General Knowledge in Art for Senior High schools

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR SHS

GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE
IN ARTFOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
S.K. AMENUKE
B.K. DOGBE
F. D.K. ASARE
R.K. AYIKU
A. BAFFOE
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, GHANA
GHANA GOVERNMENT PROPERTY
STRICTLY NOT FOR SALE

REPUBLISHED BY:
EBENEZER VANDYCK TANDOH
AS HIS PROJECT WORK
DEPARTMENT OF GRAPHIC DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
SUPERVISED BY:
JOSEPH ESUMAN
LECTURER DEPARTMENT OF GRAPHIC DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA

ContentsCONTENTS
25
Art Forms and
their Functions
SECTIONC
7
Composition
19
Drawing
24
Attitudes to
Ghanaian Arts
Advanced
Design
26 28
Advanced
Colour Work
29
Roman
Lettering
& Calligraphy
5
Terms in Art
4
Design
3
African Art
2
Ancient Art
1
Rationale for
Visual Arts
Education
6
Creativity &
Appreciation
8
Principles of
Drawing
9
Principles of
Colour Work
10
Lettering
11
Printmaking
SECTIONA
12
Indigenous
African Arts
(Concept & Types)
13
Contemporary
African Arts
14
Ghanaian Arts
& Artist
15
Form,Symbolism
&Functionsin
GhanaianArts
16
Art Associations
21
Gothic Lettering
& Calligraphy
20
Colour Work
18
Two-dimensional
and Three-
dimensional
Composition
17
Product
Design
SECTIONB
22
Block Printing
23
Indigenous
African Art
30
Screen Printing
27
Advanced
Composition &
Drawing
Preface

General Knowledge in Art is the first book of its kind for senior secondary
schools in Ghana. It provides broad-based information in history of art,
creativity and appreciation, and teaches basic elements and principles of
art as well as skills in their application to various practical art processes.
The emphasis is on the acquisition of knowledge, skills, competences
and attitudes in visual arts for individual and national development.
The book has grown out of several years of art teaching experience in
Ghana. It tries to integrate a considerable body of research and classroom
experiences with an in everyday life. It is also the result of new concepts
and national policies on education reform in Ghana. Discussion of major
issues and concerns expressed by the Ghanaian Ministry of Education
gave much impetus to the development of the content for the manuscript.
The focus of history of art in this book is on the contributions of visual arts
and artists to the socio-economic development of selected societies. This
is done in the context of ancient, African and Ghanaian arts. ‘History
for history’s sake’ has not been the aim of the authors. Promotion of
aesthetics and criticism, creativity and procedures in appreciation of
visual arts is an important feature of the text. The book also aims to help
the student observe and respond to the visible world and stimulate him
towards personal awareness and identity. In addition, he will be helped
to acquire useful practical skills, techniques and knowledge of tools,
materials and processes in art.
The practical component of exercises is designed to help the student to
acquire skills in:
• describing visual forms and analyzing ideas through drawing,
printing and colour work;
• communicating through graphic work and appreciation of visual
forms;
• problem solving by designing and making articles.

The text is arranged in three sections — A, B and C. corresponding
to senior secondary school years one, two and three. The text is
sequentially arranged from introductory knowledge m Section A to more
advanced skills in Sections B and C. Each chapter begins with objectives
that highlight essential features of various topics. Exercises, practical
assignments and references are indicated at the end of some topics
and chapters. Chapter Five on Terms in Art is not a glossary. It is an
integral part of the text aimed at providing the student with the necessary
vocabulary to cope with the content of appreciation in his other chosen
visual art subjects. This provision is consistent with the new structure and
content of visual arts education in the senior secondary school.
Although the book is not printed in colour, all colour exercises should be
done in colour. A suitable sketch pad may be used for practical exercises.
Limitations of space do not permit detailed treatment of every topic. The
student is advised to consult other relevant texts that may be available to
him. This manuscript was written and illustrated by the following writers:
Dr S.K. Amenuke, Department of Art Education, U.S.T., Kumasi
Dr B.K. Dogbe, College of Art, U.S.T., Kumasi
Mr Francis D.K. Asare, Presbyterian Secondary School, Logon
Mr Robert K. Akiyu, c/o College of Art. U.S.T., Kumasi
Alice Baffoe (Mrs), C.R.D.D., Ministry of Education Accra.
We hope that this book will provide the student with the basic background
in general concepts of art so that he can cope with the subject of visual
arts as a whole.
Acknowledgements;
Dr B.K. Dogbe for organizing the photographs for this book
Dr S.K. Amenuke for drawings in Chapters 4,8, 19, 26, and 27
Mr Franc Asare for illustrations in Chapters 4,7,9. 10,21 and 29
Mr Robert Ayiku for illustrations in Chapters 11 and 15
Alice Baffoe (Mrs) for direct prints in Chapter 11

The “rose red city of Petra”
Where history has been carved
from the rock itself

Rationale for Visual Arts Education
Objective
After reading through this chapter, the student should be able to explain
the role of visual arts education in:
• fostering creativity by helping the individual to think, act and
feel creatively;
• educating the whole person - head, hand and heart;
• encouraging appreciation of the artistic and cultural heritage;
• creating an awareness of the role of art in society;
• promoting qualities of citizenship desired in an artist.
The basic reasons for visual arts education as outlined in this book are
necessarily selective so as to meet specific requirements for education
in Ghana. Visual arts education encourages personal development and
an awareness of both the cultural heritage and the role of art in soci-
ety. The major purposes of visual arts education are derived from the
personal, social and historical functions of general education. You will
acquire personal knowledge, skills and competences through visual art
activity. When you study Ghanaian visual arts, you will understand that
they are integrated with our past and present culture. By studying the
role of art in society, you will begin to understand art as an integral part
of everyday life.
The purposes of visual arts education can be described as follows:
• Itdevelopsyourabilitytothink,feelandactcreativelywithvisualmaterials.
Visual thinking in creative activity occurs through active exploration of
ideas, materials, tools and processes; selection, grasping of the key
ideas,simplification,analysis,comparison,problemsolving,combining
and separating ideas. These experiences make up education of the
head. When we use tools and materials such as knives, hammers,
pens, pencils, brushes, inks, clay, straw, wood, metal or fabric to
make artefacts, we acquire manual skills. This is education of the
hand. When we see an artefact, it arouses certain feelings in us. As we
appreciate the work by talking intelligently and knowledgeably we are
expressing our feelings about it. This is education of the heart. Thus,
visual arts education caters for education of the whole person head,
hand and heart.

• Educating people in visual arts is necessary for the artistic
development of Ghana. The artist has an important role in the
major areas of national development agriculture, health, culture,
education, industry, science and technology.
• Activities in visual arts will provide the opportunity to study the
nature of local tools, materials and technologies. Thus the art
programme should provide basic education for prospective
designers of industrial products.
• Works of an are used to maintain the ideas, knowledge, practices
and beliefs of a society as handed down from one generation to
another. In this way we learn about our cultural heritage.
• African works of arts such as pots, bowls, baskets, bags, kente and
fugu are useful in everyday life.
• We use artefacts as teaching aids, to educate our youth about
various responsibilities of life motherhood, fatherhood, worship,
work, recreation and so on.
• Works of art such as emblems, linguist staffs, clan staffs, state skins
and stools identify us as individuals, groups and institutions.
• An artefact can serve as a source of knowledge because it is
possible to interpret it in terms of history, sociology, religion,
function and ideas of beauty. In this way, we use art to help us
understand ourselves and the world around us.
• As society changes, its members should become more aware of
the visual changes in their environment. This will help them take
decisions and make good judgments about what is pleasant or
unpleasant to look at.
• It is believed that an activities can help to reduce tension in
people. Art also helps handicapped persons and social misfits to
reorganize their life.

• In Ghana, the study of visual arts will encourage us to appreciate
the usefulness of indigenous art processes. This knowledge will
help us consider ways of developing and improving them.
• The visual arts programme provides a creative base for
small-scale and rural art industries. Students who have followed
the programme should be able to produce high quality products
which can attract a good market.
Desirable Qualities to be
Developed Through the Arts Programme
By following the programme set out in this book, the student will be able
to develop certain qualities that are desirable in present-day society.
• Practical activity in art helps to exercise the muscles and keep the
body healthy. Skills in thinking are developed by organizing
materials into art forms, and critically a preciating them. This helps
to develop sound mental health.
• When the artist produces works of art for the benefit of society, he is
exercising his civic rights and responsibilities.
• The artist is resourceful and relies on tools, materials and ideas in
his environment to produce artefacts. This shows that he understands
the need to be self-sufficient, and the need for economic
advancement.
• In order to learn how to listen and communicate ideas clearly, the
artist derives ideas from life in society and communicates his
observations through works of art.
• The need to manage personal resources to achieve optimum
satisfaction in life can be met by acquiring practical skills in
planning and organization through art. By applying such skills to
his personal resources, a person is better able to manage his own
life.

• The artist needs to understand and apply scientific knowledge in
everyday life. As he works with tools, materials and processes: he
applies basic scientific knowledge in his daily activities.
• The benefits of technology are applied in art drawing, colour work,
printing, lettering and design. Technology in this context means
designing and making an artefact faster and more efficiently.
• Skills needed to build a healthy family and human relationships
are reflected in art activities. The artist is able to organize
contradictory elements of line, shape, texture, tone, pattern and
colour into pleasant relationships. This helps him to cultivate
peaceful relations with other human beings.
• An appreciation of our national cultural heritage can be acquired
through learning about the history of art, appreciation and criticism
of artefacts. These activities help the artist understand the meaning
and usefulness of his own arts.
• The quality of creative thinking and systematic problem solving is
derived from thinking with art materials - identifying, selecting,
composing and analyzing are skills employed in the production of
artefacts.
• We need to value and enjoy leisure and recreational activities.
The artist should visit art exhibitions, galleries, museums and
national parks. Through art appreciation, the artist develops a
consciousness which makes him sensitive to expressive activities
such as sport, music, dance, drama and verbal arts.
• The artist should be able to express cultural and spiritual qualities
as well as appreciation of beautiful things. In the context of African
arts, creative activity is integrated with the culture, so that an
artefact may be considered as a ‘history book of culture’.

• We need to learn to plan work and time well. The art course
emphasizes preliminary planning and design. The artist works
according to the nature of the tools and materials he uses.
Precision and self-discipline are needed in much of an artist’s work.
For example, precision and punctuality are important qualities for a
graphic artist.
• The African artist should understand African and world affairs
through the study of art history and appreciation; through collections
of artefacts and antiques; through souvenir artefacts and through
the artefacts given as gifts to dignitaries on official visits to other
countries.
• The need to cope with the stress and strains of life is met by the
nature of art activity. Art helps to develop qualities of patience,
tolerance and long- suffering in the learner through the practice of
careful organization of art forms.
• Visual arts subjects provide opportunities to learn how to learn.
The learner develops the ability to;
(a) identify tools, materials and ideas for art;
(b) collect information for art’;
(c) analyze and interpret information;
(d) form his own opinions;
(c) apply the ideas to his own situations.
Questions
1 Give ten reasons why visual arts should be studied in our schools.
2 Explain some of the qualities the learner is expected to develop by
studying visual arts.

References
ARNHE1M. Rudolf. Visual Thinking. University of California Press, Berkeley. 1974. p
13 CHAPMAN, Laura. Approaches to Art in Education. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Inc. New York. 1978. pp 19-20
CLEMENT. Robert. The Art Teacher's Handbook. Century Hutchinson Ltd. London.
1987. pp. 17 18
DAY, Michael. ‘Rationales for Art Education’ in Art Education. Journal of the Nation-
al Art Education Association, vol. 25. No. 2. February 1972
GREENBERG. Pearl. Art Education Elementary. NAEA. Washington DC. 1972. pp
6-7
HARDIMAN. George W. and THEODORE. Zernich, Curriculum Considerations for
Visual Arts Education: Rationale Development and Evaluation. Stipes Publishing
Company. Champaign. 1974. pp 26-9
HUBBARD: Guy. ‘A Revision of Purposes of Art Education’ in Concepts in Art Educa-
tion, od. George Pappas. The Macmillan Company. New York, 1970. pp. 246-51
MOE. ’Needs Assessment’, a paper prepared by the Ministry of Education for sen-
ior secondary school programmes in Ghana. 1989
WEBO. E.B.. Handbook for Primary Teachers. Heinemann Educational Books (EA)
Ltd. Nairobi. 1980. p. 3

Masaccio.
Madonna Casini (c. 1426).

Ancient Art
Objectives
The student should be able to understand:
• the beginnings of art and where they happened;
• the use of art in promoting aspects of living;
• the creative desire and ability in mankind;
• how prehistoric man and the Greeks. Indians. Chinese, Japanese,
Melanesians and Polynesians used art.
Prehistoric Art
The term ‘prehistory’ was introduced in the nineteenth century. It marks
the time before all the civilizations when there were no written records or
verbal accounts (oral traditions) of man’s activities, that is between 80,000
and 5000 BC. The term ’historic’ is used for the era when oral traditions
and writing started. It began about 5000 BC and has continued to the
present day. Prehistoric art began-in 30.000 BC and ended in 5000 BC.
It refers to paintings, engravings and sculpture done in the earliest stage
of development of man’s culture when there were no writings. It is the
beginning of art and shows how art served man in his efforts to survive
and develop.
Distribution
Examples of prehistoric art can be found all over the world. In North Africa
they are found in Morocco, Tunisia, Libya. Algeria and in large areas of
the Sahara Desert. The Sahara contains the most varied and the largest
number of examples of prehistoric art in the world. In Southern Africa
numerous examples are found in Namibia. Mozambique, Zimbabwe
and the Republic of South Africa (Figure 2.1)
Prehistoric art is found in Spain. Portugal. France. Sicily and in Northern
Europe. In the Middle East, it is found in the land we now call Israel and
in Jordan.

Figure 2.1 Distribution of prehistoric art in Africa
have survived to the present day because they were made deep inside
caves, on rocks and cliff surfaces protected from bad weather conditions.
Most of the works were discovered recently by chance. The first discoveries
were made in Mozambique in AD* 1721 and in South-West Algeria in
AD 1847 by some French army officers. The rest of the prehistoric art
was discovered many years later. The oldest works we know of are in
Namibia in Southern Africa, in caves at Altimira in Spain, at Lascaux,
Trois Freres and Niaux, all in France, and at other places in south-west
Europe. They were done between 30,000 and 10,000 BC. Those done
in other parts of the world were produced between 10,000 and 6000
BC. The ages of the works were determined by a scientific method.
The works of prehistoric art were made independently and at different
times throughout the world! There is no evidence that particular works in
one part of the world influenced others in different regions. For example,
we cannot say

that European works influenced works in Africa, Asia or Australia, or the
other way round. But scholars have noticed some strong resemblances
between European (especially in eastern Spain) and African prehistoric
art. Therefore they believe that (here was direct contact between North
Africa and Europe at some point in the prehistoric era.
Mode of life
Prehistoric men and women lived in caves and natural shelters. The
women gathered wild crops, and the men gathered wild honey and
hunted large animals. The flesh of the animals was used for food, the
skin and furs for clothing and the fat for fuel in lamps made of stone
or clay. They also hunted animals that troubled them. The men had the
simplest weapons made of wood, stone and bone. They were bows,
arrows, clubs and spears. Hunting was risky. The men therefore relied
on a kind of practical magic known as ‘sympathetic magic’. This magic
is a belief that there is a strange relationship between a living thing and
its image. The people painted, carved or modelled images of animals
and then ‘hurt’ these images with weapons, believing that the wounding
would result in the power to kill the live animals. Sometimes parts of the
images were damaged to make them defenceless. For example, images
of animals were sometimes made without eyes or noses. This, they
believed, would deny the animals the sight and scent to detect and avoid
the hunters.
Once the hunting was successfully done the image was discarded and
a fresh one made for another hunt. This is the reason why there are so
many prehistoric works of art. It also shows that the works of art were not
made for appreciation or beauty. Figure 2.2 shows an image of a bison
with two arrows in its body.
The different techniques and styles used by the prehistoric artists and the
quality of their works suggest that they were experienced, imaginative
and creative. There is no evidence of how the artists acquired their skills
of painting, drawing, engraving and sculpting.
Ancient Art

Figure 2.2 A bison with two arrows in its body (from the cave of Niaux. France)
It is believed that they got their idea of picture-making from the rough
and bumpy surfaces of the cave and rocks on which they made their
pictures.
Art forms
The techniques of drawing and painting consisted of simple outline and
detailed shading or model ling (i.e. making the image look solid).The
animals depicted in the works of art include deer, elephants, bison’s,
woolly rhinoceroses, horses, lions and others. Sometimes rare birds,
reptiles or even insects were represented. Some of the animal species
are extinct. Human figures are also portrayed in simple forms. The
compositions represent men fighting or hunting. In such scenes, cattle,
men and women are scattered about in confusion across the rock on
which they were painted. There are other scenes which show examples
of orderly arrangement of animals and men (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Deer hunt (painting from Castellon, Spain)
Prehistoric compositions do not show landscape (mountains, rivers or
vegetation). The animals drawn or painted are often shown in profile
and are of different sizes. The paintings were done deep in the caves
with the aid of small lamps, torches of wood or small fires. The artists
might have stood on platforms to paint pictures high up. Different earth
colours were mixed with animal fat and used as paint or crayons. The
colours included yellow, red, brown and orange. Black was obtained
from charcoal or manganese oxides and white from kaolin. Blue and
green were not commonly used.
Engraving and paintings were sometimes combined. Flint tools were
used in cutting outlines of animals on rock surfaces. Another technique of
engraving was pecking the outline or the whole picture. Like the paintings,
the engravings were superimposed on (done over) old pictures. In some
eases new ones were superposed on (placed over) the old ones. In other
eases new ones were juxtaposed with (done either side of) the old picture.

Sculpture is represented in low
relief and also in the round,
in small forms (miniatures). It
includes animals and human
figures carved in stone, bone
and modelled inclay. The clay
figures remained unbaked.
There are more female figures
than male ones. The female
ones are thought to be fertility
symbols because they have large
breasts and buttocks. The female
figures discovered in Western
Europe were called ‘Venuses’ by
scholars, because they believed
that the figures were sexual ob-
jects for the prehistoric men.
A typical example is the ‘Venus’
of Willendorf (Figure 2.4). This
‘Venus’ has a knob-like head
without facial features. The
breasts are big and heavy. The
stomach, buttocks, thighs and
the hips are also massive. The
hands and legs are short and
they look unimportant. The
animal sculptures were also used
for fertility rites.
Summary
Prehistoric art has contributed to the culture of mankind. It reveals aspects
of the life of early man. It shows the development of creative ability in man
and how it was stimulated by observation of nature. The details of the
animals drawn, painted, engraved and carved enable us today to identify
the type of animals that existed thousands of years ago. This is important
for a better understanding of life on earth. The distribution of the works
throughout the world shows that artistic creation was not limited to one kind
of people. These works show us that works of art can survive a long time to
tell the story of the people who made them. In addition to written records,
the works of art we do today can tell stories about us to future peoples.
They will also identify us as Greeks. Egyptians, Ghanaians and so on.
Fig. 2.4 The Venus of Willendorf (stone)

Greek Art
Greek Art
Greece is a land of mountainous peninsulas and islands which are
separated by straits and bays. The land is rugged and stony with scanty
arable land. Ancient Greece was one of the earliest and most important
centres of civilization in Europe. It developed between l000 and 30 BC,
and it comprised independent city-states like Athens, the most famous
of all the cities in the history of art, Argos, Corinth, Delphi, Mycenae,
Sparta, Troy and others.
The Greeks worshipped many gods who protected various human
activities. The gods were portrayed as strong, ideally beautiful, and
like men and women. They expressed themselves through love, hatred,
jealousy, joy, sorrow and so on towards the Greek people. The gods
were believed to live in a state of constant rivalry and conflict. Many
sanctuaries, temples and statues were built for them.
The Greeks were imaginative, adventurous and warlike. They took a great
interest in athletics and sports. They invented the Olympic Games which
was an athletics and sports festival. This festival was celebrated along with
literary and musical contests every four years throughout ancient Greek
history. They celebrated it in honour of Zeus, the king of the gods. This
festival was closely connected with the religious beliefs and rites of the
people. Art played a major part in the celebration.
The Greeks also contributed to many fields of human endeavour. This
has influenced European cultures greatly. In the field of politics, the
Greeks invented many systems of government, the most important of
which was democracy. The works of Greek writers and philosophers are
still being studied in Europe and other parts of the world. In the field of
science especially medicine, mathematics and astronomy the Greeks
contributed a great deal of useful knowledge to the world. Art is another
field of study through which Greek civilization is fell today.

