maturity sets limits on psychological ability – visual system not fully functional at birth – language system not functional until much later • Prenatal environment can have lifetime influence on health and intellectual ability
- 5. Prenatal Development • Conception—when a sperm penetrates the ovum • Zygote—a fertilized egg • Germinal period—first two weeks after conception • Embryonic period—weeks three through eight after conception • Fetal period—two months after conception until birth
- 9. 20 weeks (5 months)
- 11. 28 weeks (7 months)
- 13. Prenatal Influences on Development • Nutrition • Anxiety • Mother’s general health • Maternal age • Teratogens—any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses) • Disease
- 14. Infant Abilities • Infants are born with immature visual system – can detect movement and large objects • Other senses function well on day 1 – will orient to sounds – turn away from unpleasant odors – prefer sweet to sour tastes • Born with a number of reflex behaviors
- 15. Infant Reflexes • Rooting—turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek
- 16. • Sucking—sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation
- 17. • Grasping—curling the fingers around an object
- 18. Social and Personality Development • Temperament--inborn predisposition to consistently behave and react in a certain way • Attachment-- emotional bond between infant and caregiver
- 19. Temperament Chess S., Thomas, A. (1987) • Easy—adaptable, positive mood, regular habits • Slow to warm up—low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations • Difficult—intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently • Average—unable to classify (1/3 of all children) • Goodness of fit
- 20. Quality of Attachment • Parents who are consistently warm, responsive, and sensitive to the infant’s needs usually have infants who are securely attached • Parents who are neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to infant’s needs usually have infants who are insecurely attached
- 21. Harlow’s Monkeys • Social Isolation leads to serious problems • Normal development requires affectionate contact • Lack of social contact, rather than lack of parent causes the problem • Lesser periods of isolation may be overcome, longer periods cause irreparable damage
- 22. Ainsworth’s (attachment theory) Strange Situation • Used to study quality of attachment in infants • Observe child’s reaction when mother is present with the child in a “strange” room • Observe the child’s reaction when mother leaves • Observes the child’s reaction when mother returns
- 24. Language Development • Infant preference for human speech over other sounds – before 6 months can hear differences used in all languages – after 6 months begin to hear only differences used in native language • Cooing—vowel sounds produced 2–4 months • Babbling—consonant/vowel sounds between 4 to 6 months • Even deaf infants coo and babble
- 25. Language Development MONTH Speech Characteristic 2 Cooing vowel sounds 4 Babbling consonant/vowel 10 Babbling native language sounds 12 One-word stage 24 Two-word stage 24+ Sentences
- 26. Early Childhood • Age: 3-6 years old • Conflict: – Toddler 1 to 3 years - Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – Preschool 3 to 6 years – Initiative vs. guilt • Physical development – growth slower than in infancy. Muscle coordination allows the child to run, climb, move freely. Can write, draw, use a fork and knife • Mental development – verbal growth progresses, short attention span, at end of stage ask questions, recognize letters, and some words
- 27. Early Childhood • Emotional development – develop self- awareness and recognize the effect they have on other people and things. Children feel impatience and frustration as they try to do things beyond their abilities. This lead to temper tantrums (the terrible two’s) • Social development – at beginning of stage very self-centered one year old to sociable six year old. Strong attachment to parents. Needs are food, shelter, protection, love and security.
- 28. Late Childhood • Age: 6-12 years old • Conflict – Industry vs. inferiority • Physical development– slow but steady. Muscle coordination is well developed and children can engage in physical activity that require complex motor-sensory coordination • Mental development – developing quickly and much of the child’s life centers around school. Reading and writing skills are learned, understand abstract concepts like honesty, loyalty, values and morals
- 29. Late Childhood • Emotional development -- the child achieves greater independence and a more distinct personality. Fears are replaced by the ability to cope. • Social development – changes from activities by themselves to more group oriented. They are more ready to accept the opinions of others and learn to conform to rules, and standards of behavior. Needs are the same as infancy and early childhood along with the need for reassurance, parental approval, and peer acceptance.
- 30. Adolescence • Age: 12-20 years old • Conflict – Identity vs. Role Confusion • Physical development – growth spurts, muscle coordination slows. Development of sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics (puberty). Secretion of sex hormones leads to the onset of menstruation in girls and the production of sperm and semen in boys. Body shape and form changes.
- 31. Adolescence • Mental development – most foundations have been set. Development primarily involves an increase in knowledge and sharpening of skills. Learn to make decisions and accept responsibility for actions. • Emotional development – emotional development is often stormy and in conflict. Adolescents try to establish their identities and independence. They respond more and more to peer group influences.
- 32. Adolescence • Social development – spending less time with family and more time with peer groups. They attempt to develop self-identity and independence and seek security from their peers. Toward the end of this stage they develop a more mature attitude and develop patterns of behavior that they associate with adult behavior. – Need for reassurance, support and understanding. Problems that develop in this stage can be traced to conflict and feelings of inadequacy and insecurity.
