Week 3 intro to computer organization and assembly language
- 2. Narrated Hasan: Knowledge is of two types. Firstly, knowledge perceived by the heart, and that is useful knowledge; secondly, the knowledge at on the tip of one’s tongue, and that is an argument from Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, against the children of Adam. Transmitted by Darimi. Al-Tirmidhi – Hadith 270
- 3. Outline • Memory and it types • DRAM vs SRAM • Memory cell structure • ROM and its types • Memory organization • Error correction
- 5. Semiconductor Memory • RAM —Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is random access —Read/Write —Volatile —Temporary storage —Static or dynamic
- 7. Dynamic RAM • Bits stored as charge in capacitors • Charges leak • Need refreshing even when powered • Simpler construction • Smaller per bit • Less expensive • Need refresh circuits • Slower • Main memory • Essentially analogue —Level of charge determines value
- 9. DRAM Operation • Address line active when bit read or written —Transistor switch closed (current flows) • Write —Voltage to bit line – High for 1 low for 0 —Then signal address line – Transfers charge to capacitor • Read —Address line selected – transistor turns on —Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to sense amplifier – Compares with reference value to determine 0 or 1 —Capacitor charge must be restored
- 10. Static RAM • Bits stored as on/off switches • No charges to leak • No refreshing needed when powered • More complex construction • Larger per bit • More expensive • Does not need refresh circuits • Faster • Cache • Digital —Uses flip-flops
- 12. Static RAM Operation • Transistor arrangement gives stable logic state • State 1 —C1 high, C2 low —T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on • State 0 —C2 high, C1 low —T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on • Address line transistors T5 T6 is switch • Write – apply value to B & compliment to B • Read – value is on line B
- 13. SRAM v DRAM • Both volatile —Power needed to preserve data • Dynamic cell —Simpler to build, smaller —More dense —Less expensive —Needs refresh —Larger memory units • Static —Faster —Cache
- 14. Read Only Memory (ROM) • Permanent storage —Nonvolatile • Microprogramming (see later) • Library subroutines • Systems programs (BIOS) • Function tables
- 15. Types of ROM • Written during manufacture —Very expensive for small runs • Programmable (once) —PROM —Needs special equipment to program • Read “mostly” —Erasable Programmable (EPROM) – Erased by UV —Electrically Erasable (EEPROM) – Takes much longer to write than read —Flash memory – Erase whole memory electrically
- 16. Organisation in detail • A 16Mbit chip can be organised as 1M of 16 bit words • A bit per chip system has 16 lots of 1Mbit chip with bit 1 of each word in chip 1 and so on • A 16Mbit chip can be organised as a 2048 x 2048 x 4bit array —Reduces number of address pins – Multiplex row address and column address – 11 pins to address (211=2048) – Adding one more pin doubles range of values so x4 capacity
- 17. Refreshing • Refresh circuit included on chip • Disable chip • Count through rows • Read & Write back • Takes time • Slows down apparent performance
- 18. Typical 16 Mb DRAM (4M x 4)
- 19. Packaging
- 21. Error Correction • Hard Failure —Permanent defect • Soft Error —Random, non-destructive —No permanent damage to memory • Detected using Hamming error correcting code
- 22. Error Correcting Code Function
- 23. Hamming Error correction code
- 24. Example (single bit error) at M=8 • Determine code length • Bit by bit comparison is done using XOR and the result is called syndrome, indicating the error bit • Length of syndrome bits = length of K bits and range between 0-2^K -1 • Calculate check bits using • The code just described is known as a single-error-correcting (SEC)
- 26. Advanced DRAM Organization • Basic DRAM same since first RAM chips • Enhanced DRAM —Contains small SRAM as well —SRAM holds last line read (c.f. Cache!) • Cache DRAM —Larger SRAM component —Use as cache or serial buffer
- 27. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) • Access is synchronized with an external clock • Address is presented to RAM • RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional DRAM) • Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when data will be ready • CPU does not have to wait, it can do something else • Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block • DDR-SDRAM sends data twice per clock cycle (leading & trailing edge)
- 28. SDRAM
- 30. RAMBUS • Adopted by Intel for Pentium & Itanium • Main competitor to SDRAM • Vertical package – all pins on one side • Data exchange over 28 wires < cm long • Bus addresses up to 320 RDRAM chips at 1.6Gbps • Asynchronous block protocol —480ns access time —Then 1.6 Gbps
- 31. RAMBUS Diagram
- 32. DDR SDRAM • SDRAM can only send data once per clock • Double-data-rate SDRAM can send data twice per clock cycle —Rising edge and falling edge
- 33. Cache DRAM • Mitsubishi • Integrates small SRAM cache (16 kb) onto generic DRAM chip • Used as true cache —64-bit lines —Effective for ordinary random access • To support serial access of block of data —E.g. refresh bit-mapped screen – CDRAM can prefetch data from DRAM into SRAM buffer – Subsequent accesses solely to SRAM
- 34. Any Question??