The highest artistic development was.in sculpture, painting, architecture
and pottery. The history of ancient Greek art can be divided into three
important periods:
(i) the archaic period (700 480 BC)
(ii) the classical period (480-323 BC)
(iii) the Hellenistic period (323-27 BC)
Archaic period
The term ‘archaic’ is a Greek word which means early. It is used to
describe the many developments which occurred in die early stages of
Greek culture. In sculpture, the Greeks produced images mainly of gods
and goddesses in the likeness of men, women and children. They carved
statues which they placed over graves and erected at other places to
commemorate important events and the victors at national games and
contests. They also carved reliefs to decorate public buildings.
When carving standing or seated statues, the Greeks studied and
imitated Egyptian models or examples. The statues were characterized
by symmetry and stiffness of forms. The female figures were fully clothed,
and the male ones were naked with the left leg placed in front. The male
figure shown in Figure 2.5 was called Kuoros (youth) and it is naked
because the Greek athletes and sportsmen performed naked in public.
The female figure shown in Figure 2.6 was called Kore (maiden). The
lips of the figures are curved and drawn into the expression commonly
called the ‘archaic smile’ by art
historians.
The Greeks mostly carved their statues in marbles which were abundant
in their mountainous land. They smoothed and waxed the carvings in
order to give to the surface the highest degree of perfection or painted
the carvings in life-like colours. Other materials less used for sculpture
were gold, ivory, timber and bronze.
Greek Art

Fig. 2.6 Kore(Greek,530
BC; marble height
121.9 cm; Acropolis
Museum, Athens)
Fig. 2.5 Kuoros (Greek,
570 BC; marble, life
size; Glyptothek,
Munich)
The Greeks developed a splendid tradition of fresco painting on walls and
on movable panels but all have perished. Very little is known, therefore; of
early Greek painting. We have some idea of what their paintings were
like from those found on vases and jugs. The early paintings on the
vases also show Egyptian influence. They show strong outlines of Figures;
the eyes and the chest are in frontal view, and the foot and the head are
in profile.
The stories of gods and heroes were the chief subject for painting.
Foreshortening was discovered later in the period. This means that, for
example, in painting the foot from the front, the five toes were depicted
like a row of five little circles.

Owing to the great demand for containers for storing water, oil. honey and
com. and for other domestic purposes, the art of pottery was developed
to a high level. Pottery became a big industry, especially at Ceramicus,
the potters’ quarter in Athens. The Greeks used fast potter’s wheels to
make their drinking cups, bowls, large storage jars, wine vessels and
oilier articles. They used clay of even textures. The pottery wares were
lightly fired; then the surfaces were smoothed and painted. Black, red
and white or cream-coloured slip was used in painting and decorating
the wares. They sometimes used the colour violet. The paintings made
the wares shiny. The decorations on the wares were geometric patterns,
figures of animals, human beings, gods and plants. The Greeks also
made pottery sculptures in terracotta. Drinking mugs were shaped in the
likeness of human heads or as caricatures.
The Greeks needed shelters to protect die statues of their gods, so they
built beautiful wooden temples for them. Later they used marbles for
the buildings. The Greeks did not worship the gods in the temples. They
worshipped outside the temples in the open air where there were altars.
The temples only housed the statues of the gods. The style of the temples is
called Doric, named after the Doric tribe to which the Spartans belonged.
The Greeks also built stadiums for athletic contests.
Some of the stadium- could seat about 45,000 spectators. They also
built unroofed theatres for drama; Greeks often painted the upper parts
of their stone buildings. They used mainly blue and red, and sometimes
yellow, green, black and gildings. The unpainted parts were rubbed with
wax.
Classical period
The word ‘classical’ means of high excellence or first class. It is often
applied to all antiques (old valuable objects) and to some types of music
and literature. Strictly speaking, the word only applies to the finest Greek
art of the fifth century BC. Greek art of this period reached the highest
point of its development. It shows the adventurous and the imaginative
spirit of the Greeks.
Greek Art

Sculptors were no longer
anonymous or unknown. The
famous sculptors of this period
include
Myron, Phaidas and others.
Through the efforts of the artists
the Greek statues freed themselves
from the influence of Egypt. The
artists sculpted their human figures
incorrect proportions and gave
them movement and flexibility.
Greek sculptors were able to do
this because they studied the
naked athletes and sportsmen
in different postures. Figure 2.7
shows a figure of a naked athlete
with correct proportions, flexibility
and movement.
Vase painting continued through
the classical period. Potters
tried to improve the shapes and
handlesofthepots,theproportions,
contours and the decorations,
although they did not invent any new shapes for the vessels. Figure 2.8
shows some of the Greek vessels of improved workmanship. The attempt
to make everything perfect can also be seen in architecture.
In addition to the old Doric style, Ionic and Corinthian styles were invented.
The Corinthian style was the richest and most elegant in design. It was
invented in die rich city of Corinth in 420 BC. These styles were used
only for temples in Greek cities were clusters of small house in which the
people lived, with small lanes between the houses. There were no streets
and no drainage. The market places were the only open spaces where
people could come together to talk about their lives.
Fig. 2.7 The discus thrower (Greek,
marble; life size; Route)

Fig. 2.8 Types of Greek Pottery
Hellenistic period
The term ‘Hellenistic’ applies to the art made under Greek influence
in Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamum in Asia Minor.
These countries and cities fell to the Greeks when the Greek prince,
Alexander the Great, conquered them in 33 BC. Both artists and the
public developed more interest in all the achievements in art. Art was no
more used only for religious purposes. Writers began to write about art
and the artists’ lives. People began to collect and own art works because
of their beauty. They used them to decorate their houses. Landscape
painting was invented. It showed simple countryside life, like shepherds
and their sheep. The landscapes were painted for the city dweller.

Greek Art
Summary
In sculpture the Greeks learned how to make statues from the Egyptians;
they improved upon the statues and learned how to give correct
proportions to the human figure; they introduced movement into the
figure. They used the statues to decorate their architecture, and to mark
important events and deeds.
In architecture the Greeks invented three beautiful types of temple; they
painted landscapes of the countryside (around the villages) on panels
for the people in the cities.
In pottery they made huge jars for storing food for themselves and for
export; they improved the shapes of their vases; they painted the vases
to make them beautiful.

Oriental Art
Oriental Art
Indian Art
Buddhism is one of the main religions of the Indians. One of its beliefs
is that there is life after death and that everything done in one life
determines the next life; and that each human soul passes from one
body to another. This belief determined the form and function of Indian
an. Indian art began in 3000 BC and has continued to today, but with
many improvements.
There are two types of religious building in India. Firstly, there are
temples built out of stone and wood for worship. An example is the
Sanchi Stupa. The roof is a big dome with a flat top. The dome rests
upon circular terraces with small stair rails surrounding the dome. It was
built in about 300 BC to protect a sacred place. The second type of
religious building consists of temples,
assembly halls and monasteries. Many of them are hundreds of years
old and they were entirely hollowed and cut out from huge rocks or
from the side of cliffs. The Indians worshipped, met and Studied in these
buildings.
The two types of building were decorated with carvings in relief and in the
round both inside and outside. Figure 2.9 shows carvings in Khajuraho
Temple. The figures in the carving are wearing many jewels.
Indian sculptors carved cult statues and huge statues of Buddha. Buddha
was often carved seated with legs crossed, hands folded in his lap and
with his eyes looking down. As dancing is pan of Indian worship the
sculptors also carved dancing figures of women and gods in stone.
Bronze was used for popular subjects like ‘Lord of the Dance’, ‘Lord of
Pity’ and other important gods. Figure 2.10 shows an example of a Lord
figure in bronze.
Buddhist themes were also painted on walls in frescoes.
Weaving was an important form of art in India. The textiles were either
hand- painted or printed. The chief material used was always cotton.
The textiles were used for garments, turbans, hangings, bedspreads and
for religious use. Jewels also played an important role in the life of the
Indians.

Figure 2.9 Carvings in Khajuraho
Temple (Indian; about 1000 AD, stone)
Figure 2.10 Lord of the Dance (Indian; 11th
century; bronze; height 114.5 cm;
Government Museum, Madras)

Summary
The Indians used art to express their thoughts and beliefs. Their temples
carved out of rocks pay tribute to their imagination, desire to create
and skill in architecture and sculpture. The rock temples also show how
patient, determined and hard-working the Indians were. They successfully
used art to meet the irreligious and social needs.
Chinese Art (2000 BC-AD 1800)
Chinese culture is about 4000 years old. Over time it has absorbed
some foreign influences. The earliest Chinese works of art included
ancient sacrificial bronze vessels which were made in 1300 BC. These
were decorated with masks of mon-sters.
Some of these bronze vessels were made in the shape of birds and
animals. They were used in the rites of ancestor worship. They also made
bronze jars with meandering and fret (net-like) patterns incised on them.
They were used in libation. Figure 2.11 shows a jar in the form of an
owl. It is decorated with incised patterns. Casting of bronze images of all
sizes was a great skill practiced by the Chinese from ancient days.
Sculpture-making was connected with the dead. Stone figures of animals
like the lion and chimera were placed on tombs. The inside of the tombs
was often decorated with reliefs showing processions of horsemen and
chariots. They also made terracotta figures and carved figures in ivory
and semi-precious stones like jade, ruby, quartz and garnet.
The painting of the Chinese was very close to their system of writing.
Chinese writing was invented around 1000 BC.
Oriental Art

Their greatest painters were highly educated - poets, philosophers, priests
and court officials. They painted on paper, silk and on walls. They used
fine brushes, ink and water colours. They painted both simple subjects
like a bamboo shoot and complicated subjects like a landscape with
mountains. Figure 2.12 shows a Chinese landscape painting. It was
painted with ink on silk.
There is only one type of Chinese architecture. Buildings were made of
wood and stones. The edges of the roofs were always curved up. The
buildings served all needs religious, secular, public and private. The
Chinese also had a very rich tradition in pottery, porcelain, embroidery,
lacquered woods and jewellery.
Summary
The Chinese combined art with other activities. A poet, philosopher, priest
or doctor had to be able to paint or to carve small and simple figures,
their desire for beauty and skill was shown in everything they created.
The Chinese liked to keep their traditions so they did not change their
styles of art much, but they did make improvements in the details of the
artefacts, and in skill and techniques.
Fig. 2.11 A jar in the form of an owl
(Chinese; bronze)
Fig. 2.12 A landscape painting
(Chinese; 10th century AD; ink
on silk; Beijing Palace Museum)

Japanese Art (AD 400-1800)
The Japanese have always been inspired by the Chinese. But the
Japanese were more active and warlike than the Chinese. Japanese art
was therefore dramatic and vigorous. A typical Japanese painting is a
silk screen used as a folding partition in the home. They painted portraits
and pictures showing the social and military life of the rich people in the
society. Because there is little stone in Japan, wood, metal and clay were
used a lot for their sculpture and architecture. The clay sculptures were
painted and lacquered. The sculptures often looked like the works of
the Chinese. The Japanese built their houses and temples with wood.
Their buildings had more than one roof like those of the Chinese. The
edges and comers of the roof were also curved up. Figure 2.13 shows a
Japanese temple with a double roof.
Colour priming is a uniquely Japanese form of art. It was used to produce
portraits of popular actors and beautiful women. Figure 2.14 shows the
portrait of the actor, Matsumoio Koshiro IV.
Summary
Japanese art was influenced by Chinese art, but die Japanese were able
to use the art to satisfy their own social and national needs. This shows
that the art of a people can be studied and used by other people for their
own good.
Oriental Art

Fig. 2.13 Japanese temple: golden
hall (607 AD)
Fig. 2.14 Portrait of the actor,
Matsumoto Koshiro IV. (Japanese, c.
AD 1793; Art Institue of Chicago

Oceanic Art
Melanesian art
Melanesia consists of several islands of different sizes in the Pacific
Ocean. The most important islands are New Guinea, New Britain, the
Solomon’s, New Caledonia, New Ireland and Fiji.
The art forms of the people were closely related to their social customs and
religious ideas. The arts, customs and beliefs are several centuries old.
They probably date back to 2000 or 3000 BC. They are still practiced in
the same way as they were years ago, probably with little modification!
It was believed that all aspects of life and the after-life were controlled
by supernatural forces and ancestral spirits. Many ceremonies and rites
were often performed to honour and to obtain favour from the many
spirits. Different works of art were needed in the ceremonies.
The most important art forms were the ancestor figures which were
believed to contain the spirit of the ancestor after death. They were carved
in wood showing a huge head, into which the skull of the dead person
was fitted. Sometimes the skull was attached to a figure that was small.
Other carvings included masks, canoe prows in the form of crocodiles,
andceremonialstoolssupportedbyhumanfigures.Architecture,painting,
basketry and clay modelling formed part of the art of the Melanesian
people.
Summary
The Melanesians identified their social and religious problems and used
art to solve them. They produced sculptures and other forms of art for
their ceremonies and rites.
Oceanic Art

Polynesian Art
The name ‘Polynesian’ comes from the Greek words for ‘many islands’.
Polynesia is made up of islands spread over a vast area in the North,
Central and South Pacific. Some of the islands arc Hawaii, Easter
Islands. Tonga, Samoa, Tahiti. Marquesas Island, and New Zealand.
They have common traditions and forms of art. The traditions and art
were developed in about 2000 BC. They are still practised as they were.
Like the art of the Melanesian people. Polynesian art was strongly linked
with their beliefs and practices. The Polynesians liked to specialize in
different types of work, like the priesthood, sculpting, canoe making and
housebuilding. They trained for a long time as apprentices before
entering these vocations.
All artists training as apprentices learned the proper methods of handling
tools and materials. They also learned about all the ideas and beliefs
related to every aspect of artistic creation. The good training of the artists
enabled them to produce works of a high standard both technically and
aesthetically. Art was therefore associated with rank and prestige.
The Polynesians were noted for the production of a fabric of die finest
quality called tepa. It was produced from the bark of the paper-mulberry
tree. The tepa fabrics were decorated by painting. White tepa was used
in their temples.
The specialists in house building were organized into powerful groups.
They built large and important guest or ceremonial houses. These houses
were over 12 m long and 8.1 m high. The walls were made of matting
or reeds and the roofs were of heavy thatch. Feather work was also an
important form of art among the Polynesians. Figure 2.15 shows a
Polynesian feather cloak from Hawaii.
Oceanic Art

Summary
The Polynesians attached great importance to art. They used art to
promote their beliefs and culture, and also to satisfy their desire for
beautiful things.
Fig. 2.15 A feather cloak (Polynesian; Hawaii)

Questions
1 How does prehistoric art tell us about the environment and the
feelings of early man?
2 What is sympathetic magic and how did. Prehistoric man use it?
3 Briefly explain: superimposition, superposition and juxtaposition.
4 What were the main contributions of the Greeks to art?
5 What is the ‘archaic smile’?
6 How did the Greeks use art in their everyday life?
7 What is-foreshortening?
8 What were the uses of Indian temples?
9 Describe a Chinese bronze jar. (Use Figure 2.11.)
10 From which people did the Japanese learn art?
11 How did the Melanesians use art to meet their religious needs?
12 How do we know art provides vocations for the Polynesians?
References
GARDNER. Helen. Art through the Ages. Harcourt, Brace and World
Inc., New York. edn. pp. 1-5. 122-79. 569-653
GOMBRICH. E.H., The Story of An, Phaidon Press Lid. London. 1957
MEYERS. Bernard S. Art and Civilization. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
New York’pp. 9-18. 42-62 and 91-112.
WINGERT. Paul. Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Styles. Oxford
University Press New York, 1962. pp 183-330
Questions

Anonymous
Grebo Mask, date unknown

African Art
Objectives
• the influence of religious beliefs on types of art forms and their
functions;
• how the art forms promoted religious beliefs and social needs;
• how the arts of the Greeks, Romans and Muslims influenced art in
North Africa;
• how people south of the Sahara Desert show their awareness of
their environment;
• how these people developed their beliefs and used an to promote
them.
North Africa
Prehistoric men in North Africa settled in villages in about 7000 BC.
They no longer hunted or gathered food. They built simple houses of
mud, wood or stones. They made farms and grew corn, rice, wheat
and other crops. They also took care of animals like sheep, goats,
cats, cattle, donkeys, ducks and others. They worshipped many gods.
Because of these changes in their lifestyle, they stopped using an only
for sympathetic magic. They used art to help them worship their gods
and also to decorate themselves and other things. The people made
wonderful artefacts: fine cloth, pottery, golden ornaments, wigs, jewellery,
copper-work, bronze-work, silver-work and glassware. After a long time
their villages grew into big towns and cities, such as those in Egypt.
Egypt became the first great centre of civilization on the African continent
roughly after 5000 BC. It had a great influence on the development of
other North African countries: Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan. Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia. Chad and
the northern parts of Niger and Mali.

The ancient Egyptians
invented a calendar and
a system of picture-writing
(hieroglyphics) in about
4000 BC. They also invented
paperfromthepapyrusreed,
a plant found in Egypt. They
had powerful kings called
Pharaohs. The Pharaohs
were respected like gods
and had a navy and great
armies which organized the
people to do communal
work.TheEgyptiansbelieved
that when they died their
souls (ka) would continue to
live in another world but
inside the same bodies.
Because of this they treated
dead bodies carefully and
wrapped them so that they
would not decay.
These bodies (mummies) were laid in tombs. The mummies of the
Pharaohs and important people were buried with many treasures in
tombs called pyramids. Works of art were used to decorate the inside
and outside of the tombs.
Painting
Beautiful paintings were done on papyrus paper, wooden panels and
on walls of temples and tombs. They show incidents from the lives of
important people and their journey to the land of the dead. The paintings
also show people hunting and feasting. The artists used powder colours
made from rocks, stones and earth. They mixed the powders with gum
and used brushes to paint on walls. They painted men bigger and darker
than women. Slaves were painted very small. Painters showed distance
in their drawings and paintings by placing one body above another.
Figure 3.1 shows an Egyptian painting.
Fig. 3.1 Egyptian painting: fowling scene
(1570-1344 BC)

ItdepictsaPharaohandhiswifeand
slave hunting birds. The painting is
from a tomb.
Sculpture
Sculpture was made to serve the
dead. Sculptors carved life-size
figures to replace the mummies
in case the mummies perished by
chance. Wood and stones were
used: The wooden figures were
covered with linen glued to the
wood and painted life-like. Statues
of men and women were made
wearing wigs and they were seated,
standing or kneeling. The standing
ones had their left feet placed in a
forward position. Figure 3.2 shows
a Pharaoh and his queen wearing
wigs and their left feet placed in
front.
Huge statues (sphinxes) were
carved and placed at the front of
the tombs or pyramids to guard
the tombs.
Fig. 3.2 A Pharaoh and his queen (height
140 cm; Museum of Fine Art, Boston)
Figure 3.3 show’s a pyramid and a sphinx. Beautiful portrait busts of
Pharaohs, queens, officials and even slaves were carved and painted.
Inside the tombs, the walls were covered with reliefs. Like the paintings,
the reliefs show scenes from everyday life, the production of grain, the
raising of cattle, pressing grapes, the making of boats, jewellery and
vases, hunting on the desert, fishing in rivers, Pharaohs making offerings
to the gods and other activities. The reliefs were often brightly painted.

Fig. 3.3 A sphinx and pyramid
Architecture
The Egyptians made one of the greatest structures ever built in the world
- the pyramid. One of the pyramids is about 150 m high and it took
3000 men about ten years to build. Egyptians learned mathematics and
geometry in order to cut huge stones, move them about, and lift them to
build the pyramids and temples. They did not use iron in their buildings.
The stones they used were so heavy that when they put one on top of
another it would not fall. They plastered the surfaces of the walls or
covered them with paintings, reliefs and hieroglyphics.
The houses of the ordinary Egyptians were built of dried bricks. In
the cities the houses were very close to each other so they sometimes
made gardens on their flat roofs. They made beautiful furniture with
wood, gold and ivory for the palaces and tombs. Figure 3.4 shows a
beautiful wooden chair, decorated with gold, ivory and relief patterns.
Other artefacts used in the homes included decorated mirrors, silver and
glass jars for drinking wine, jewel boxes, walking sticks and spoons for
perfume.

The Egyptians produced a fine fabric for their clothes. The same type
of fabric was used in wrapping the mummies. They invented and used
glazes for the pots and tiles.
African Art
Foreign influences
When the Greeks conquered
Egypt in 333 BC, the Pharaohs
ceased to rule the country. The
Greeks introduced Hellenistic
art to Egypt. They build the
city Alexandria and used their
styles of building in this city
and in others. They also built
libraries, museums, banks,
cemeteries and other public
building.
They introduced their
language and gods to the
Egyptians and to people in
Libya, Morocco, Algeria,
Sudan and Ethiopia. Fig. 3.4 Choir (Egyptian: cedar wood)
They also introduced a new form of art called mosaic to the North
Africans. Mosaic is the use of small cubes of Shiny stone to make
pictures. Mosaic was done on the walls, floors and ceilings of houses.
The Romans conquered the Greeks and became the rulers of North
Africa. Many years later in 30 BC, the Romans introduced the Christian
religion to Egypt. This soon spread throughout North Africa.