- 33. Life Stages • Growth and development begins at birth and ends at death • During an entire lifetime, individuals have needs that must be met • Health care workers need to be aware of the various stages and needs of the individual to provide quality health care
- 34. Life Stages • Infancy: birth to 0-2 year • Early childhood: 2-6 years • Late childhood: 6-12 years • Adolescence: 12-20 years • Early adulthood: 20-40 years • Middle adulthood: 40-65 years • Late adulthood: 65 years and up
- 38. Young Children’s Vocabulary • Comprehension vocabulary-- words that the infant or child understands • Production vocabulary--words that the infant or child understands and can speak
- 39. Gender Role Development • Gender—cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity or femininity • Gender roles—various traits designated either masculine or feminine in a given culture • Gender identity—A person’s psychological sense of being male or female • Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. The concept of gender or sex, is, however, based more on outward characteristics such as clothing.
- 40. Gender Differences • Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and ask for help more than boys • Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and wagons, and to play more actively • After age 3 years we see consistent gender differences in preferred toys and activities • Children are more rigid in sex-role stereotypes than adults
- 41. Social Learning Theory Gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling
- 42. Gender Schema Theory •Gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity •Children actively develop mental categories of masculinity ad femininity and categorize these into gender categories or schemas •Trucks are for boys and dolls are for girls is an example of a gender schema
- 43. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930s • Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world” • Cognitive development is a stage process
- 44. Piaget’s Approach • Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions • Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults • Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understood
- 45. Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2) • Information is gained through the senses and motor actions • Child perceives and manipulates but does not reason • Symbols become internalized through language development • Object permanence is acquired
- 46. Object Permanence • The understanding that objects exist independent of one’s actions or perceptions of them • Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist – Can be surprised by disappearance/reappearance of a face (peek-a-boo)
- 47. Piaget Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) • Emergence of symbolic thought • Egocentrism • Lack of the concept of conservation • Animism Concrete Operational (7–12 years) • Increasingly logical thought • Classification and categorization • Less egocentric • Conservation • No abstract or hypothetical reason Formal Operational Stage (age 12 – adulthood) • Hypothetico-deductive reasoning • Emerges gradually • Continues to develop into adulthood
- 48. Critique of Piaget’s Theory • Underestimates children’s abilities • Overestimates age differences in thinking • Vagueness about the process of change • Underestimates the role of the social environment • Lack of evidence for qualitatively different stages
- 49. Information-Processing Perspective • Focuses on the mind as a system, analogous to a computer, for analyzing information from the environment • Developmental improvements reflect – increased capacity of working memory – faster speed of processing – new algorithms (methods) – more stored knowledge
- 50. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective • Emphasized the child’s interaction with the social world (other people) as a cause of development • Vygotsky believed language to be the foundation for social interaction and thought • Piaget believed language was a byproduct of thought
- 51. Identity Development • Identity vs. role confusion is the psychosocial stage during adolescence • Developing a sense of who one is and where one is going in life • Successful resolution leads to positive identity • Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity
- 52. Erikson’s Theory Stage Age Psychosexual Psychosocial Crisis Virtue Danger Infancy to age 2 Oral/ Sensory Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Withdrawal Early 2-3 Muscular/ Anal Autonomy vs. Shame Will Compulsion/ Play Age 3-5 Locomotor/ Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition School Age 6-12 Latency Industry vs. Inferiority Competence Inertia Adolescence 12-18 Puberty Identity vs. Identity Confusion Fidelity Role Repudiation Young 19-35 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Exclusivity Adulthood 35-65 Generativity vs.Stagnati on Care Rejectivity Old Age after 65 Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Disdain
- 53. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers • Proposed six stages, each taking into account a broader portion of the social world
- 54. Levels of Moral Reasoning • Preconventional—moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments • Conventional—laws and rules are upheld simply because they are laws and rules • Postconventional—reasoning based on personal moral standards
- 56. Adolescence • Transition stage between late childhood and early adulthood • Sexual maturity is attained at this time • Puberty--attainment of sexual maturity and ability to reproduce • Health, nutrition, genetics play a role in onset and progression of puberty
- 57. Social Relationships • Parent-child relationship is usually positive • May have some periods of friction • Peers become increasingly important • Peer influence may not be as bad as most people think. Adolescents tend to have friends of similar age, race, social class, and with same religious beliefs.
- 58. Baumrind’s Parenting Styles • Authoritarian—value obedience and use a high degree of power assertion • Authoritative—less concerned with obedience, greater use of induction • Permissive—most tolerant, least likely to use discipline • Neglectful—completely uninvolved
- 59. Adult Development • Genetics and lifestyle combine to determine course of physical changes • Social development involves marriage and transition to parenthood • Paths of adult social development are varied and include diversity of lifestyles
- 60. Late Adulthood • Old age as a time of poor health, inactivity, and decline is a myth • Activity theory of aging—life satisfaction is highest when people maintain level of activity they had in earlier years
- 61. Death and Dying • In general, anxiety about dying tends to decrease in late adulthood • Kubler-Ross stages of dying – Denial – Anger – Bargain – Depression – Acceptance • Not universally demonstrated