The Romans built many churches and decorated the insides with mosaic.
The Muslims came and conquered the Romans in AD 641 in Egypt and
the whdle1 of North Africa. They introduced their system of beliefs Islam
and built many mosques for worship. They also introduced their language
(Arabic), writing and art. These continue to be used in Egypt today.
Summary
The driving force behind the Egyptian civilization was their beliefs. The
different forms of art played important roles in the expression of these
beliefs. Through art many of the people’s religious and social needs were
met. For example; to build a pyramid was a religious need. In these
problem solving efforts the Pharaoh and his armies organized farmers
to grow more food. They irrigated the land. The navy and sailors went
abroad to fetch other things not available on the land. The Egyptians
needed several sculptors, painters, potters, goldsmiths and weavers.
Many young men and women were trained as artists. This helped to solve
the problem of unemployment. From our study, we notice how Egyptian
life came to be affected by many strong influences from outside. This
hindered the development of true Egyptian art and culture. The same
can happen to any culture today: strong outside influences can affect the
art and culture of any nation.
Questions
1 Why did the Egyptians use many men and take many years to build
the pyramids?
2 Why and how did true Egyptian art cease to develop?
3 Today many people from other countries visit the pyramids in Egypt.
Why do you think the visitors (tourists) do this?
African Art

African Art
South Saharan Arts
South Sahara (sub-Sahara) comprises West Africa. Central Africa, East
Africa and Southern Africa. In about 6000 BC men began a settled way
of life. They fanned, fished, raised domestic animals and built houses. A
few thousand years’ later men began to work in metals: copper, bronze,
iron, gold and silver. They had powerful leaders and kings who developed
kingdoms, empires and cities. In due course these fell and perished due
to wars and outside influences.
The ways of living in the sub-Sahara reflect awareness of a hostile
environment. The people created religious beliefs, ideas and practices to
guide and help them to adjust to the environment. The religious activities
included worship, rituals, rites and ceremonies. The arts were used in
these activities to control and relate to the environment. The arts included
sculpture, painting, architecture, textiles, pottery, jewellery, body art,
furniture, household objects, music, leatherwork, blacksmithing, dance
and storytelling.
We shall discuss the religious beliefs and practices and relate them to
the arts. This will help us to understand some of the social functions and
the importance of the arts to the people of the sub-Sahara. The religious
beliefs, practices, and the arts are still practised today as they were done
many years ago. The sub-Saharan religion comprises a belief in God,
ancestors, spirits, animism and the practices of magic, sorcery,
witchcraft and rites of passage.
Godisthecreatoroftheuniverse.Heisverypowerful.Heknowseverything
and he is everywhere. Most sub-Saharan peoples do not worship him
directly. They do not build temples, shrines or images of him, although
a few shrines are found among the Ashanti (Ghana), Ewes (Ghana and
Togo), Dogon (Mali) and Kikuyu (Kenya).

Ancestor veneration (respect
for ancestors) is based on the
belief that God has given power
to the founders of societies and
families. The ancestors help
people in everything and punish
them when they go wrong. The
people call the ancestors for help
through libations, drums, songs,
dances, prayers and offerings.
Small statues, masks, stools
and thrones are carved for the
ancestors to live in when they
visit the people. Figure 3.5 is a
carved female ancestor figure
of the Baluba (Zaire). Shrines
and temples arc built for the
ancestors. They are decorated
with graphic designs, collages,
paintings, reliefs and statues of
the ancestors. Figure 3.6 is an
example of a Dogon temple for
ancestors.
Festivals and ceremonies are held in honour of the ancestors to thank
them and to ask for more help. The arts used on such occasions include
body paintings, sculpture, music, dance, pottery, textiles and praise names
(appellations):Some of the artefacts are hairstyles, cloths, drums, bowls
(made of brass, bronze, clay or wood), umbrellas, walking sticks, jewels,
songs, masquerades, pantomime and household Objects. There are
priests who keep the shrines and temples. They wear special costumes,
have special hairstyles and do special dances. At death, the soul of
the deceased returns to the ancestors. It may also become an ancestor.
Funeral ceremonies are held. People put on spiral clothes or paint their
bodies with symbolic colours like red, white and black. There is also
special drumming, dancing and singing at the funerals. Sometimes there
are masquerades. Pottery, carved boxes, brass containers and baskets
are used to keep the relies of the dead.
Fig. 3.5 Female ancestor figure ( back
arid from views; Baluba, Zaire; wood;
height 46 cm; British Museum)

Figure 3.7 is an
example of pottery for relics
from Ashanti (Ghana).
Terracotta statues or carved
posts are placed on the
graves of the dead. All forms
of art are needed in various
ways in the ancestor worship.
Therefore we can say that
this worship encourages the
creation and the use of the
arts.
Fig. 3.6 A sketch of
a Dogon ancestral
temple
Fig. 3.7 A pot for relics: abusua kuruwa
(Ashanti. Ghana: clay. National Museum of
Ghana)

Belief in Spirits
It is believed God has given power to spirits or lesser gods. Some of
these spirits were once human beings. But they became spirits through
the help of other spirits. An example is Shango the god of thunder of the
Yoruba Nigeria. Shango is always either represented as an armed rider
on horseback or by the symbol of the thunderbolt used to invoke him.
Thunderbolts are stone axes of prehistoric culture.
Many African believe that the stones dropped from the sky, and the
stones are therefore charged with magic. Shango staffs keep off evil
and work miracles. The staff often portrays a kneeling woman who
represents fertility, as in Figure 3.8.
Other spirits control the rivers, mountains, fire, rain, thunder and fertility
of women, animals and crops. They supervise fishing, hunting, the arts,
agriculture, justice, war, peace, medicine,
Figure 3.8 Shango
sacred staff:
a symbol of the
thunderbolt, (Yoruba,
Nigeria)

travelling and all human activities. For instance, Chi- wara is a spirit. It
taught the Bambara of Mali to grow com. So the Bambara carved
antelope masks to remember the spirit Chi-wara. These masks are used
in agricultural activities and rituals, that Is, clearing the land, planting,
reaping the first fruits, harvesting and storing food. The masks are used
with special costumes in a dance during the agricultural activities. Figure
3.9 shows Chi-wara dancers dancing before the clearing of the land for
farming.
There are also female spirits or goddesses like Mother Earth Odudua
of the Yoruba (Nigeria) and Asaase Yaa of the Akan (Ghana). Images
of the goddesses are modelled in clay or carved in wood. The images
are decorated with hairstyles, scarifications and paintings of symbolic
patterns. The goddesses are shown with children because they stand
for fertility. Women give offerings and prayers to these goddesses for
a successful marriage and many children. Several art forms arc used
during the performance of rituals, rites and ceremonies for the goddesses.
These include songs, drums, clothes, dances, body paintings, jewels and
others. Figure 3.10 shows an image of Odudua. She has a beautiful
hairstyle and two children with her. The child on her left is holding a hen.
Fig. 3.9 Chi-wara mask dancers (Mali)

Fig. 3.10 Odudua (Yoruba.
Nigeria; painted wood; height
76.1 cm; British Museum)
Animism
This is the belief that God has given
special powers to animals, plants and
objects like stones and metals. These
powers can be used by man through rit-
uals, rites and ceremonies. For instance,
one can use the power of a plant to heal
a sick person through rituals. Animals
are greatly respected for their powers.
Snakes, crocodiles and birds ate
often linked with fertility of women and
the soil. Because animals have powers,
their skins are used for amulets, charms
and belts. Their images are made in
brass, iron, silver, gold, ivory or bones
for rings, necklaces, pendants, wristlets
and anklets. These objects may be used
to decorate oneself. Animals are also
depicted in carvings, designs and
paintings to decorate other art
objects. Such objects include houses,
brass and wooden bowls, calabashes,
drums, combs, stools and clothes.
Figure 3.11shows a wooden bowl deco-
rated with a snake and human
figures. Animals are also used to
represent clans, families and societies.
Artists give great respect to their ma-
terials and tools because the materials
and tools possess powers of their own.
The artists make prayers and sacrifices
to the tools and the materials they use
from time to time.

The practice of magic is an important aspect of religion in almost all
African societies. People believe that they can protect themselves against
accidents, drought and diseases through using certain substances and
objects in particular ways.
Charms are prepared through rituals for success in hunting, justice,
love, healing, harvesting, protection and so on. Some of the artefacts
used during magical rituals include statues, masks, leatherwork, pots
and drums. Special recitations, appellations, incantations or poems
and songs are learned and used for the rituals. Figure 3.12 shows an
example of a magic figure in wood with pieces of metal.
Sorcery and witchcraft
These are practices based on magic but used for evil purposes. People
fear these practices so they go to medicine-men to seek protection against
the sorcerers and witches. Many art objects arc used in the rituals for
protection. Figure 3.13 shows a cloth from the Republic of Benin. It
is decorated with an applique pattern representing rituals for repelling
evil spirits and witches. In some African societies special costumes and
masks are worn and dances performed to drive away the witches.
Figure 3.11 Wooden
bowl with snake, and
human figures (Yoruba,
Nigeria; painted wood,
height 38.1 cm; British
Museum)
South Sahara African Art

Fig. 3.12 A magic figure
(Bakongo, Zaire; wood, iron
and fibre; Ghana National
Museum)
Fig. 3.13 Applique cloth
(Republic of Benin)

Rites of Passage
These comprise various rituals, rites and
ceremonies to mark the passage from
one stage of life to another. The
passages are birth, puberty, marriage
and death and the person passes through
them to, respectively, the stages of
childhood, adolescence, adulthood and
ancestorship. At birth the newly born
child is believed to come from the gods
or ancestors. Naming and outdooring
ceremonies are performed. The child is
given names. Prayers are said, libations
are poured with water, wine, or milk.
These are to thank the gods, ancestors
and Mother Earth. The child is then
accepted as a member of the family. Art
forms used at these times include cloth,
pots, calabashes, brass bowls, music,
dance and others. Women who find it
difficult to have
Fig. 3.14 Twin figures
(Yoruba, Nigeria)
children often consult the ancestors through the priests. Wooden dolls
are carved for such women to carry like a child. In Ashanti such a doll
is called akuaba.
Twins are feared and greatly respected in many African societies. When
a twin baby dies a wooden figure is carved to replace the dead one.
When both twins die two figures are carved for the mother to keep for
some time. Among the Yoruba of Nigeria the wooden figures are called
ibeji. Among the Ewe of Ghana they are called amelikpakpt. The figures
can be bought in the market places. Figure 3.14 shows an example of
twin figures.

Puberty is the passage from childhood into adolescence and adulthood.
It is accompanied by rites, rituals and initiation (i.e. introduction into
adult societies or communities). During this time young men and women
arc taught many things concerning life the customs of the people, law
and justice, the dignity of labour, home management, personal hygiene,
civic rights, fighting skills and the arts (pottery, music, dance, drama and
others).
During marriages, gifts of artefacts are given to dear ones. Among the
Bawonga (Zaire), women are presented with carved wooden bowls.
The lids portray proverbs, symbols of hope, wishes or scenes. In Ghana
the women are given stools, jewels, cloths, beads and some household
articles. Marriages are often accompanied by drumming, dancing and
merrymaking. The ancestors are called through prayers to bless the
marriage with peace, joy, prosperity and many healthy children.
At adulthood men and women work hard to acquire properties lawfully.
Thenextpassageaftermarriageisdeath.Thedeadman’sorwoman’ssoul
goes to the ancestors. He or she may become an ancestor depending on
how good she or he was in life.
Some art objects are not used directly for religious purposes. They are
owned and used by people because they are beautiful. They show the
social and economic status of their owners because they are expensive.
Such objects are also used at festivals and ceremonies linked with
ancestor worship. They include household utensils like wooden spoons,
ladles, bowls, jewels and snuff boxes, insignia (symbols of authority) and
regalia (royal objects).
External influences like Islam and Christianity later affected the uses
and creation of indigenous arts. The two religions have not completely
displaced the indigenous arts. Because of this the indigenous arts still
exist side by side with art forms introduced by Islam and Christianity. For
example, although Islam docs not allow the representation of animal
and human figures in the arts, the Nupe people, who are influenced by
Islam, sometimes make animal and human figures in their arts.

The Dogon in Mali and several other people do the same. Christianity.
Islam and the indigenous beliefs exist side by side peacefully in some
countries like Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda. However, the uses of
indigenous arts are declining.
Summary
Today efforts are being made to retain the indigenous arts. Efforts are
also made to relate the arts to present ways of living. Our concern as
art students today is to learn how we too can use these arts to help
us in our daily lives; for instance, how’ we can use our kerne, pots,
carvings and others in the social and economic development of our
nation.
Questions and exercises
1 What does the indigenous sub-Saharan religion comprise?
2 On what belief is ancestor worship based?
3 What forms of art are used in ancestor worship?
4 Make a chart of religious beliefs showing the art forms and objects
used according to the beliefs. Here is an example;
Beliefs Art Forms and Objects
1 Magic Leather, amulets, charms, statues, songs, incantations.
5 Of what use (economic or social) arc these art forms to us today?
References
GARDNER, Helen. Art through the Ages. Harcourt. Brace and World Inc., New
York. 1959 edn.
LAUDE, Jean, The Arts of Black Africa (translated by Jean Dccock). University
of California Press. Berkeley. 1971. pp. 23-4
WINGERT. Paul. Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Styles. Oxford University Press.
New York. 1962. pp 13-73
VANSINA, Jan. An History in Africa. Longman Group Limited. Harlow. 1984

Design
Objectives
The student should be able to:
• identify and describe elements of design;
• give examples of elements of design from nature and the
man-made environment;
• explain the role of elements of design in art;
• derive ideas from the environment and use them to create elements
of design;
• organize basic elements of art into designs according to principles of
organization.
The word ‘design’ in this book refers to a plan within a work of art. It is
the organization, arrangement or composition of a work. This means
that design can be considered as a process or as the result of a process.
We can think of the design of a picture, poster, collage, carving or basket
in both these senses.
When a designer plans his work, he puts together certain qualities such
as dot, line, shape, texture and colour. These qualities may be called
‘elements’. It is the relationship of the elements that the viewer sees.
Elements of design are basic parts or qualities of a design. They are
sometimes referred to as elements of art when they are used to describe
a work of art. Basic elements that are commonly used in art are: dot,
line, shape, texture, space, plane, volume, mass, colour (value, tone,
and pattern). For purposes of easy identification, we will describe the
major elements.

Major Elements of Art
Dot
A dot (•) is a point or small round spot. Dots may appear in nature as
rounded sand or rock particles, pebbles, fruits, seeds or human heads
in a crowd. Dots may be created by drawing, priming or spraying.
Practical work 1
1 Collect some objects which look like dots, place them on a suitable
surface. Draw their outlines and shade them to create dots.
2 Select some of the objects fruits, seeds and pebbles. Place them on
a clean sheet of paper and spray paint or ink over them and the
paper. Remove the objects. The clear spaces are dots.
3 On a clean piece of paper, draw dots with a pen, pencil, stick or
brush and ink.
4 Get drawing ink ready or mix some paint. Dip a brush in the ink or
paint and hold it above a clean sheet of paper. Shake or tap the
brush gently so that drops of the ink or paint fall on the paper as
dots. Dots created by the various methods may be used in pattern
work.
Line
A line may be considered as the path made by a moving point of a
tool such as a pencil, pen or other tool. Various types of lines can
be identified: vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved, zigzag, broken,
undulating, straight, converging, diverging, thin, thick, narrow, wide,
short, long, dark, light, solid, dotted and parallel.
In the natural environment, line appears in several forms: footpaths,
animal trails, rivers, cracks in objects, tree branches, lines on tree barks,
stems of climbing plants, veins of leaves, blades of grass, cobwebs and
so on. In the man-made world, line may be seen in the form of roads,
telegraph lines, electric grids, construction lines, gutters and drains,
drawn lines and printed lines. In art, lines are used largely in drawing
and in designs of various kinds.

1. Vertical 2. Diagonal 3. Horizontal 4. Curved
5. Zigzag 6. Undulating 7. Spiral 8. Converging
9. Diverging 10. Parallel 11. Broken 12. Wide
13. Narrow 14. Solid 15. Dotted 16. Straight
Observe examples of lines in your natural and man made environment.
Practical work 2
1 On a clean sheet of paper, draw examples of the lines illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
2 On another sheet, draw long parallel lines in free-hand style. Try to
keep the space between the lines even. Begin slowly but increase
your speed as you draw.
Figure 4.1 Types of lines

Fig. 4.2 Shapes
3 Draw long meandering lines and keep the spaces between them
even.
4 Drop coloured ink or paint on a sheet of paper and control ii to run
all over the paper to create lines.
5 Dip a brush in a watery paint and splash the paint across a sheet of
paper to create lines.
6 Put paint on a linear surface such as thread, string, rope or grass
stalk and make prints from them on clean paper.7 Tear a piece
of paper in half. The torn edges create lines.
Shape
A shape may be described as an enclosed area. It may be circular,
cylindrical, regular or irregular. Examples in nature are shapes of
fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, stems, stones, insects and animals. Some
man-made shapes are triangles, squares, rectangles, hexagons, circles,
spheres, cones, pyramids and ovals. Observe examples of shapes in
your environment.

Fig. 4.2 Shapes
Practical work 3
1 Draw shapes of leaves, fruits, seeds, insects and rocks.
2 Place a group of objects on a low, flat surface and draw their
shapes. Shade the shapes with dots or lines.
3 Using the circle as a unit, draw as many different shapes as
possible from it. Shade the shapes with dots or lines.
4 Select a heap of stones, scrap material or garbage.
Draw the shapes of the objects and the empty spaces between
them. Shade some of the shapes with dots and lines.

Fig. 4.5 Some Textures
Texture
Texture is the nature of a surface. There are two kinds: actual texture
that can be felt as rough or smooth; and texture that appears to be
rough or smooth, but cannot be felt. For example, a terrazzo surface
appears rough, but it is smooth; its roughness is said to be visual. The
surface of sandpaper is rough and can be felt. This is known as actual
texture (tactile).

Practical work 4
1 Collect objects with varied surfaces from plants, rocks or animals.
Group them according to their roughness or smoothness.
2 Place pieces of paper on the surfaces and rub them with pencil,
charcoal or crayon to show the textures of the objects.
3 Put paint or printing paste on some of the surfaces. Place a clean
paper over the painted surface. Rub the back of the paper to make
a print.
4 Arrange a variety of leaf shapes on paper and spray paint over
them. Rearrange the leaves over the sprayed areas. Repeal the
process till suitable textures are formed.
5 Cut out some of the printed or sprayed textures and organize them
into patterns. What can the patterns be used for?
6 Texture may be created through drawing (see Figure 4.5). Practise
drawing your own examples of textures using lines, alphabets and
numbers.
7 Cut out pieces of an old newspaper or magazine and paste them
to overlap one another. Some may be upside down. This creates
textures.
8 Dip a piece of sponge, foam, crumpled paper or fabric in paint
Stamp it several times to cover the entire surface of a clean sheet of
paper to form textures.
9 Collect flat textured surfaces such as fabric, paper, banana or
plantain tree bark and corn shuck. Cut them into a variety of shapes
and paste them with a strong adhesive on a hard surface.
Fig. 4.4 Some textures

Colour
Colour is a fascinating element of design. You need to learn how it works
and the different ways in which it may be applied. It is fruitless to learn
about colour theory separately from practice. You will understand colour
belter where there is a clear link between making colour and using it.
Begin your study by observing colour in nature the colour of flowers,
seeds, fruits, leaves, rocks, animals and insects. Observe and practise
how to match the actual colour of objects. Use just a few colours at first.
Exploration of colour should be directly linked with specific assignments,
so that as you mix colours, you also learn how to use them. Colour
studies may be made from direct observation of natural and man-made
forms. It is helpful to draw and paint with colour. Draw with paint and
add colour to it. Your teacher will demonstrate colour mixing and colour
application to you.
Practical work 5
With the assistance of a teacher, go through the following exorcises:
1 Observe objects through transparent coloured polythene sheets. You
will notice that the colour of the polythene appears to mix with the
colour of the objects.
2 Select some natural objects. Observe their appearance and mix
colours to match them.
3 Observe the colour of an object. Put it away and match its colour
from memory.
Design

4 Cut out a variety of coloured materials - paper, fabric, bark of soft
stems, animal skin or polythene covers. Make a collage with the
materials on a suitable surface to form colour patterns.
5 Place coloured objects - fruit, shells, seeds, flowers or leave
against a coloured background and paint them in their actual
colours.
Space
Space refers to an open area with no boundary at least in one direction.
In art, we think of space in many ways. For example, in a picture, we see
positive and negative space. It is also seen between shapes or objects.
Space appears in terms of scale or size. We think of space in perspective.
We space the alphabets in writing. We observe space around solid
objects. These concepts of space are illustrated in Figure 4.6.
In Figure4.6 (a) the shaded or empty area may be considered positive or
negative space. In (b) the shaded areas represent positive objects while
the empty background represents negative space. In (c) the object is very
small in relation to the large space around it Figure 4.6(d) shows how
graded tones can suggest the concept of space (depth). In (e) the shaded
shapes do not touch due to the large space between them. The shapes
in (f) are almost touching because the space between them is very nar-
row. In Figure 4.6(g) the shapes are touching because there is no space
between them. In (h) the shapes overlap and there is no concept of space
at all. Figure 4.6(i) shows spacing in alphabets. In design, it is important
to consider the concept of space in relation to other
elements of art.
Design

(i) Spacing Alphabets
Fig. 4.6 Some concepts of space
Practical work 6
1 Cut shapes out of coloured paper, and arrange them in groups on
clean white paper. Some shapes should be: (a) not touching;
(b) not quite touching; (c) touching; (d) overlapping.
2 Cut a piece of coloured paper and paste it on a large piece of
white paper leaving a large space around it.
3 Make a structure by nailing, tying or gluing pieces of a suitable
material together - wood, metal, plastic, cane, bamboo, raffia,
mashed paper or foam. Your structure should show a variety of
shapes, textures, colour and spaces.

Fig. 4.7 Proportion, scale and size
Proportion, scale and size
These other elements of design play an important role in making a work
of art. In a picture, the appearance of an image is influenced by the
shape and size of its background. We can arrange objects in a picture
to indicate dial some are near, others are far away. We can determine
relative sizes of objects in a picture by comparing them. In a given area
for a picture, it is important to place your images in such a way that they
are not too large or too small for the picture space.
In Figure 4.7(a) the size of the object is too small in rclation.to the picture
space. In (b) the objects are too large for the available space. In (c) the
objects do not occupy the full size of the picture space. In (d) the sizes of
the objects are in proportion to one another and the size of the picture
space. Figure 4.7(d) is a better design than the others.

Practical work 7
1 Select some objects and arrange them on a table. Draw and
shade them in pencil, charcoal, chalk or any suitable medium. Pay
attention to their shapes, texture, space between and around them,
lines on them and the effect of light and shade on them.
2 Arrange another group of objects and paint them. Note the sizes
of the objects in your picture in relation to the size of your paper.
The major elements or qualities of design described can be
considered as ‘vocabulary’ in the language of art. It is their
arrangement and organization that makes the design of the work
pleasing or unpleasing.
Organization of a Design
The structure of a work of art, be it a drawing, painting, carving or
basket is based on the organization of elements of Resign according to
certain principles. Some of the principles are: variety, unity, harmony,
rhythm, balance, contrast, repetition, opposition and dominance. Thus,
elements of design may be organized in various combinations to create
art.
Sometimes, it is useful to study these visual qualities (principles) in the
environment. Table 1 provides some examples of visual qualities in na-
ture and the man-made environment.
Design

Visual Quality Examples in the Environment
Variety
of plants: fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves
of animals: reptiles, winged animals, four-footed
animals
in music, dance and drama
of rocks, pebbles, sand particles
of goods in a market
Harmony
of colour, shape, line, texture, unrelated objects,
human beings and sound
Rhythm
in arrangement of tree branches, leaves, flowers,
fruits, seeds, pattern on animals, movement of
animals, human beings and water
in music, dance and drama
Balance
of colour, shape, line, texture, space in plants,
animals in music, dance and drama
Contrast
in size, colour, shape, texture of objects,
construction in sound, music and dance
Repetition
of shapes, colour, texture, space, lines in plants,
animals, human beings and construction in
sound, music and drama
Opposition
of things rounded shapes against angular
shapes; male and female; hot and cold; loud and
soft; high and low; good and bad: narrow and
wide and so on
Dominance
green colour in nature, blue in the sky. brown in
soil, brown, red. black clothes at funerals and so
on
Table 1 Some visual qualities in the environment

In nature, we observe order in the structure of tree branches, leaves,
flowers, fruits and seeds. Similarly, die arrangement of patterns, colours,
textures and tones on plants, objects and animals shows evidence of
variety, harmony,
unity, balance and other principles of organizing a design. For example,
when you observe a compound leaf, you would notice the order, rhythm
and balance in its organization.
Table 2 shows examples of organizing elements of design into art.
Visual
Qualities
A
Dot
B
Line
C
Shape
D
Space
E
Texture
F
Colour
1. Variety
2. Harmony
3. Rhythm
4. Balance
5. Contrast
6. Repetition
7. Opposition
8. Dominance
Table 2: Organising elements of design
On a large sheet of paper, make a copy of Table 2. In each column
under A, B, C, D, E and F organize the element of design according to
each principle of organization listed under ‘Visual Quality’ (1-8) to fill
each box.
Design

Figure 4.8 Designs by Dorothy Agbo, S.B. 1986
(a) Two-dimensional design
(b) Three-dimensional design
We do not expect to see all the elements of design or the principles by
which they are organized in one work of art. When a work is designed,
it is important to show as many of the visual qualities as is appropriate.
In Figure 4.8 some elements and principles of design can be identified.
In Figure 4.8(a) the design suggests a flat two-dimensional appearance.
In (b), solid three-dimensional form is suggested. In (a) we can identify
line, shape, texture, contrast, balance, variety, rhythm, unity and
opposition. In (b) we find line, shape, texture, rhythm, balance and
repetition.
Thus we need to understand that in any design some elements of design
can be identified and we should look at the principles or rules by which
they have been organized. Other features about organization of a
picture are described in the next chapter.

Design
References
CHAPMAN. Laura H., Approaches to Art in Education, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich Inc.. New York. 1978. pp. 34-9
CLEMENT. Robert. The Art Teacher’s Handbook. Century Hutchinson Ltd.
London. 1987. pp. 144-51
DE SAUSMAREZ, Maurico, Basic Design: tho Dynamics of Visual Form.
Studio Vista Ltd. London. 1970, pp. 20-21, 28-9. 31.41
STERNBERG. Harry. Composition. Grossctand Dunlop. New York. 1958.
pp. 6-9
WANKELMAN. Willard F.. WIGG. Philip and MARIETT; Arts and Crafts.
Win. C. Brown Company. Dubuque. 1974. pp. 93, 102, 1G8-7

Franz Xavier
Messerschmidt

Terms in Art
Objectives
Students should be able to:
• understand and explain general terms in art;
• understand and explain terms used in various art disciplines;
• increase the scope of their vocabulary for effective verbalization
about works of art.
This chapter is not a glossary. It explains basic terms in basketry,
ceramics, picture- making, leatherwork, textiles, graphic design and
sculpture. Knowledge of the terms will help students to understand
the processes and concepts in their chosen fields of study as well as
other disciplines. By studying the selected terms, students will increase
the scope of their vocabulary and be able to talk about works of art
using the appropriate language. They will acquire a general background
knowledge in visual arts and be able to demonstrate basic skills in all the
disciplinesinthevisualartsprogramme.Studentsshould,inadditiontothe
terms explained in this chapter, compile a list of terms used in art locally
and their equivalents in the Ghanaian languages.
Basketry
This is the art of making containers by plaiting, weaving, coiling and so
on with pliable materials. The term now covers die making of articles
such as furniture, plant holders and mats made by the same methods.
Some of the materials suitable for basketry are cane, palm rachis and
leaves, bamboo, rachis, raffia, grass stalks and rushes. The basic tools
used in basketry are knives, bodkins, shears, pliers and measuring tape.
Base: The flat bottom of a basket.
Border: A way of binding the edge of a basket or mat with a weaver as a
finishing.

Eye stakes: Extra stakes places on the side of each upright pole to
strengthenthe body of the basket.
Fitching: The weavers are lightly worked alternately one under the other.
It is employed for skeleton work such as cages and waste paper baskets.
Foot-trac: Container with a flat wooden base. It is also the method of
securing or fastening the stakes after they have been fitted into the
wooden base.
Macrame: A kind of lace or ornamental work made by knotting thread
or cord in patterns. The knotting process is employed for making articles
in basketry.
Pairing: Weaving with two weavers alternately.
Randing: Weaving with only one weaver.
Rim: The edge of a basket.
Stakes: The thick upright poles or spokes of a basket around which the
finerstrips (weavers) are woven.
Upsetting: Another kind of weave whereby three weavers are used. It is
used to weave the bend of a basket. It is also used to strengthen,
decorate and finish the bend and rim of a basket.
Fig. 5.2 Fitching Fig. 5.1 Stakes

Waling: Weaving the body of a basket at the same time to decorate and
strengthen the basket.
Weavers: The finer strips which are woven round the stakes.
Pottery and Ceramics
These are the arts of fashioning objects in clay and hardening them
by firing. Ceramic wares such as water closets, basins, pipes and
insulators are fired to higher temperatures. Pottery wares such as pots,
bowls, plates, cups, roofing tiles, flower pots and water coolers are fired
at a lower temperature.
Air bubbles: Small pockets of air trapped in clay. These, if not removed,
willcause the ware to expand and break during firing.
Batt: Thin slabs of fired clay, plaster or asbestos on which pots are dried.
Biscuit or bisque: First firing of pottery and ceramic wares without glaze;
for example, a water cooler.
Body: A mixture of pottery and ceramics materials. For example, kaolin,
ordinary clay and sawdust mixed together.
Burnishing: The process of polishing or rubbing the surface of pots
with a tool to make it smooth and shiny.
Centring: The act of placing a lump of clay in the centre of the
revolving disc of the potter’s wheel for throwing.
Clay: The type of earth which is sticky when wet and hardens when dry
and fired.
Coiling: The technique of building clay objects using clay in a rope-
like form.
Terms in Art

Cones: Small cone-shaped clays specially treated and used to
determine temperature in a kiln when firing. They melt at a given
temperature.
Dunting: The cracking of fired pots in a kiln due to rapid or uneven
cooling.
Earthenware: Articles made in clay.
Firing: This is a process by which pottery wares are baked in a kiln or
in the open over a period of time to effect both physical and chemical
changes. This makes them hard and durable.
Glazing: The process of covering a pot with a layer of glaze. The glaze
isapplied in a liquid form and allowed to dry. Then the pot is fired in a
kiln. The glaze melts and seals the pores in the wares.
Glost firing: Firing of a glaze on a bisque ware.
Green ware: Pottery ware which is bone-dry but not yet fired.
Grog: Hard fired clay ground to powder. It is mixed with clay which
is too sticky in order to facilitate drying and reduce shrinkage. Sand,
charcoal and sawdust may also be used as grog.
Kiln: Furnace or oven for baking or drying pottery or ceramic wares.
Kneading: Technique used in working clay to remove air pockets.
Lawns: Meshes specially prepared to sieve clay.
Leather-hard: Clay that is hard, but not dry. Clay in this state can be
carved.
Luting: The process of joining clay surface with clay slip. The two sur-
faces are scratched, the slip is applied and joined. Handles, feet and
knots of ceramics wares are fixed by this method.
Terms in Art

Open firing: This type of firing is done in the open with the wares
exposed to naked flames. The traditional pots are fired by this method.
Pinching: The process of hollowing out a ball of clay to form a pottery
ware. This is done by pressing the thumb into the clay and thinning out
the walls between the thumb and the fingers until the desired shape is
achieved.
Pyrometer: Instrument for measuring and recording temperature in the
kiln.
Saggers: Fired clay boxes or chambers in which wares to be fired are
packed to protect them from direct contact with kiln gases.
Sgraffito: A technique for decorating pottery in which the design is
produced by scratching through an over glaze to reveal a ground of
different colour.
Slip:Clay which has been mixed with water to a liquid consistency. It is
used for decoration and for joining leather-hard pieces of clay.
Coloured slip can be obtained by adding colouring chemicals to the
slip.
Stone ware: Pottery which is hard, opaque and non-porous.
Terracotta: Baked clay. It is brownish red in colour.
Throwing: The process of forming or shaping pottery wares with clay
on a potter’s wheel.
Turning: Trimming excess clay from the walls and die base of thrown
wares
on the potter’s wheel. This is done while the clay is leather-hard.
Wedging: A process of cutting clay into wedges and working them
into an even consistency. The wedges are lifted and brought down with
force repeatedly to break down the lumps and give the day a uniform
consistency.
Terms in Art

Fig. 5.3 Armature
Sculpture
This is the art of creating forms in three dimensions either in relief or in
the round with a variety of materials such as stone, wood, clay, metal,
paper, plastic, wax, bone and ivory. It involves the processes of carving,
modelling, casting or construction and assemblage.
Armature: The metal or wooden framework around which the sculptor
models so that the forms can stand firmly and not collapse. Some of
the materials which need the support of an armature are clay, plaster of
Paris and cement.
Bust: A sculpture showing the upper part of a figure, generally the head
and shoulders.
Carving: A process of cutting away material bit by bit to achieve
a desired form. This process is known as the ‘subtractive processes.
Carving may be done in relief or in the round.
Casting: Pouring a liquid substance such as cement, clay, bronze, lead
and plaster of Paris into a mould to produce the copy of a form.

Figurine: A small carved or modelled figure.
Mobile: A form of movable sculpture made from a variety of shapes
suspended on thread, wire, iron rods, siring. The shapes are moved by
the wind or human touch to show different planes.
Modelling: A process of adding soft and malleable material bit by bit to
build a form either in the round or in relief. The process is referred to as
the ‘additive process’.
Mould: A hollow shape into which material is poured so that when it
hardens it lakes that shape.
Pyrography or scotching: The process drawing or making designs on a
surface such as wood, calabash or leather with a hot metal tool.
Fig. 5.4 Carved relief

Relief: A representation of three-dimensional forms on a
two-dimensional surface in such a way that the forms appear solid but
arc not free-standing.
Sculpture in the round: A three-dimensional form which is
free-standing and can be seen from all sides. For example, fertility dolls,
umbrella tops and linguist staffs.
Fig. 5.5 Sculpture in the Round

Leatherwork
This is the processing of various hides and skins of animals inio leather
and the use of appropriate tools and techniques to make a variety of
articles from natural and synthetic leather.
Applique: Pieces of cloth or leather of different colours and textures
stitched or fixed on to a background as a decoration or picture.
Chamois: Soft, fine and pliable leather prepared from die skin of the
chamois, a goat-like mountain antelope. It can also be made from the
skins of sheep, goats and deer.
Embossing: A method of decorating leather by using heated stamps to
give the surface a raised or relief effect.
Grooving: A long, narrow and shallow depression made on leather to
serve as a guide for sewing.
Fig. 5.6 Grooving on leather

Hides: The skins of large animals such as the cow, ox and bull. These
are fairly thick skins used for heavy types of leatherwork.
Leather: An animal skin or hide treated by tanning and other process-
es to render it suitable for different uses.
Leatherette: An artificial leather made from synthetic materials and
used for footwear, bags, wallets, upholstery and so on.
Morocco: Tanned goatskin finished by glazing or polishing. It is a firm
and fine leather suitable for wallets, bags, book-binding, upholstery
and so on.
Skins: Outer covering of the body of small animals such as sheep,
lizards, goats, snakes or rabbits.
Skiving: Splitting or culling leather into thin layers or slices. When two
pieces of thick leather are to be glued the edges have to be thinned by
shaving off some of the thickness. Skiving is also known as pairing.
Fig. 5.7 Skiving

Skivers: Thin layers of sheep skin used for linings and book-binding.
Suede: Made from sheep or goat skins. A velvety finish is given to the
flesh side to make it soft, uniform and pliable. It is used for footwear
and many oilier articles of clothing.
Tanning: The method by which hides and skins are processed into
leather.
Thong: A narrow strip of hide or leather used as a fastening.
Picture Making
This is the art of making a representation of images such as persons,
objects and scenes; for example, painting, printing, collage, mosaic and
photography.
Chiaroscuro: The science of light and shade. The treatment or general
distribution of light and shade in a picture. This is achieved by indicating
the source of light, how it falls upon objects, the shadows it casts, die
reflected light and the soft tonal changes in the area of shadows.
Collage: A picture built up entirely or partly from pieces of paper, cloth
or other materials stuck on a suitable surface.
Cross-hatching: Shading in two layers of parallel lines, one
layercrossing the other at an angle.
Ferrule: The metal part of the painting brush which holds the bristles
together.
Fixative: A kind of thin varnish sprayed on pastel, soft pencil or charcoal
drawings to protect them.
Terms in Art

Foreground: The part of a picture or design which is nearest to the
viewer.
Foreshortening: A way of representing an image in a work of art such
that parts nearer the viewer overshadow the other parts.
Fresco: A process of painting on wet plaster.
Glazing: To cover the surface of a painting with a thin layer of trans-
parent colour.
Ground: The coating on the surface on which a painting is to be done.
For example, gesso is the ground on a panel, sizing and priming is the
ground on a canvas.
Hatching: Shading in drawing carried out in parallel lines.
Fig. 5.8
Foreshortening

Horizon: The line where the earth appears to meet the sky.
Impasto: Applying paint thickly to a surface in painting.
Landscape: The representation of a scene in drawing or painting.
Mosaic: A method of picture-making in which small bits of materials
such as glazes, stone and paper are stuck to a surface.
Mural: A picture made directly on to a wall surface.
Perspective: A way of drawing objects or scenes so that they appear to
have depth or distance.
Picture plane: The area filled by the images in a picture.
Polychrome: A picture or drawing made in many colours.
Portraits: The likeness of a person, especially the face, in drawing,
painting, photography or sculpture.
Priming: A preparatory treatment of a surface before painting is done.
This treatment provides a good working surface so that the paint does
not sink into it.
Sfumato: A method of achieving a gradual grading of tones from dark
to light.
Silhouette: An outline drawing or painting, uniformly filled with black.
It is also a dark image outlined against a lighter background.
Sketch: The rough drawing or painting giving the essential features of
an idea or object but without the details.
Figure 5.9 Silhouette

Still life: A picture made from a composition of objects.
Wash: A thin layer of water colour applied over a fairly large area of
paper.
Textiles
This is the art of processing fibres into fabrics. The term textiles again
refers to all fabrics cither in the piece or in garment form. Textiles may
be woven or knitted. Each has its own characteristics depending on the
raw material, the class of yams, the structure or any special effects due
to dyeing or
printing.
Batik (dyeing): A method of dyeing a fabric using resistant materials
such as wax, cassava or corn starch to prevent the dye from penetrating
into some areas of the cloth.
Bleaching: The process of treating fibres and fabrics with chemicals to
make them white.
Designing: The process of removing from fabric starches and
lubricants which were applied to the warp before weaving.
Dyes: Substances which colour yams or fabrics. Fast dyes remain in
the fabric and cannot be removed by rubbing or washing. There are
different classes of dyes and each has its own mode of application.
Fibres: A Fibre is the smallest unit used in the manufacture of fabrics.
Fibresaremadeupofnaturalorsynthetichair-likesubstancesorfilaments.
They are spun together to produce thread or yam. The natural fibres are
obtained from vegetable, animal and mineral sources. The man-made
and synthetic are constructed chemically. The two groups of fibres can
be combined at various stages of producing fabrics.
Heddling: The process of passing the warp ends through the eye or loop
of the heddle.
Terms in Art

Loom: A device on which cloth is woven.
Mordant: A substance employed in dyeing to fix the colour to the
fabric.
Plain or tabby weave: The simplest form of weave structure in which the
warp and weft interlace alternately. Examples of fabrics produced with
plain weave are calico, poplin and gingham (check).
Plain or tabby weave: The simplest form of weave structure in which the
warp and weft interlace alternately. Examples of fabrics produced with
plain weave are calico, poplin and gingham (check).
Reeding: A process of passing the warp ends through the dents in the
reed. A hook is usually used far this purpose.
Scouring: The washing of woven fabrics to remove impurities. This is
done before bleaching.
Selvedge: The longitudinal edges of the fabric. The warp is crammed
on the selvedges to make the weave firm and compact to prevent
fraying.
Shed: The V-shaped opening formed by the raising and the lowering of
the warp ends, through which passes the shuttle carrying the weft picks.
Shuttle: A device which carries the weft threads through the shed
during weaving. Spinning: The process of drawing (pulling) and twisting
of fibres to make a continuous strand or thread.
Tie-and-dye: A method of dyeing in which portions of the fabric are tied
or knotted to resist the dye
Twill weave: In twill weaves the interlacing of warp and weft cause di-
agonal lines to be formed on both sides of the fabric. An example is
gabardine.
Terms in Art

Fig. 5.10 Warp and Weft threads
Fig. 5.9 Shuttle
Warp: The threads which run lengthwise in the loom and are parallel to
the selvedge. It is through the warp’ that the weft threads are passed to
form the cloth. The warps are known individually as ‘ends’.
Weft: The threads which interlace with the warp to form the fabric. They
are the transverse yams in the fabric. The weft threads are also known
individually as ‘picks’, fillings or woof.
Yarns: Threads which are interworked to form cloth or fabric.

Graphic Design
Graphic design work involves drawing, painting, printing, engraving
and etching for the purpose of communication and advertising.
Banner: A fabric printed or painted with a message. It is supported at
the comers with strings or on wooden props.
Billboard: Large drawing or painting specially prepared and erected at
vantage points, for example along roads, for the purpose of advertising
products, services and so on.
Calligraphy: The art of handwriting or penmanship. The term implies a
knowledge of the correct form of letters and the ability to inscribe them
correctly.
Caricature: The drawing or painting of a character in which some
features are over -emphasized to create fun or for the purpose of ridicule.
Cartoon: A full-scale brush or pencil drawing on paper to be used as
a model for easel, panel or wall painting. In modern usage cartoon
means drawings of figures and events in an amusing way.
Design: An outline or a plan of the main features of something to be
executed as in a picture; the arrangement of elements or details in a
work of art.
Drawing: The art of representing an idea or event in a medium such as
pencil, crayon, pastel or brush with colour.
Emblem: An objector its symbol adopted by a country, company, club or
firm and used as a distinguishing mark or sign of office or honour. One
of the emblems on Ghana’s coat of arms is the eagle.
Terms in Art

Layout: A plan of a work to be executed. It may be a sketch in which the
various units in the design have been arranged.
Logo (gram): An adopted symbol skillfully drawn and used by business
organizations and institutions as a means of identification.
Pattern: A purely decorative design based on abstract or geometric
forms, plant, animal or human shapes. The unit or design is repeated to
give an overall effect.
Poster: A written or printed notice which serves as a means of
communication. Posters inform and educate the public about products,
events, utility services and civic responsibilities. Some posters have only
words on them. Others have pictures as well as words. These are known
as picture posters.
Signboard: A board which carries information about products,
services and so on. Signpost: An upright wooden or metal pole on which
a board is erected and placed along roads to give information and
direction.
Symbol: An object or sign representing something else. Symbols may be
used in works of art. Examples are the clan symbols, gold weights, kente
and stool symbols.
Terms in Art

Photo: Focus Vision

Creativity and Appreciation
Objectives
Students should be able to understand:
• the concept of appreciation in an;
• the logical sequence in appreciation;
• the meaning of creativity and the creative process;
• what a creative person is;
• the explanation and application of concepts of aesthetics;
• the examination and application of criteria for criticism and
judgement
in art;
• the development of critical thinking and judgement;
• the roles of the human senses in art activity.
Appreciation is a full awareness of all the good qualities in what
we see, read and hear. It has to do mainly with the arts: art (i.e.
painting, sculpture, pottery, jewellery, textiles and others); architecture;
cinema (i.e. films); photography; literature (i.e. poetry, stories, plays and
so on); music and dance. Appreciation is intelligent discussion about
works of art. It also involves silent and deep thinking about them. It
entails intelligent enjoyment of everything in a work that can be enjoyed.
Appreciation in the arts plays an important role in our everyday lives
when we choose and listen to songs or sing them, read, tell or listen to
stories, watch films, plays or drama and dance or watch people dance.
The need for appreciation in our lives is shown by the existence of
some organizations: the National Commission on Culture, Centres for
National Culture, the Association of Artists and Artistes, and the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
These organizations aim at promoting the study, production, preservation
and appreciation of the arts at all stages of life. Art appreciation promotes
understanding and friendship between people of different cultures. It
helps us to develop ideas about beauty. It also helps us sec individual
artists or unknown arts of a period in relation to the environment and to
ourselves.

Appreciation enables us to assess and appraise a work of art without
passing judgement on it. It involves studying works of art and trying to
understand their meaning. Sometimes art appreciation exposes us to
many different works in particular areas of the arts: painting, music,
dance and so on.
Adequate knowledge in art and in history of art is necessary for
appreciation. An understanding of the technique and the medium
used by the artists helps us to appreciate his work well. History of art
involves reading and thinking about art through the ages and making
comparisons. It is the investigation of the artists’ rules (canons), styles
and creative ideas. It traces the historical development of various art
forms in a particular culture. Through art history we become familiar
with great works and great artists. This helps us to compare new works
with old ones.
Knowledge and understanding of art help to develop good taste. Taste
is the quality of telling good art from bad art. Taste can be learned if we
practise appreciation.
Procedure in Appreciation
A work of art may raise many questions in our minds when we see, read
or hear it. What is it? Where does it come from? Where was it made?
Who made it? Is it what it pretends to be? Does it have a special form
or is it just a copy of something else? Is it worth looking at, listening to
or reading? How does it fit into the artistic culture in Ghana, Nigeria or
Togo? For whom was it made? What does it mean? What is it made for?
These questions and many more have to be answered intelligently and
in an orderly manner. There is a simple step-by-step method used in art
appreciation to answer these questions:

1 Identification of work (title, artist, date, size, medium, location).
2 Inventory of items in the work of art (naming the items in the work
and
describing their physical properties).
3 Technical qualities (kinds of materials, tools, methods, design/
composition and style).
4 Interpretation (meaning of work, function and its relation to culture).
Application of Procedure
Step 1: Identifying a work of art
• State what the work is, e.g. painting.
• State the title of the work, e.g. ‘A Village Scene’.
• State the name of the artist, e.g. Comfort Kyiesu (or, if the artist is not
known, then state that the artist is unknown or anonymous).
• Suite die date or the period when the work was done, e.g. June
1990.
• Suite the size of the work, e.g. 30 cm long and 20 cm high.
• State where the work can be found, its location or who owns it,
e.g. in the collection of the artist or in die Ghana National Museum,
Accra.
Step 2: Giving the inventory of items in the work
State or name all the objects seen in die work and describe them, e.g. two
round houses made of mud and roofed with thatch; two cows grazing; a
girl carrying a brown pot on her head and wearing a piece of cloth
around her waist; a lean, brown dog chasing a hen across the picture;
two baobab trees; and so on.
State the characteristics or features of the items, e.g. the houses are
decorated with black and white patterns and there are cracks on their
surfaces; some of the thatches are falling off the roof; the half-naked girl
is slim and she seems to be in a hurry; the wind is partially blowing off
her cloth but she does not care; and so on.

Step 3: Talking about the technical qualities of the work
• State the materials used by the artist in the work, e.g. cartridge
paper, poster colour and brushes;
• State the method or methods used by the artist, e.g. the colours are
gently, carefully and smoothly applied with the brush to the paper;
the colours are thickly applied and arc not mixed with other colours
so they are raw and strong; the outline of the shapes are drawn with
a thin brush in black.
• State the nature of the composition or design, e.g. the items are
drawn close together or scattered about in the picture; the items look
real and show perspective. State how the artist has used rhythm,
balance, harmony and other elements of design. (We shall learn
more about the elements of design in Chapter 4 of this book.)
Step 4: Interpreting the work
• State the atmosphere created in the picture, e.g. because the
shadows are short and strongly painted, the colours are bright and
the girl is partially naked, it suggests a hot afternoon.
• Relate the items in the picture to the cultural background of the artist
the work, e.g. the round houses with the thatch roofs are typical
architecture of certain parts of Northern Ghana, so the painting is
perhaps a village scene in Northern Ghana.
• State the uses or functions of the work, e.g. the painting shows an
aspect of life in Ghana; the animals in the painting give us ideas of
domestic animals found in that part of Ghana; the girl carrying a
pot suggests the source of water supply is in the village; the picture
is educating us about Ghana; it is also painted to please us; it is to
be used for decorating the wall of a room.
The joy in art appreciation lies in constant practice, and its application
to lift.

Creativity
Creativity means making something new. It involves inventing new things
or ideas; improving upon new things or ideas; rearranging old things
or ideas in new forms. For example, the introduction of the junior sec-
ondary school and the senior secondary school involved some creativity
because they are new ideas or an improvement upon the old education
system. Creativity is possible in all aspects of life.
Creativity happens in engineering, the civil service, sciences, medicine,
the military, the police, law, trade, politics, teaching, farming, fishing
and so on. But it is probably true to say that there is more pure creativity
in all forms of art (music, literature, painting, cinema and so on), than
in oilier activities.
All human beings can be or should be creative, but for various reasons
some people are more creative than others (i.e. they show more sense
of creativity). There are certain qualities by which we can recognize a
creative person.
The Creative Person
A creative person is someone who is able to use his imagination to make,
form or design something new. There are two types of creative people:
first, there is the ordinary creative person who can create but needs to
put in a lot of effort, his creative ability is limited: secondly, there is the
genius, a person who has great ability to create as if without effort (e.g.
a great artist, scientist, musician or hunter, fisherman, teacher, trader
and student). A creative person has the following qualities:
• He is very curious, eager to learn and find out things about the
environment.
• He is ready to explore or try out new things and ideas.
• He is hard-working and docs not give up easily in times of difficulty.
• He is highly imaginative and practical. He likes to experiment with a
variety of ideas.
• He has a great interest in and love of what he does.

• He accepts challenges and tasks and completes them.
• He is always hopeful and self-disciplined.
• He is able to produce many new ideas quickly.
• He is able to fit into a new situation.
• He is original (i.e. able to think or do something that has not been
done before).
• He is able to put many things together to make a new form or
whole.
• He is able to make small things bigger by adding details.
The Creative Environment
A creative environment makes it possible for us to be creative according to
ourhighestabilities.Ifwedonotgettherightenvironmentwecannotcreate.
For example, if we do not have something to write with and a place to
write in. we cannot create a novel. The right environment includes giving
people freedom to create. The creative environment has the following
characteristics:
• The acceptance that everyone has something good in him. This
should be given a chance 10 grow by offering the person the same
opportunities as other people.
• Not judging people when we do not know much about them or
what they can do. They must be given the freedom to try out their
abilities without fear.
• The acceptance of people with their weaknesses and providing
them with opportunities to develop.

The Creative Process
The creative process takes time. It is basically the same in all areas of
human activity, in the arts and the sciences, although different methods
will be used in each case. The process may be divided into the following
stages.
1 Period of preparation. This can embrace all experiences in life.
It also includes a specific type of preparation for each work. For
example, a sculptor, a graphic designer, a textile artist, a potter or a
writer trains himself for many years to become an expert. It is a
period of gathering information and learning techniques.
2 Incubation period. This is the time when the creative person faces
difficulties in his creative activity. At this point he just goes away from
the problem to do something else. He accepts this situation and does
not give up altogether. He has a hope of solving the problem in due
course. In some cases too, he does not leave the work. He keeps
trying again and again until he finds a solution.
3 Period of insight or inspiration: The creative person left the work he
was creating when he had a difficult problem. He is now doing
something else. All of a sudden, the answer to his problem comes
into his mind. He rushes back to continue the work. Finding a
solution in this way can
take a creative person days, weeks, months or even a year, but he is
always hopeful and does not give up.
4 Period of verification, elaboration, perception and evaluation. At this
point the creative person works harder with great joy. He aims at
finishing the work. He may show the work to friends or experts for
their appreciation and criticism.
It is through creativity that we are able to invent things or ideas for the
development of society. Creativity can be used in various ways but our
concern is to examine how creative we are and how best we and the
society can benefit from our creative abilities and skills.

There are many young creative persons. Among them are those who
make toy cars out of empty tins (e.g. milk, Milo and other tins), brushes
from local materials, colours from plants and the soils, those who use
sawdust for sculpture, make baskets and furniture from canes, bamboo
furniture and cups, jewellery from seeds and shells, wooden models of
bicycles and sewing machines and many other interesting things.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the study of the theory’ or the science of beauty. It deals
with all the qualities that are related to beauty, especially in the arts.
The qualities of the arts include vision (seeing), sound (hearing), motion
(movement), taste, smell, touch, and emotions such as anxiety, sadness,
joy, love, fear, hope, hate, amusement. These inspire us to create or
react to beautiful things. Aesthetics play an important role in our lives.
Think of how our attention is often drawn to inspiring sounds, shapes,
images, textures, colours and so on. It affects our behaviour towards
natural and man-made things and is at work when we observe beautiful
things such as clothes, music, cars or books.
Aesthetic Experience
Aesthetic experience is experience and knowledge gathered over a
period of time. For example, our aesthetic experience in highlife music
depends on the number of times we have listened to or produced that
type of music.
Aesthetic Training and Education
Aesthetic training is learning about the environment through the senses.
In training, we are helped to see, touch, listen, taste, smell and move
dungs in our surroundings. The things comprise colour, form, sound,
odour and other attributes. In aesthetic education, we are taught grad-
ually how to see, hear, feel or taste qualities of beauty practically.

For example, we practise how to use poster colours and brushes to
make beautiful pictures; we practise how to move our bodies to create a
beautiful dance; we practise how to appreciate and criticize works of art
to gain aesthetic experience. Aesthetic training and education require
our efforts, i.e. learning and practising. There are certain qualities we
have to acquire so that we can learn how to see aesthetically.
Qualities for learning how to see aesthetically
• Awareness of the unity of the senses (sight, touch, smell, hearing
and taste) in life. The senses work together in unity and harmony.
They do not work in isolation of each other or independently. This is
why when we see or smell some good food we feel like eating the
food; or when we hear good music we suddenly feel like moving our
body, nodding our heads and clicking our fingers. If a person loses
one of the senses, the other senses can help him to live a meaningful
life. For example, if the person becomes blind (loss of sight) or deaf
(loss of hearing) he can move about or communicate with other
people around him.
• Recognition that the senses are our means of gathering information
for creativity.
• Awareness that sound, touch, line, colour, size, light and others have
their variations of aesthetic qualities.

Aesthetic qualities
Things we see, smell, hear, taste, touch and move have their different
aesthetic qualities from the least to the most, e.g. good, better, best. They
also have their opposite qualities, e.g. good and bad. The awareness of
these qualities helps us to see the beauty in things.
Taste: bitter/sweet; hot/cold, (e.g. hottest, hotter, hot, warm, cold,
colder, coldest). Sound: loud/soft; natural/artificial; shrill/mellow; close/
distant; changing/stable; complex/simple; high-pitch/low-pitch.
Touch (surface): soft/hard; rough/smooth; regular/irregular; hot/cold;
artificial/ natural; porous/non-porous; granular/pebbled.
Time (sensation of time): increasing/decreasing; continuous/interrupt-
ed; real/ unreal; late/early; accelerated/retarded; past/present/future;
long/Short.
Motion: advancing/retreating; rising/sinking; large scale/small scale;
near/far; floating/sinking; twisting/straight; free-flowing/restrained;
fast/slow.
Space: deep/shallow, empty/filled; vast/small; narrow/wide; open/en-
closed; open/ closed; convergent/divergent.
Volume Mass: big/small; bulky/delicate; minute/colossal; empty/filled;
heavy/ light; solid/hollow.
Energy Tension: active/passive; stable/unstable; strong/weak;
static/dynamic; directed/free.

Form: concave/convex: regular/irregular; geometric/biomorphic;
transparent/ opaque; simple/complex, curvilinear/rectilinear; angular/
circular; crooked/straight.
Size: changing/stable; small/large; proportional/exaggerated; reduced/
increased; tall/short; under scale/over scale: miniature/monumental.
Light: artificial/natural; bright/dim; direct/indirect; light/shaded; bright/
dull; night/ day; reflected/absorbed.
Colour: bright/dull; light/dark; opaque/transparent; pure/mixed; warm/
cool; advancing/receding.
Line: narrow/wide; jagged/smooth; dark/light; straight/zigzag; con-
verging/diverging; straight/curved.
When we discuss these qualities in a work of art we acquire aesthetic
knowledge and education.
Criticism and Judgement in Art
Art criticism is a way of looking at, talking and thinking about works
of art to understand their aesthetic qualities. All works of art give
certain information. Art criticism looks for this information and sees how
it is related to the aesthetic qualities of the work. Art criticism also looks
for what is in art that gives rise to our feelings and our total sense of
approval. It helps us both to talk about works of art and to get delight
and pleasure from them. For instance, when we see, read or hear a
work of art we often wish to share our feelings with other people, so we
talk about the work with them.

Art criticism is sharing with other people our discoveries about a work of art
and its relation to life. For example, if a painting of the late Kofi Antubam,
a Ghanaian artist, is sold for 3,000,000 cedis, we would begin to talk
about the work. We would desire to see at least a photograph of the
work to judge its qualities. We would be discussing why the work costs
so much and who buys it. We would talk about who gets all that money
and how much tax he would pay.
Art criticism is a way of passing judgement on a work of art, for example,
‘This painting is poorer or better than one made last year’, or ‘Kofi’s
drawing of the Adomi Bridge is excellent’, judging a work of art is the
most important aspect of art criticism and it is what makes criticism
different from art appreciation. In art appreciation we do not judge the
merit of the work. Judging works of art is especially important when we
want to collect them for ourselves or for others. Art sellers (dealers) and
museum and gallery keepers must have good critical judgement of works
of art. That is, they must be able to tell good works from bad ones. For
instance, the keeper of the national museum must be able to judge the
quality of works so that he can buy good ones for the national collection.
Judgement in criticism is also important for the artist. It helps him to set a
high standard for his work. When an artist compares his work with good
works of old and great artists (old masters) he can judge the level of his
work. Criticism and judgement of an artist’s work help him to be aware
of the attitudes of his society.
We need certain knowledge to criticize a work of art. This is acquired in
the following manner:
• We have to see, hear or read other works of art as well as the one
we want to criticize and judge. For example, we have to see many
carvings to enable us to criticize and judge a particular one.
• We have to know or understand the style (manner and form of
presentation) and the function of the art form.

• We have to know the society and the culture in which the artist works
or worked (i.e. the background of the artist whose work we are to
criticize and judge).
• We have to know the technique of the artist (i.e. the type of materials
and tools used; and the manner in which he handles the materials).
• We have to know’ if the work is successful or unsuccessful in terms
of the use of material, techniques employed by the artist, design or
composition, and the meaning of the work.
The procedure for art criticism is similar to that of art appreciation. If we
pass judgement at the end of appreciation, then it becomes criticism.
Perception
Perception is an area of psychology that deals with the study of the
immediate experience of living things. It includes identifying objects,
discriminating, reorgan-izing and judging objects by means of
information we get from our senses. But we shall simply use perception
to mean the use of our sense organs to see, hear, taste, smell, touch,
feel and move. These sense organs are the eyes, the nose, the tongue,
the skin, the car and the muscles.
They relate to each sense as follows:
• sense of sight - the eyes;
• sense of hearing - the cars;
• sense of taste - the tongue;
• sense of smell - the nose;
• sense of touch or feeling - the skin;
• kinesthetic sense - the muscles (this sense tells us about the
movement and position of our muscles and limbs).

The senses enable us to understand our immediate surroundings and
what is happening in them. For example, our sense of sight makes it
possible for us to see green leaves in the rainy season and dry leaves in
the harmattan. We smell moist air when the weather is full of moisture
and dusty air in the dry season. These experiences arc examples of
perception. How much we perceive depends upon how well we use the
senses. Perception is important to all people. It plays a great role in
creativity. The knowledge acquired through perception by the senses is
used to create works of art. Perception plays a major pan in art
appreciation and criticism, of works of art.
We perceive several things at the same time. But each sense perceives
different things or qualities. For example, the eye perceives colour while
the cars perceive sound.
Perceiving with the eyes (sight)
The eye sees colour, size (length, height, breadth), proportion or scale,
movement. We perceive; bright/dull colour, light/dark, opaque/
transparent, pure/mixed; size, from tiny to colossal, tall/short, long/
short, broad/narrow; shape as round/angular, regular/irregular.
Perceiving with the ears (hearing)
We perceive sound and rhythm. Sound may be loud/soft, natural/
artificial, complex/simple, shrill/mellow, close/distant, changing/stable,
high-pitch/low-pitch. Rhythm may be simple and regular or complex
and irregular.
Perceiving with the nose (smell)
We smell acrid, sweet, burning or spicy scent. To perceive a pineapple,
we would smell it to see if it is sweet-scented or rotten and pungent. To
draw the pineapple means indicating as closely as possible these
qualities in the drawing. This means we have perceived the details of the
pineapple.

Perceiving with the skin (touch)
We perceive temperature, hardness/softness, roughness/smoothness of
surfaces. A surface may be hard/soft, rough/smooth, regular/irregular,
hot/cold, granular/ pebbled, porous/non-porous, natural/artificial.
When we perceive an object, e.g. a mango, we want to know if it is
hard or soft, if its’ surface is smooth or rough and so on. It is when we
understand these qualities that we can be said to have perceived the
mango.
Perceiving with the tongue (taste)
We taste what is bitter/sweet, bland/spicy. hot/cold, salty/sweet/sour,
tasteless. To perceive groundnut soup, we want to taste it and find
whether it is spicy, hot and so on.
Perceiving with the muscles (kinesthetic sense)
The sense that deals with-movement of the muscles of the body is
kinesthesis. To perceive through the muscles is to feel the weight of an
object. For example, to perceive an orange we need to lift it and feel its
weight. With this sense we perceive movement (motion).
To perceive one object we need to apply all the human senses to the
object in turn so as to collect detailed information about it. This makes
it possible for our brain to interpret all the information about the object
for our understanding.
1 Why is art appreciation important to us?
2 What is the difference between art appreciation and art criticism?
3 How is a creative person useful to his society?
4 What part does athletics play in our everyday life?
5 Why do you think perception is important in creativity?
6 Make an appreciation of a work of art by a friend or of a picture
from this book?

References
DERVILLE. Leon ore M.T,, The Use of Psychology in Teaching.
Longmans. Green and Company Limited. 1966. pp. 23-30
LINDERMAN, Marlene M. (ed ). An in the Elementary School. Wm. C
Brown Company Publishers. Dubuque. Iowa,’1974. pp 191-6
MYERS. Bernard S. Art and Civilization. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
New York. 1967. pp. 420 3
OSBORNE. Harold. The Art of Appreciation. Oxford University Press,
London. 1970, pp. 57-92
PAPPAS. George (ed.). Concepts in Art and Education. Macmillan Unit-
ed. London. 1970. pp. 53-61
TESTER. Sylvia. Creative Adventures. David C. Cook Publishing Com-
pany. Elgin. Illinois, 1972. pp 5-17
WACHOWIAK. Frank and HODGE. David. An in Depth. International
Textbook Company, Scranton. USA. 1970, pp. 173

Edward Baxton
The News

Composition
Objectives
• arrange shapes in a given two-dimensional space;
• organize a three-dimensional composition;
• demonstrate concepts of organization in terms of variety, balance,
rhythm, contrast, harmony and movement.
When we make a picture, we use line, shape, tone, texture, colour and
other elements of art to form the design. The organization or structuring
of elements of design into a picture is composition.
In a picture, the composition guides and directs the observer’s eye to
read the picture. A composition can help to communicate feelings, for
example, of beauty or ugliness, sadness or joy. To compose a picture,
first mar’ out the picture area by means of a border (Figure 7.1). The
composition of shapes, objects or design is done in relation to the pic-
ture area.
Fig. 7.1 Placement of images within
the picture frame.

Practical work l
Draw a series of picture borders on a sheet of white paper. Cut a number
of shapes out of coloured paper. Place them at different positions within
the picture frame. When their positions look right, paste them down
In a composition, a sense of depth, distance or space can be realized by
placing the image of the picture in planes parallel to the picture frame
(Figure 7.2).
In Figure 7.2(a) the objects A. B, C are placed in the same plane (same
distance from the viewer). In (b) A is near the viewer: 0 is far from the
viewer (i.e. in a different plane); and B is further away from the viewer in
another plane. Thus, the positions of A. B and C indicate different dis-
tances away from the viewer.
Practical work 2
Arrange a variety of objects on a table - tall, short, large, medium and
small with some placed in front of others. Observe the different planes
in which the objects have been placed. Draw a picture frame on paper
and draw the shapes of the objects in it The shapes should be placed
correctly in the picture frame.
Fig. 7.2 Objects placed in different planes

Positive and Negative Areas in a Composition
In a design the images may be regarded as positive areas while the
background is negative. This means that the images are being
emphasized.
Alternatively, the shapes constituting the background may be
emphasized and regarded as positive while the images may be negative.
In a good composition, the positive and negative areas should be
balanced.
In Figure 7.3(a) the negative areas appear larger than the positive ones.
In (b) the positive areas appear larger than the negative ones, in (c) the
positive and the negative areas are balanced.
In a good composition, shapes, colours, textures and oth er elements are
balanced, and some sense of movement is also created, in addition, there
should be a balance of light and dark shades. When you compose your
pictures, try to ensure that the main elements of design are effectively
organized.
Fig. 7.3 Positive and negative areas

Practical work 3
1 Paint a piece of paper m three tones - very dark, dark and light.
Cut them in a variety of shape: Draw a picture frame on white paper
and
arrange the cut shapes in it to show a balanced design. Pay attention
to:
• balance of shapes and tones;
• contrast of shapes and tones;
• variety of shapes and tones;
• rhythm of shapes and tones.
2 Arrange a variety of contrasting objects on a table: tall short; long/
short; large/small; dark/light; smooth/rough. Draw their shapes in a
suitable
medium. Pay attention to:
• arrangement of shapes within your picture frame;
• variety of shapes;
• balance of shapes;
• rhythm of shapes;
• contrast of shapes.
3 Collect a variety of flat objects - banana or plantain bark, fabric,
paper, leaves and other suitable materials. Cut them into a variety of
shapes. Glue them on to a hard surface, such as cardboard or plywood.
In your design, look for variety, rhythm, balance, contrast, repetition and
harmony.
Fig. 7.4 Balance and move men:

Three-dimensional Composition
Composition with solid objects is a different experience from Hat designs.
If you observe the structure of forms in nature, such as stems, branches,
compound leaves, flowers, fruits, rocks, ant hills, shells, feathers and so
on.you will notice that these forms are carefully organized. Note the
harmony, variety, rhythm, contrast, balance and repetition of their shapes,
textures, patterns and colours.
Practical work 4
1 Observe a tree trunk, fruit, stone or tuberous stem. Look for:
• variety of shapes, textures and colours;
• rhythm in the arrangement of the parts;
• repetition of the features;
• harmony of the parts;
• balance of the features;
• unity of the parts into a whole.
2 Turn the object round or go round it. Do the features change or
remain the same? (In a three-dimensional art form such as a carving,
basket or ceramic ware, interest is generated in the work when each
view of it appears to have something different from other views. Balance
of the parts should be achieved to enable the work to stand in space.
Major shapes should be carefully organized to create the sensation of
movement in the work.)
3 Prepare mashed paper or a ball of clay. Model a free-standing form
of an object or from memory. Look for rhythm, contrast, balance, varie-
ty, shapes and textures.
Composition

4 Make a collection of materials found in your locality - wood, straw,
raffia, rattan’, bamboo, fibre, scrap metal or other suitable materials.
Select an appropriate material and construct a free-standing object. Cut
some pieces of material, bend some, twist some, weave some, coil some,
wrap some and fit them together into a structure by nailing, tying,
piercing, gluing or wrapping. As you build the structure, pay attention
to variety, rhythm, balance, contrast and repetition of line, shape,
texture and colour. These ideas should be employed in any art work
made in solid material that stands in space. As a beginner, start your
composition with simple stable objects that will not wither or dry early.
Pick objects of different sizes, shapes and textures. When you arrange
the objects (compose them), do not scatter them. Arrange the objects
in a composition on a flat surface and move round them, viewing them
from different positions.
References
BROOKS. Walter. The Art of Drawing. M. Grumbacher Inc. New York. 1975. pp.
6-9
ECKER. David W and EISNER. W Eliot. Readings in Art Education. Xerox /
College Publishing. Lexington. 1966. pp. 199-202
Composition

Linda Weil
Wild Animal

Principles of Drawing
Objectives
• identify and experiment with tools and materials for drawing;
• take care of and maintain the tools and materials;
• demonstrate a sense of critical observation;
• explore drawing techniques;
• develop ideas about his environment through drawing;
• demonstrate understanding of one point perspective;
• demonstrate skills in communicating through drawing;
• demonstrate basic concepts of the human figure in drawing.
Drawing is an important way of observing and reacting to the world
around us. It is also an important means of communication that can be
taught to many people. It is not just a special or strange gift for a few.
Nor is drawing a mere skill of accurate representation, but a process to
be used for
learning.
In this section of the book, we look at drawing as a way of helping you to
think visually. To do this, you first need to identify and explore the various
tools and materials used for drawing.
Tools and Materials for Drawing
Tools
Tools in this context are the objects with which a drawing is made. Familiar
tools are: pens of different kinds, nibs, pencils of all kinds, crayons,
brushes, charcoal and chalk. These tools need to be kept in suitable
containers when not being used.

Materials
Materials for drawing include coloured inks, dyes, water colour, poster
colour, powder colour or any suitable material that can make a mark on
a surface. The surfaces on which drawings are made are supports, such
as paper of all kinds, fabric, wood, leaves, metal, clay, leather, skins,
wall surfaces, floors, stone, calabashes, gourds and the human body.
Some of the most familiar drawing tools and materials give certain
qualities in drawing.
• Wax crayons give colour, texture and line.
• Conte crayons give line, tone and texture
• Charcoal gives lone, texture and line.
• Carbon gives tone, texture and line.
• Water colour gives colour, tone and line.
• Powder colour gives colour, tone and texture.
• Dyes and coloured inks give colour, tone and line.
• Coloured pencils and felt pens give line and colour.
• Hard pencils give line, tone and texture.
• Soft pencils give tone, texture and line.
• Soot gives colour, tone and line.
To begin drawing, you should first identify drawing tools and materials
in the locality. Experiment with them to see the kinds of marks they can
make on various surfaces. This should be combined with application of
your senses to die tools and materials in the manner shown in Table 3.
In this way, you will understand the nature of the tools and materials.

Senses Application to tools and materials
Sight (eye) Looking at and observing their colour, size and
shape.
Touch (skin) Touching and feeling their hardness, softness,
coldness, hotness and texture.
Smell (nose) Smelling them.
Taste (tongue) Tasting them (if not toxic).
Kinesthesis (muscle) Lifting them to feel their weight.
Table 3 Application of senses to tools and materials
Experimenting with Tools and Materials for Drawing
Experiment boldly and directly with your tools and materials. For
example, with your pencils, crayons or charcoal, start by pressing the
tool lightly against the paper or surface. Gradually press harder for
darker tones and marks. Try a variety of lines, textures and tones with
the point, side or edge of the tool. With crayons or charcoal, broken
pieces may make special marks. Twisting, stippling, dragging and
rolling movements of the tool may give you a variety of marks.
Holding your brush vertically with much pressure gives bold strokes, while
less pressure on the brush gives thin strokes. Brushes held at slanting and
oblique angles to the paper will produce similar effects. The point of the
brush makes fine lines. Figure 8.1shows some examples of marks made
by different tools and materials.

(a) Brush marks
(b) Chalk marks

(c) Charcoal Marks
(d) Pencil Marks (d) Pen Marks
Fig. 8.1 Some examples of marks made by different tools and materials

Some Approaches to Drawing
The concept of drawing in this book places emphasis on the
observation of visual elements in the environment and attempts to solve
visual problems. These include recording, comparing, contrasting,
communicating and expressing. Observation from direct experiences
encourages understanding of the structure and nature of things around
us. Firsthand observation provides opportunities to see (perceive) the
world through our senses.
Analysis of visual information by comparing and contrasting helps us to
extract elements of line, form, shape, texture, pattern, tone and colour.
These determine the appearance of things we sec. We can convey
information about the world in the form of a series of drawings to
explain a process or how something works. Drawing for communication
is like a story to record activities within a period. Drawing may also be
used to express one’s feelings. We can express our mood or feelings
after experiencing some event such as a dream, dance, drama, fight or
sporting event. Drawings made from such experiences should express
one’s feelings or mood.
Observation in Drawing
To draw accurately, you should learn to observe the shapes, patterns,
textures, colour and other qualities of objects critically. For example, to
observe a long leaf, you should note:
• where it is strongest or weakest;
• where its midrib is thickest;
• how wide the base is, compared to the tip;
• how wide the base is, compared to its length;
• its smooth or rough edges;
• the direction of its vehicles;
• the play of light and dark on it;
• its pattern;
• its smoothness or roughness.

By comparing one part of an object with another part, you will notice
minute details which might easily be overlooked.
Practical work 1
Collect as many objects as you can tree bark, leaves, flowers, fruits,
seeds, leathers, bones, stones, shells, bottles, empty tins, bowls. Ob-
serve them
critically and describe their appearance and qualities.
Basic Geometric Forms in Drawing
Among the familiar geometric shapes and forms encountered in
drawing are the cylinder, triangle, pyramid, circle, sphere, square and
cube (Figure 8.2). These basic shapes can be transformed into solid
geometric forms. For example, in Figure 8.2 the circle A becomes a
sphere: the triangle B becomes a pyramid and the square C becomes
a cube. These are shapes and forms that are basic to most objects in
nature and the man-made world, leaves, flowers, fruits, buildings, boxes
and so on. Before you begin to draw anything, look for the basic shapes
in the structure of the subjects you are drawing.
A
C
Fig. 8.2 Basic geometric shapes and forms

Practical work 2
1 Practise drawing basic geometric shapes and forms - triangle,
circle, square, rectangle, pyramid, sphere, cube and cone.
2 Place some objects such as fruits, cups, bottles, matchboxes, empty
packets or other suitable objects on a Hat surface. Observe their struc-
ture carefully and note the basic geometric shapes. Draw the geometric
shapes.
Contour Drawing
The appearance of an object can be recorded by means of dots, lines,
shapes and texture. The outline or contour of an object may be drawn by
fixing your eyes at a particular point on the object. Place your drawing tool
at a convenient point on your paper. The point should correspond to a
spot on the object. Begin the drawing of the object from that spot. Slowly
shift your gaze along the outline of the object. At the same time, move
your drawing tool on the paper in the same direction as your viewing.
Fig. 8.3 Contour drawing

Your eyes and hand should move at the same pace. It is as if you are
tracing the outline of the object (Figure 8.3). You may occasionally look
at your drawing to see if you are drawing the shape correctly. Don’t be
afraid to make mistakes at the beginning. Rather, practise constantly to
develop
confidence in outline drawing.
Practical work 3
1 Collect some natural objects such as fresh or dry curled leaves,
twigs, broken pieces of wood, and pieces of root or stem. Practise
contour drawing with them.
As you draw, vary the pressure on your drawing tool to indicate dark
lines where there is shade and light lines where there is light.
2 Collect objects that have lines on their surfaces - tree bark, banana
or plantain stems, leaves with veins, dry twigs with branches, shells and
grained wood. Observe the line patterns on them. Are they regular or
irregular? Are the lines close together or far apart? Are they heavy or
light? What kinds of lines arc visible? Show- these in your drawing of the
objects.
3 Draw the shapes of the objects and create your patterns in them
with lines.
Value in Drawing
In drawing value is the relative lightness or darkness. It is also a range
of tones that are graded from very light to very dark. Tonal value is a
range of tones beginning with white and running through a scale of
greys and middle tones to black. To begin a drawing, it is useful to test
the drawing tool to
determine the range of tones it can make.

Fig. 8.6 Value
Fig. 8.5 Value in relationship to background
Fig. 8.4 Range of tones

Generally, soft drawing tools and materials such as soft pencils,
crayons and charcoal give a greater range of tones than hard ones. In
a drawing, tonal value has no meaning except when used in relation to
a background.
In drawing a group of objects, value is considered as the colour of one
object as compared to the colour of another object in the group, as well
as to the background (Figure 8.6).
In the same group of objects, tone is created by the effect of light and
dark on the objects. In this case, we see a definite source of light on the
objects. The drawing indicates light, middle and dark tones (Figure 8.7).
Practical work 4
1 Place three or four objects of different colours on a flat surface.
Draw them and indicate their values.
Fig. 8.7 Tone

(a) Dotted lines
(b) Tonal value in dots
Fig. 8.8 Drawing in dots
2 Draw the same group of objects showing a definite source of light.
Clearly indicate the light areas, middle tone and dark areas.
Drawing by Dots
A chain of dots may be considered as a line. This idea is employed in
drawing by dots. Shapes of objects may be drawn with dots. Light and
shade on objects in a drawing may be indicated with dots. When dots
are clustered over a small area, a dark tone is suggested. Dots scattered
over a large area suggest a light tone. These ideas can be applied in
drawing (Figure 8.8).
Practical work. 5
1 Make a drawing of an object in dotted lines.
2 Select suitable patterns on a surface tree bark, stone, leaf, shell or
animal skin. Draw shapes of the patterns and shade them with dots.
3 Arrange a group of objects. Draw and shade them with dots.

Drawing Textures
Surfaces of objects can be drawn to bring out their patterns and
textures. This technique of drawing enables you to work in the
environment taking rubbings from surfaces - shells, bones, trees, stones
and others. The emphasis is upon looking for die variety of textures that
can be found around you.
Collect a variety of textured surfaces. Son out and arrange them
according to roughness and smoothness. Observe the differences
between the surfaces and make rubbings of them. Arc the patterns
regular or irregular? Are lines close together or far apart? Surfaces may
have dots, lines or holes. Choose one natural object with an interesting
surface. Draw the surface of the object as carefully and accurately as
possible. Compare the actual surfaces with your rubbings and drawings.
Practical work 6
1 Select some objects. Arrange them on a suitable surface and draw
their shapes. Indicate their textures and create your own to complete the
drawing.
2 Make a collage or composition with textured surfaces. Pay attention
to the variety of shapes and textures.
Drawing as a Means of Recording Information
Drawing may be considered as a means of recording information about
visual forms. Lines, shapes and surface patterns are visual qualities that
can be
recorded from objects.

Different mark-marking tools and materials such as pencils, charcoal,
chalk, crayons, brushes and ink or felt pens may be used to draw surface
patterns of objects. Different kinds of textures should be collected -
smooth, rough, rugged or corrugated. Different kinds of hand move-
ments could be applied to the drawing tools while drawing, using the
edge, point or side of the tool.
By careful observation of objects you will find that the direction and
quality of line may reveal the shape and form of the object. For example,
rough tree barks may have linear surfaces; feathers, shells and bundles
of grass stalks may provide linear qualities for drawing. By comparing
various parts of an object, differences and similarities in line, shape and
texture may be revealed. These are recorded in drawings
Practical work 7
1 Observe a variety of fruits cut into segments or halves, e.g. water
melon, orange, tomato or onion. Draw details of their patterns.
2 Collect other objects - shells, feathers, bones, horns, animal tails,
tree barks and draw them in detail.
Applying Human Senses to Drawing
Drawing is not just a representation of the appearance of objects. It
involves a clear understanding of all details of the objects we draw. This
understanding is sometimes referred to as ‘seeing with the mind’s eye’.
To see an object with the mind’s eye, we need to explore it observing
critically, comparing one part with another, touching and feeling it,
lifting it to feel the weight, smelling, listening to its rhythmic features,
tasting it (if not poisonous). As we explore the object with our senses,
we collect detailed information and knowledge about it. This helps us to
understand the object and draw it accurately.

Exploring an object with the senses
To draw an object, such as a pineapple, begin by exploring the
features through your senses. Place the pineapple in a suitable position.
Apply your sense of sight by looking at the pineapple - its shape, colour,
pattern, tone and size. Touch it and feel its texture - smoothness or
roughness. Smell it is it sweet scented, bad scented? Taste a piece sweet,
sour, bitter, sugary or salty? Apply the sense of hearing by ‘listening’
to the repetition in the arrangement of patterns on its body. Lift the
pineapple to feel its weigh: light or heavy. This is application of the sense
which controls movement of your muscles. Thus, before the pineapple
is drawn, information about its features should be collected through the
senses to make the drawing more meaningful and accurate.
Practical work 8
Select a suitable object feather, fruit, bone, tree bark or shell. Explore it
by applying your senses to its failures as described above fora pineapple.
Draw the object and indicate the details you have explored.
Idea Development
The purpose of this topic is to help you create your own shapes and
forms from known ones. Many ideas exist in the environment shapes,
structures, textures, colours and patterns of objects which can guide us
to create new forms. To develop an idea from the shape or form of an
object, you first need to explore details of the object. Draw the object
as accurately as possible. Make several other drawings of parts of the
object, focusing on specific spots and enlarging the details. Continue,
making additional drawings by adding your own ideas or deleting some
parts while retaining some characteristics of die original feature of the
object (Figure 8.9).

Fig. 8.9 Ideas from a mushroom
Drawing for Communication
We use drawing to convey different kinds of information about life in
our environment. This may be information to describe how something
works over a period of lime or in the form of simple stories to explain
how you go about some of your daily activities. Drawing helps you to
communicate information and ideas without using words. For example,
the following could form the subject for drawing: sleeping in bed; get-
ting up; cleaning the teeth; going to the toilet; bathing; having breakfast
and going to school.
Practical work 9
Select an event such as sports or games and depict it in a series of
drawings.

One-point Perspective
Perspective is a way of drawing objects and scenes so that they appear to
have distance. In perspective, objects far away from the viewer appear
to be smaller than those near him. When we stand on a straight road,
the sides of the road appear to meet at a point far away. We do not see
the road beyond that point because it appears to ‘vanish’ there. That
point is known as the vanishing point (Figure 8.10).
The place where the earth seems to meet the sky is the horizon.
Sometimes the vanishing point may lie on the horizon. Perspective is
considered in terms of both the vanishing point and the horizon.
In a scene, there may be one or more vanishing points. (Here, we are
only going to discuss one-point perspective.) In one-point perspective,
all vertical lines remain vertical, while horizontals that move from the
viewer into the scene lead to the vanishing point (Figure 8.11).
In this kind of perspective, objects and spaces decrease in size away
from the viewer, towards the vanishing point.
Fig. 8.10 Vanishing point and horizon Fig. 8.11 One-point perspective

Practical work 10
1 Stand on a long verandah, your school building or any long build-
ing,
a straight road or street. Describe how objects appear close and far
away
from you.
2 Observe a scene that illustrates one-point perspective. Draw it with
a
suitable
3 Material: pencil, charcoal, fell pen, crayon or chalk.
Structure in Drawing from Objects
Before you draw a group of objects, it is essential to understand the ba-
sic structure of the composition. Structure is the way in which the com-
position has been put together. The sizes of objects in relation to one
another as well as to the picture space should be carefully considered.
Begin the drawing by marking out the approximate spaces each object
will occupy (Figure 8.12).
Observe and mark the direction of main lines indicating structure of the
composition.
Draw the shapes of the objects and shade them in terms of value, tone
or texture.
Fig. 8.12 Structure in composition with objects
(a) Compostion of Objects (b) Structural line

Drawing from the Human Figure
The human body is made up of solid forms. The body consists of head
and neck; upper torso and lower torso; upper arms, lower arms and
hands; upper legs, lower legs and feet. The head is like an egg or oval.
The neck, arms, legs and the torso are like cylinders. As a beginner, you
should view die body in terms of simple basic forms.
Most artists use the human head as a basic unit of measurement for the
entire figure. The head from the chin to the top of the skull is one unit for
height measurements. Often, the width of the face is used in horizontal
measurements. Some books indicate an ideal eight-head figure.
In this book, the seven-and-a-half head figure is described.There are
approximately seven-and-a-half head-lengths along the vertical axis
of the adult body (Figure 8.13). The human body may be generally
divided into
• upper and lower torso (two head-lengths);
• upper legs (two head-lengths):
• lower legs (two head-lengths).
The neck is about half the length of the head. The length of the foot is
approximately equal to die length of the face.
These measurements vary with different ages. A one-year-old child will
have about four-and-a-half head-lengths of his own head into the body
including the head. At ten years, the child’s height may be about six
head-lengths of his own head. At fifteen years, the head-lengths may be
about seven and a half.
When drawing the figure, it is important to remember that these
measurements are basic and are only guidelines.

Figure 8.13 Body proportions and basic measurements

Measurements on specific persons are done according to their
head-lengths.
Generally there are three face-widths from the left shoulder to the right
shoulder across the chest. The upper thigh may be one face-width wide.
The arm is about three head-lengths from the shoulder joint to the tip of
the fingers.
The head
It is considered as an egg-shape or oval. The head rests on a
cylindrical neck.
The eyes are located half-way down the length of the head with
eyebrows just above them. The lower half of the head from the eyes to
the chin may be divided into three equal parts.
Fig. 8.4 Head width measurements

The length of the nose is one third of the lower half of the face. From the
base of the nose to the opening of the mouth is another third. From the
opening of the mouth to the chin is also a third. The car is in line with
the eyebrows and base of the nose.
The torso
This is a cylindrical solid form. Its volume and solidity should be consid-
ered during drawing. The upper torso moves freely on the lower torso.
The arm
Consider the arm as upper and lower parts joined in the middle.
The leg
This is also a cylindrical form divided into two.
The foot
The foot is approximately equal to the length of the face. Consider it as
a solid object.
The hand
In the beginning, reduce the hand to a simple basic solid form. Consider
it as a thick piece of board which tapers at one end. The upper flat
portion represents the palm, while the tapering end represents the ringers.
Fig.8.15 The Head as an oval Fig. 8.16 Proportion on the face

Fig. 8.17 The torso Fig. 8.18 The arm Fig. The leg
Fig. 8.20 The foot Fig. 8.21The hand

Practical work 11
1 Using the information given in this section, practise drawing the
base structure of the human figure in parts. Then construct the full
figure with the main proportions of the parts.
2 Prepare clay and model die basic structure of parts of the human
body. Try to fit the parts together into a full figure. Draw the full figure
from your construction.
References
BROOKS. Walter. Thu Art of Drawing. M. Grumbacher Inc, Now York,
1975. pp A 6
CLEMENT. Robert, The Art Teacher’s Handbook. Century Hutchinson
Ltd. London. V987. pp. 116-28
EISNER. Eliot W and ECKER David W . Readings in Art Education.
Xerox College Publishing. Lexington. 1966. pp 199 2C2
REED. Walt (ed.). The Figure: An Artist’s Approach to Drawing and
Construction. North Light Publishers. Westport, Connecticut, pp 12.
14.18 31
STERNBERG. Harry. Composition. Grosset and Dunlop. New York.
1958.
pp 22-3.23

Principles of Colour Work
Objectives
• identify primary, secondary and tertiary colours;
• explain colour terminology;
• explain changes that accompany colour mixing:
• describe and explain colour interaction;
• explain harmony of complementary colours and the effect of
placing complementary colours side by side.
Experimenting for Rainbow Colours
It is believed that during the seventeenth century. Sir Isaac Newton found
that light was colour. He passed a beam of white light through a prism to
demonstrate that light is composed of seven different colours: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These are the colours of
the rainbow.
Fig. 9.1 Prismatic colours

(a) Primary colour of pigment (b) Primary colour of light
Fig. 9.2 Primary colours of light and pigment
Scientific studies also proved that when white light strikes an object,
the object absorbs some of the light’s colours and reflects the rest. The
colour reflected stimulates our eyes so that we see colour. For example,
white light falling on a red object is absorbed, except for the red rays
which are reflected to our eyes. We therefore see the object as red. If the
object reflects all or equal proportions of all the light rays falling on it, it
will appear white to us.
Studies in physics also show that light has three primary colours of its
own: red, blue and green. This means that we cannot make them by mix
ing other colours. This theory is different from that of primary colours of
pigment: red, yellow and blue. They are primary because they cannot be
made by mixing other colours.

Fig. 9.3 Rainbow Colours
Questions
1 What discovery did Sir Isaac Newton make?
2 What are the colours of the rainbow?
3 How do we see the colour of an object?
4 What are primary colours and why are they called this?
5 How do primary colours of light differ from primary’ colours of
pigment?
We see many colours on leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, butterflies,
feathers, animals, cars, machines and clothes. We also see colour in the
rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. You can
make your own rainbow colours.
Fill a small basin or bucket with water. Place a mirror in the water
(Figure 9.3).

Hold the mirror down with a weight if it floats. Leave the basin in the
sun with the mirror facing the sun. Hold a white opaque sheet of paper
in front of the mirror. White canvas, fabric, plywood, cardboard may
be used. Move the paper through different positions until the rainbow
colours appear on it. You could also use a vertical surface such as a wall
or plywood; in this ease, adjust the position of the mirror in the basin
till the reflected rainbow colours appear on the wall or plywood surface.
Primary and secondary colours formed in die rainbow may be regarded
as standard hues when mixing colours.
Colour wheel
Colours may be arranged in a circular form to show how they are related.
This arrangement is known as a colour wheel (Figure 9.4).
Fig. 9.4 Twelve-hue colour wheel

In Figure 9.4, blue, violet, green and their mixtures arc cool colours.
They have some blue in them. Blue is traditionally associated with water
and coolness. On the contrary, red, orange, yellow and their mixtures
are warm colours. They have some red or yellow in them. Mixtures of
red and yellow suggest the sensation of fire and heat and are consid-
ered warm.
Words Used to Describe Colour
Analogous colours: Colours which contain one common colour; for
example, blue is contained in violet, so blue and blue-violet arc analo-
gous.
Chroma: Concentration of colour in a given area.
Cold colour: Mixture of blue and violet, which suggests extreme
coldness.
Colour intensity: Another word for chroma.
Complementary colours: Colours which are directly opposite on the
colour wheel, for example, red and green or yellow and violet.
Cool colour: Colour which has blue or green in it. It is thought of as the
colour of water or sky and suggests coolness.
Gray: Mixture of two or more colours.
Grey: Mixture of black and white.
Hot colour: Mixture of yellow and orange, which suggests intense heat.
Hue: Another name for colour. It is the quality which identifies a colour
as blue, red or yellow.

Primary colour: Colour (red, blue or yellow) which cannot be made by
mixing other colours together.
Secondary colour: Colour obtained by mixing two primary colours to-
gether; for example, orange, green and violet.
Shade: Colour mixed with black.
Tertiary colour: Mixture of two secondary’ colours.
Tint: Colour mixed with white.
Tone: Shade of colour
Value: Lightness or darkness of a colour.
Warm colour: Colour which has yellow or red in it. It is thought of as the
colour of the sun or fire and suggests the sensation of heat.
Secondary colours
On a clean sheet of paper, mix and paint the colours as indicated.
Primary colours Secondary colours
Yellow + blue = Green
Yellow + red = Orange
Blue + red = Violet

Tertiary Colours
Paint the following colours on the same or another sheet of paper.
Secondary colours Tertiary colours
Orange + green = (What colour is formed?)
Green + violet = (What colour is formed?)
Violet + orange = (What colour is formed?)
Warm and cool colours
On a clean sheet of paper, paint (a) warm colours, (b) cool colours.
see Figure 9.5.
(a) Warm colours (b) Cool colours
Fig. 9.5 Warm and cool colours

Practical work 1
1 Draw the twelve-hue colour wheel and label its parts. Practise
making mixtures of secondary and tertiary colours.
2 Arrange a group of objects on a low flat surface. Make paintings
of the objects as follows:
• mixing colours to match the colour of the objects;
• painting in primary colours:
• painting in secondary colours;
• painting in tertiary colours.
Compare the paintings and point out the differences and similarities in
the colours.
3 Paint a group of objects in:
• cool colours;
• warm colours;
• complementary colours.
Colour Interaction
Monochrome
When a picture is painted using one colour with white (tint) or black
(shade), it is known as a monochrome.
Practical work 2
1 Paint one colour graded in tints and shades (Figure 9.6).
2 Make a composition of objects - fruits, flowers or man-made
objects - and paint them in monochrome.

Dichrome
When a picture is painted in two colours, it is known as a dichrome.
Practical work 3
1. Paint two colours graded in three tints (Figure 9.7).
2. Paint tints of the same strength (intensity) side by side (Figure 9.8)
3. Paint shades of the same intensity side by side (Figure 9.9)
4. 4 Paint some objects using tints and shades of two colours.
Fig. 9.6 Tints and shades (monochrome)

Fig. 9.7 Tints of two colours (dichrome)
Fig. 9.8 Tints of the same intensity
Fig. 9.9 Shades of the same intensity

Trichrome
When a picture is painted using three colours, it is known as a tri-
chrome.
Practical work 4
1. Paint three tints and three shades of three colours in a continuous
scale and number them (Figure 9.10).
2. Paint three colours of similar intensity in tints anti shades side by
side (Figure 9.11).
3. Paint an object using three colours in tints and shades of relative or
similar intensity.
4. Paint three different colours on a sheet of paper leaving a small
space between them. Label them as colour A. colour B and colour C
(Figure 9.12).
Fig. 9.10 Tints and shades of three colours

Fig. 9.11 Relative intensity
Fig. 9.12 Harmonizing colours
Mix a little of colour
A with a little of colour
B. Paint the mixture
between colours A
and B. Similarly, make
mixtures of colours A
and C, and B and C.
Paint the mixtures be-
tween A and C, B and
C respectively. This is
one way of harmoniz-
ing those colours.
5. Find single nat-
ural objects. Mix col-
ours to match their
colour.
References
AMENUKE, S.K.. Silva Colour Books for Schools and Colleges (unpublished
research), Kumasi, 1990. pp. 1-40
McGUIRE. S.H. Keys to Colour. American Greetings Corporation. Cleveland
WEBBO. E.B. Art Education: A Handbook for Primary Teachers. Heinemann
Educational Books (EA) Ltd. Nairobi. 1980, pp. 21-2

Lettering
Objectives
• understand forms of lettering;
• recognize characteristics of letters;
• estimate, calculate and construct letters;
• derive ideas from shapes and create letter shapes;
• write Stylistic letters with pens and brushes.
A letter is one of the units in the alphabet. Each letter serves as a symbol
representing a sound in speech. Letters are combined in a special order
to form words. The art of writing these alphabetic symbols into words is
known as lettering.
The story of the alphabet is very old. For thousands of years while
people were learning to live in communities, writing was not known.
As time went on they found it necessary to keep records of their stories
and activities. They also wanted to identify people, objects and places
with sounds and names. These were not easy tasks. It became too diffi-
cult for people to remember all these things. Therefore they created an
alphabet of picture-letters. This alphabet underwent several changes as
people wrote more rapidly. Shorter and quicker forms of writing were
discovered; one result was the type of letters we have now, called the
Roman alphabet.
Major forms of lettering may be classified as shown in Figure 10.1
Types of Lettering
Three forms of loitering can be practised by the young designer. These
are: block lettering; free-style lettering; calligraphy.

Fig. 10.1 Classification of lettering
Block Lettering
There are three styles of block lettering: Roman. Gothic and italic. These
styles are the oldest forms of lettering. They are drawn rather than writ-
ten. You should carefully study the styles with the help of a chart and
then practise writing them.
Roman lettering
This was developed in the fifteenth century from an old inscription on the
Trojan columns. There are ornamental projections (serifs) placed at the
top and bottom ends of the letters. Another characteristic of this type of
lettering is the strokes. The vertical strokes are generally thick while the
horizontal strokes are usually thin.

(a) Hierographics of Ancient Egypt
(b) Examples of changes of picture-letter E
(c) The Greek
alphabet from which
ours has grown. See how
many of the lettters you
can identify
Fig. 10.2 Examples of picture writing
Gothic lettering
This is sometimes called sanserif block lettering. A Gothic letter has
strokes of uniform thickness but with no serifs (sanserif). Many beginners
in lettering prefer this style because Gothic letters have simple forms. All
the fundamentals in lettering can be practised with it. Therefore it is the
most suitable style to start 6n in schools.

It is also an effective style for making book cover designs, greeting cards,
posters, notices, sign writings and many other types of advertisement. Its
simple forms readily attract the viewer and are easy to read.
Italic lettering
While Roman and Gothic letters are designed to stand erect, italic styles
are written to slam towards the right; a similar style is cursive handwriting.
This makes it rather a free style, less formal than Gothic and Roman. It
is usually used for emphasis, variety, force and elegance.
However, in addition to these three styles, various styles of handwriting
were introduced for writing books and other manuscripts before printing
was invented. These styles arc called text lettering, initials or illumination.
They are decorative, ornamental or pictorial in character.
Letters in text lettering arc always the first letters of a word, paragraph,
page or chapter. Their decorative styles make special letters for greeting
cards, certificates, announcements, diplomas, wedding and birthday
invitation cards. When properly applied they look beautiful.
Constructing block letters
In block lettering, squares are used in constructing the correct
proportion of each letter. A young designer is advised to use square
paper (graph sheets) or draw his own squares.

(a) Marking points
along margins
(b) Vertical Parallel lines
(c) Drawing parallel
lines across to form
squares
Fig. 10.4 Constructing Squares
Drawing the squares. Tools needed are a pencil and a ruler. The squares
should be drawn on paper. The size of the paper will determine the size
and number of squares. For a beginner, it is good to use a fairly large
piece of paper. Leave a margin at the edges.

Mark points with even spaces between them along the margins, as in
Figure 10.4(a). Let the points guide you to draw several vertical parallel
lines, as in Figure 10.4(b). Then draw horizontal parallel lines across the
vertical lines, as in Figure 10.4(c). Size of letters. For convenience, letters
in this book have been grouped according to sizes. The aim of grouping
letters into sizes is to help you construct their shapes according to special
rules. Begin with Gothic letters. Remember that all block letters have the
same height. Use ten squares for the height. The width of each letter var-
ies according to each group. Examples of the groups are given below:
• The letter I fills two squares horizontally and ten squares vertically.
• The letters F J L and the sign & each occupy seven squares
horizontally and ten squares vertically.
• The letters BEPSTUZ each occupy eight squares horizontally and ten
squares vertically.
• Letters CDHKNOQR each fill nine squares horizontally and ten
squares vertically.
• The letters A V X Y each fill ten squares horizontally and ten squares
vertically.
• The letter M fills twelve squares horizontally and ten squares
vertically.
• Letter W fills fourteen squares horizontally and ten squares vertically.
Use both vertical and horizontal squares in constructing the letters. In
Figure 10.5 the number below each letter shows the number of squares
to be used for the width in proportion to the ten squares for the height.
Lettering

Fig. 10.5 Using squares in constructing block lettering (sanserifs)

(b) Measuring the curve of a letter (a) Measuring the thickness of a letter
Thickness of letters. To get uniform thickness of letters, follow
these rules.
• Use two squares as a constant measurement.
• With a ruler measure the diagonals of the letters AKMNRVWXY
and Z to be equal to two squares, as shown in Figure 10.6(b).
• Letters like BCDGJOPQSU should be measured at the curves, as
shown in Figure 10.6(a).
Points to remember
Before careful and successful construction can be achieved, pay
attention to the following points.
• The pencil for drawing lines must be pointed.
• All measurements should be done accurately.
• Draw straight edges of letters and parallel lines with a ruler.
• Shape all curves carefully with the edge of a coin or any suitable
circular object.
Fig. 10.6 Measuring thickness of letters

Practical work 1
1 Practise lettering by writing labels on your own.
2 Write the following words in sanserif block letters:
THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG.
Use the squares to guide you.
3 Write the following labels in block letters:
• Letter Box • Community Centre
• School Garden • Headmaster’s Office
• Male and Female • Art Room
4 Label the various places in your house, for example:
• Bathroom
• Kitchen
• Bedroom
Free-style Lettering
This style of lettering enables us to experiment with the use of local tools
and materials from the environment in creating letters of the alphabet.
For example, the shape of fish, beans or leaves may be used to create
letters.
Creating free-style lettering
Select shapes of objects from the environment, for example, bones, rope,
leaves, beans, fish. Then design letters from the shape of each object.
Lettering

Practical work 2
Write the following words in free-style lettering:
• Palm Sunday • Snake
• Bananas • Fresh Okros
• Cutlass/Hoe • Butterfly
Fig. 10.7 Letters and words created from shapes of objects

Calligraphy
Anothernameforcalligraphyispenletteringorscriptlettering.Calligraphy
was practised long ago soon after the invention of picture-letters. It was
used to write volumes of articles in books, parchments and scrolls before
printing was invented. In ancient Egypt calligraphy had once been
restricted to the priesthood. Therefore ‘hieroglyphics’ literally means
‘writing of priests’.
Today many people learn to read and write these letters. Pen lettering,
therefore, helps the calligrapher to write more beautifully than ever.
The stylistic letters are written rather than drawn as in the case of block
letters. Calligraphic letters can be seen on greeting cards, success cards,
harvest envelopes, invitation cards and many others.
Tools for calligraphy
The first tools used in pen lettering were quills of feathers from large
birds and porcupines. A quill was as large, long and stiff as the ordinary
pens we now use. Later, specially designed metal nibs were introduced
(Figure 10.8). Today, more writing tools with specially designed tips are
available in the shops, e.g. markers, brushes, fell pens.
Lettering

Fig. 10. 8 Calligraphy tools
1
5
9
2
6
10
3
7
11
4
8
12
1 Quills and feathers
2 Broad pens
3 Round-pointed water colour
brush
4 Short-hair flat ferrule brush
5 Thin tip felt pen
6 India ink (blue or black ink)
7 Angular thin tip
8 Large round tip
9. Pencils
10 Angular large tip
11 Eraser
12 Ruler

Practical work 3
Trial strokes. Make some trial strokes by holding the pen with the nib
tilting at 90° to the line of writing; 45° to the line of writing; 0° to the line
of writing. See Figure 10.10.
a) Tilling at 90°
1. Horizontal straight strokes
2. Horizontal wavy strokes
3. Vertical straight strokes
4. Vertical wavy strokes
b) Tilting at 45°
1. Horizontal straight strokes
2. Horizontal wavy strokes
3. Vertical straight strokes
4. Vertical wavy strokes
5. Curves with anti-clockwise stroke
6. Curves with clockwise strokes
Fig. 10.10 Writing with the broad nib

Fig. 10.10 Examples of Trial strokes
7. Clockwise and anti-clockwise curves together
8. Joining clockwise and anti-clockwise curves together

References
BONGHNER. Howard. Posters. Grosset and Dunlop. New York. USA.
1977. pp. 2-3
HIGGINS. Walter. Pen Practice. B.T. Batsford Ltd. London. 1974. pp. 4.
6. 32-3
STANFIELD. N.F. Art for African Schools. Evans Brothers Ltd. London,
1976, pp. 71-3
STANFIELD. NF. A Handbook for Art Teaching in Tropical Schools.
Evans Brothers Ltd. London. 1976. pp 121-8
UZVAGBA. I.N. Understanding Art In General Education.
Gong Printers and Publishers Ltd. Asaba, Nigeria, pp 97-100
WHITFIELD. Beginning Pen Lettering (Book 3). Ginn and Company Ltd.
London, 1962. pp 3-7
Lettering

Printmaking
Objectives
• understand printmaking as a means of communicating ideas;
• collect ideas from their surroundings and use them in making prints;
• build low relief surfaces and make prints from them.
Printmaking is the art of making marks or impressions on surfaces such
as paper and cloth. This is done by pressing or stamping paint or ink on
to the surface. Printmaking is done in order to loam a process, reproduce
a design and as a means of communicating ideas. Printed materials
are used in decorating as well as educating, informing, cautioning and
directing people. Examples of printed materials are posters, books,
greeting cards, stickers, labels, banners, T-shirts and fabrics.
Direct Prints
This is a way of collecting ideas from surfaces. These ideas can be
organized into designs for book covers, illustrations, posters, textiles
and so on. The surfaces may be natural or man-made. They may
include leaves, seal pods, tree barks, sandpaper, corrugated cards,
sawn wood, com cob, rope, string, hands, feet, coarse woven cloth,
lace, sticks, matchboxes and many other objects.
Practical work l
1 Collect a variety of materials suitable for making direct prints.
2 Mix powder or poster colour with starch to a suitable consistency
and use as printing paste.
3 Cover the surface of some objects with printing paste.
4 Place a sheet of printing paper on a flat surface.
5 Make prints on the printing paper from the objects.
6 Lift the object from the paper and allow the print to dry.
7 Make more prims from different surfaces.

Practical work 2
Printing from leaf stalk stems and vegetables.
1 Collect suitable leaf stalks and stems of banana, pawpaw, plantain
and bamboo. Vegetables such as onions, okro, tomatoes and
eggplant can be used to make prims.
2 Select a stalk or vegetable and cut a clean cross-section of it.
3 Apply printing paste to the cut surface and make a print.
4 Make several prints from the stalk or vegetable.
5 Cut through the stalk or vegetable at different angles, and print to
vary the pattern.
6 Split the stalk or vegetables into two and print to give more
variations.
a
c
b
(a) Prints from objects
(b) Monoprint
(c) Rubbing from surfaces
Fig. 11.1 Direct prints

Monoprints
Monoprinting is a process in which only one print can be made, for
example, spreading paint on a surface and scratching designs onto it
and making a print. If the process is repeated, the subsequent prints are
different.
Practical work 3
1 Cover a smooth surface with printing paste.
2 Place a sheet of paper on the surface.
3 Draw any desired pattern on the back of the paper with a pointed
tool.
Make sure the paper does not move while you draw.
4 Lift the paper carefully from the surface and allow it to dry.
5 Wash and dry the surface.
Practical work 4
1 Spread some printing paste over a smooth surface with a brush.
If printing ink is used, this may be done with a hand-roller.
2 Place the printing paper on the inked surface.
3 Rub your fingers gently over the back of the paper making sure that
it
does not shift from the surface.
4 Lift the paper by peeling it off carefully from one comer.
Practical work 5
1 Make more monoprints by trying out multi-coloured effects.
2 You may mix powder colours with glue, kerosine, turpentine,
methylated spirit and liquid soap to make printing paste.
3 Crayons, oil pastels and coloured chalk may be tried with turpentine
toproduce printing paste.
Printmaking

Frottage printing
This is done by placing paper on a textured surface and rubbing the
back with crayon, pencil or charcoal. Textures on wooden or concrete
floors, mosquito mesh, tree barks, surfaces of coins and other objects
make interesting prints.
Practical work 6
1 Select a textured surface.
2 Place the printing paper on top of the textured surface.
3 Rub the back of the paper as evenly as possible with pencil or
crayon. (Do not press too hard or you will make holes in the paper.)
4 Press the paper firmly with the other hand so that it does not shift
from the textured surface.
5 Make different prints over one another on the same surface to
create textured prints.
Relief Printing
In this type of printing a relief block is made and used. Shapes may be
cut from textured surfaces such as cardboard, tree bark, com shuck and
leaves.’ These are assembled and glued on a hard surface and used to
print.
Printmaking

Fig. 11.2 Prints from relief blocks
Practical work 7
1 Collect various objects with textured surfaces suitable for printing.
2 Spread enough adhesive on the surface of a wooden block.
3 Select objects and arrange them into a pattern on the wooden block
and glue them. The height of the objects should be as equal as
possible.
4 Leave the block for the adhesive to dry thoroughly.
5 Spread some printing paste on the textured surfaces of the objects
on the block.
6 Place a sheet of paper over the pasted surface and rub the back
gently.
7 Lift the paper carefully from the block and allow it to dry.
References
GALE. Elizabeth. From Fibres to Fabric. Mills and 8oon Ltd. London.
1978. pp 155-9
PLUCKROSE. Henry. The-Book of Crafts. Evans Brothers Ltd. London.
1971, pp. 193-201

Indigenous African ArtsTwelve
Objectives
• the concept of art in indigenous African society;
• how to identify art forms in indigenous African society:
• the main characteristics of these arts;
• the social and economic relevance of these arts to life.
The Concept of Art in Indigenous African Society
By concept of art we mean the body of ideas African people have about
the arts and their attitude towards them.
• There is no appropriate African word that can be equated with the
word ‘art*. But there are words in the various languages for ‘design’
or ‘handiwork’ or ‘craftsman’, for example, dwumfo
(Twi for ‘craftsman’) or adbu (Ewe for design).
• There is no distinction between ‘art’ and ‘craft’. All crafts are arts.
They are considered as creative activities requiring skill and a sense
of aesthetics.
• The aesthetic qualities of the arts arc not only determined by the
language of art (i.e. rhythm, balance, shape and so on). They are
also determined
by the ethics or values of the people. (That is when the arts conform
to what is good in society.)
• Several art forms can be combined for a purpose. For example,
sculpture, music, pottery, textiles and dance may be used
simultaneously.
A man may wear a mask and special costumes; he dances to drum
music while he carries a ceremonial pot in his hands.

• The arts are a necessity, an integral force and a part of living. They
perform specific functions.
• A particular’ work of art may be destroyed or discarded after its use
no matter how beautiful or expensive it may be.
• Taboos are observed in association with the arts. For example, a
blacksmith should not strike a person with his bare hands; a carver
should not work when he is annoyed.
• Mediums, materials and tools or equipment used in creating art
forms must be respected.
• There is a division of art activities among the sexes. For instance,
masonry, smiting, casting, leatherwork, stone and wood carving are
men’s work. Spinning, weaving and pottery are women’s work.
Weaving is done by men and women in some societies, and in
others like the Ashanti, Ewe and Dagomba only men weave.
• The arts are not the privilege of a few select people in the society.
• Artists are highly respected and in some eases feared in their
societies.
The indigenous arts in Africa have a long and complex past dating far
back to prehistory. In oral history or tradition, myths explain their
origins. For example, one of the myths says that God taught a woman
pottery and men how to carve. In other myths, spirits, spiders, birds or
other animals are involved in teaching men and women the arts.
Indigenous African Arts

Types of Arts
In Chapter 2 we learnt how the indigenous people of the sub- Saha-
ra used their arts to control their environment. In this chapter we shall
identify the arts and group them according to their types and the ways
we perceive them. The grouping will help us to understand the nature of
the arts for belter appreciation and application of them to our present
environments. There are two major groups of the arts: visual arts and
performing arts.
Visual Arts
As the name implies, this branch refers to all the arts that can be seen.
They can also be perceived by our sense of touch.
Sculpture
This is done in the form of wood, stone, ivory and bone carvings; clay and
wax modelling; metal casting. Objects produced may be for religious
or ordinary, purposes. They include masks, animal and human figures,
headrests, furniture (e.g. stools and scats, pillars, doors and others);
musical instruments (e.g. drums, flutes and horns); and household
objects (e.g. combs, bowls, jewellery and snuff boxes and milk jars).
Painting
Walls and other surfaces may be decorated by painting. Other artefacts
like masks, statues and drums may be painted.

Textiles
Weaving, printing, dyeing and applique work are done. Objects
produced include cloths, mats, costumes, rugs, raffia or bark clothes,
cloaks.
Pottery
Hand-built pots and bowls arc made. Objects produced include
ceremonial or ritual pots, cooking pots and vessels for storing riches,
food, oils and relics.
Beadwork
Beads are made into belts and stringed to be used for body decorations.
There are cloaks made of glass, seed or clay beads.
Basketry
Baskets are usually made from palm rachis, canes and grass. They are
woven into simple or intricate and beautiful patterns and shapes.
Calabash
Calabashes are decorated by carving or incising patterns and designs
on them. They are used as vessels and musical instruments.
Leatherwork
This is all work using leather skins and hides: bags, containers, hats,
saddles, bridles, boots, sandals, scats, costumes, talismans, charms,
musical instruments and others.

Architecture
An architectural structure can be forreligiousor.secularu.se. It can also
be symbolic: a round house may represent perfection and an angular
one may symbolize male power. Architecture comprises houses,
temples, palaces, shrines and granaries.
Blacksmithing
This includes iron work, ceremonial swords, daggers and knives, statues
of wrought iron.
Goldsmithing
Objects produced include rings, hairpins, wristlets, necklaces, ceremo-
nial chains, cups, bowls and others.
Body arts
These comprise:
Painting. The human body can be painted with one or more colours.
This can be for religious, political, medicinal, entertainment and war
purposes. Dyes, earth colours and cosmetics arc used.
Performing Arts
These are art forms perceived by our senses of hearing, seeing and
our kinesthetic senses, but they are performed rather than made.
They consist of: drama, mimicry, gestures, gaits, dance, ballet, plays,
music, songs, dirges, oral traditions, tales, fables, myths, proverbs,
appellation, lampoons, maxims, riddles, poetry, legends, and oratory.
Several of these can be combined into a single activity. For example,
drama may involve songs, gestures, dancing, oratory and poetry. The
performing arts may be used either for pure recreation or for ritual,
ceremonial or social occasions.

Drama
This is a type of ritual and a form of entertainment. Drama is used in
religious and social festivals. In indigenous drama, the audience often
join in the play by talking to the actors. Drama is part of indigenous life
and it has social functions in the community.
Music
Indigenous music is played at religious and social ceremonies. It
accompanies ceremonies connected with birth, marriage and death.
There are a variety of indigenous musical instruments in Africa. These
include drums, stringed instruments, wind instruments and self-sounding
instruments.
Dance
Dance is a passionate ac t in all indigenous African societies. It
accompanies almost every occasion, both sacred and ordinary. The
drum is used in all cases. Dance consists of vigorous and graceful body
movements, rhythmic footsteps and complex hand and arm gestures
which are often symbolic. Dances portray activities of daily life, war and
peace time activities, farm work, joy and sorrow, domestic work and
others.
Summary
The artists who practise visual and performing arts are highly respected
in their societies and their works are often in great demand. Therefore
they are well paid for their works. The works satisfy the social, religious,
political and economic needs of the people. Recognition of the arts and
the various artistic products will help us to improve their material,
technical and aesthetic qualities in line with our contemporary needs.
The arts can also be practised today as vocations.

Major Characteristics of African Art
Functional
The arts arc functional. Each object has several or specific purposes. The
object may encourage social relationships and communication; it may
convey power, status, and wealth. For example, a stool or a throne of
a chief expresses power and status. It links with ancestor worship and
affects all
social relationships in the society.
Relating to everyday life
The arts are integrated with everyday life. In all social and individual
activities art objects are used. They are used to secure and continue the
spiritual, physical and economic welfare of the community. For example,
a decorated leather amulet may be worn by a hunter or warrior for
protection or to ensure success. The hunter’s dress may be made of
special fabric and dye.
Common to all members of society
The arts belong to everybody in the society. The concept, forms, beliefs
that motivated the creation of the works tire understood and shared by
all in the society. For instance, the shape, sound and colour of a war
drum are known to all in the society and the sound of the drum is used
for the benefit of everyone. In the case of architecture, some houses may
be communal (i.e. palaces, shrines, men’s club houses). In the case of
sculpture, a mask may belong to the society.
Recording
The arts are like history books. They reflect the struggles and aspirations
of the people, especially the economic, religious and philosophical
aspects of their lives. The arts are used to record and commemorate
events.

For instance, a statue with a firearm or gun may commemorate a great
hunter or the introduction of guns into that society; a drum may be used
to broadcast messages far and wide. The arts reflect the philosophy (deep
reasoning) of the people in the form of proverbs, riddles and parables.
These in turn may reflect the impact of history on the people. The arts
are used in the day-to-day administration of society. They also reflect
methods of doing things.
Educational
The artefacts can be used as teaching aids. Education of peoples without
written language is primarily through sounds and images (audio-visual).
The arts express the culture of the people. The young people of the society
are introduced to the cultural activities through the arts. A passage from
childhood to adolescence and to adulthood is marked by initiation, rites
and ceremonies. The arts arc used to teach young people. The adults in
the society are always reminded of their responsibilities by the artefacts.
1 Write down four aspects of the concept of art in indigenous African
society.
2 How is the origin of the arts often explained in some indigenous
societies?
3 Write down ten different types of the visual arts.
4 What are the differences and similarities between the visual and
the performing arts?
5 What is the economic and social relevance of the indigenous arts?
6 State three characteristics of the indigenous arts.
References
VANSINA. Jan, Art History in Africa. Longman Group UK Limited,
Harlow. 1984. pp. 121- 33
WINGERT, Paul. Primitive Art: Its Tradition and Styles. Oxford University
Press. New York. 1962, pp. 13-72

Contemporary African ArtsThirteen
Objectives
• identify types of contemporary art forms;
• understand the uses of and relevance of the arts in life.
In this chapter contemporary African arts refer to the arts which began in
the 1920s. They are different from the indigenous arts in many ways, yet
they sometimes share common traits with them. Contemporary arts are
the result of long and regular contact between Africa and other parts of
the world by means of trade, religion, colonization, education, politics,
economics,
industrialization and advance technology. For purposes of identification
and understanding, contemporary arts can be grouped into visual and
performing arts.
Visual Arts
Architecture
Contemporary architecture comprises buildings ranging from single storey
ones to those which are many storeys high; buildings for religious purposes
(i.e.cathedrals,churches,temples,mosques,sanctuariesandmonasteries);
public buildings (i.e. banks, law courts, conference halls, parliament
houses, offices, theatres, stadiums, galleries, museums, libraries, archives,
hospitals and post offices); private houses and mansions; armouries, mil-
itary and police barracks; buildings for institutions (i.e. prisons, asylums,
leprosariums); places of learning (schools, colleges and universities);
buildings for markets, supermarkets and factories; and many others. The
shapes and decorations of the buildings are varied. They are designed
to suit the functions for which they are intended and in line with aesthetic
principles. Both natural and artificial materials are used for the buildings
and their decorations. These are many and varied, including cement,
plastic, plaster, stone, brick blocks, slate, paper, chipboard, glass, fibre
glass, metal, paint, polythene and others.

The relevance of architecture to life is that it provides us with shelters for
living and working in and storage. Figure 13.1 shows examples of con-
temporary visual art forms.
Sculpture
Contemporary sculpture appears in reliefs and in free-standing figures
and forms. The techniques employed in making the sculptures are
carving, modelling, con-struction and assemblage. Materials used are
organic and inorganic. Sculpture is an art which can be done in countless
materials. Among the essential ones are stone, wood, wax, metal, bone,
horn, plastic, fibre glass, leather, fabric, clay or terracotta, paper and
glass. The tools used in fashioning these materials are equally without
limit. They include the hands, the feet, chisels, knives, saws, hammers,
spatulas, welding equipment, manual, mechanical and electronic tools.
The themes and the manner of representation (styles) of the sculptures
are based on indigenous, American, European, Christian and Islamic
ideas. The styles arc both realistic and abstract. The sculptures are used
for commemorating events and people and for decoration of public
places like libraries, parks, airports, squares and hospitals.
Painting
This is one of the major ways of making pictures in contemporary arts.
The others are drawing, etching, engraving, printing, scraping (i.e. the
use of scraper-boards), mosaic and collage. Paintings arc done on walls,
canvas, board, paper and sheets of metal. With the exception of walls,
these materials can be mounted on an easel for painting. Painting is
done with colour pencils, crayons, pastels, water colours, oil colours,
gouache, poster colours and enamel paints. The subjects include
still-lives, animal and plant life, landscapes, seascapes, portraits,
compositions based on history, politics, religion, economic and everyday
life.
Contemporary African Arts

Fig. 13. 1 Some contemporary Visual Art forms
1
4
2
2
1. Sculpture 2. Textile 3. Leather work 4. Painting

Paintings are used for decorating walls of buildings and surfaces of other
objects, e.g. altars, furniture and cars or lorries.
Graphics
These consist of lettering, engraving, poster making, package designing,
stage designing, internal decoration and shop decoration. Tools used by
the graphic artists include all types of drawing tools and instruments.
The graphic arts are primarily- used for decoration, advertising and
promoting the sales of all types of product; literacy, political activities
and giving out information.
Cinema
Cinema is a modem art which is growing fast in Africa. It is an art that
depends on other arts like literature, music and drama. Therefore it
involves several artists in its creation. The artists may include director, pro-
ducer,actorsandactresses,costumedesigners,photographers,musicians,
sculptors, painters, graphic designers and several others. African films
are made in Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Senegal and Nigeria. Cinema
provides entertainment and education. Its effect or impact on our lives,
especially in the case of young people, is considerable.
Photography
This is the process of producing images of objects and places by means
of a camera. It is a highly technical form of picture-making yet creativity
and aesthetics are essential for good photography. It is an expensive art
but interesting and profitable as well. It is used for recording scenery,
events, portraits, animal and human life. Photographs play major roles
in all aspects of human life. Many of us cherish albums of our family
photographs.

Textiles
These consist of woven, knitted, dyed and printed fabrics. They are made
intovariousworksofartbymeansofsewing,stitching,crocheting,applique
and embroidery. Tools used in the textile industries range from needles
of all types to complex electronic machines. The products include cloths,
dresses, stoles, ‘mammy’ cloth, napkins, towels, blankets, handkerchiefs,
upholstery, sheets, hangings, carpets, tapestry, socks, gloves, stockings,
hats, caps and footwear. Fashion designing, dressmaking and tailoring
are aspects of the textile arts.
Hairdressing
This is a form of art in which the hair on our heads is treated and
designed for aesthetic appeal. All sorts of ointments, oils, creams,
waxes and chemicals are used to soften, harden, dye and bleach the hair.
Someinstrumentsmaybeattachedtothehairtokeepitinaparticularstyle.
They include hairpins, clips, combs and others. Another hair attachment
is the wig. Barbering is also an aspect of the hairdressing art.
Metal art
This comprises silver and gold smithing, jewellery making and
blacksmithing. The techniques used in this art include casting.
annilling, enamelling, croisonee, cutting, welding, soldering and others.
Among the metals used are silver, gold, copper, aluminium, platinum,
bronze, tin, chromium, iron and others. Other materials are sometimes
combined with the metals to produce wonderful works of art. These
include leather, precious stones (diamonds, rubies, lapis lazuli, pearls
and others), bones, ebony and other hardwoods, plastics and glass.
The art works include cutlery, plates, trays, boxes, cups, bowls, rings,
necklaces, wristlets, bangles, pendants, trophies, buckles, tie pins,
hairpins, lamp-holders, lamp-stands, chandeliers, paperweights and
others.

Pottery and ceramics
Contemporary pottery in Africa is made with a potter’s wheel, which
facilitates the quick production of finely shaped pots, cups, plates, vases
and so on. Electric, gas, wood or oil kilns arc used in firing the products.
Besides clay, a large range of new dielectric materials (i.e. ones which
do not conduct electricity) are used. Pottery and ceramic wares are
decorated by painting, incising, modelling, stamping and glazing with
colours.
Basketry
Materials like canes, straws, raffia, palm rachis and synthetic cords are
woven into works of art. Some of the materials arc combined. Colours
may be introduced into the works.
Other visual arts
These include macrame (knotting, twisting and weaving all kinds
of thread into decorative works); paperworks (book binding, paper
folding); collage, mosaics and others.

Performing Arts
Dance
Contemporary dance consists of different dance forms from many
parts of the world introduced into Africa, in addition to new dances
designed in Africa. The newly designed dance forms, often incorporate
indigenous ones. There are schools and groups of contemporary dance
who perform various familiar and unfamiliar dances.
These dances are sometimes performed on television and in theatres.
Among the contemporary dance forms arc the cha-cha-cha, swing, waltz,
rumba, boogaloo, twist, mambo, steps, break, electric boogy, rapping,
robot, Alkayeda, Azonto, Amanda, Burkina and a host of others. Dance
is a source of great pleasure. It helps us to relax.
Music
Contemporary African music is made up of foreign music like jazz, pop,
blues, reggae, rock and Arabic music. It also includes music based on
indigenous kinds of music that have survived Islamic, Christian and
colonial influences; for example juju music and highlife music. Foreign
instrumentsliketheSpanishguitar,electricguitar,organ,piano,trombone,
tambourine and trumpet are used. Very often the foreign instruments
arc combined with indigenous ones to produce very rich contemporary
music. The music is used for entertainment, religious worship and other
purposes. It is played at concerts, in stadiums, theatres, dance halls and
parks for people to listen or dance to. Military music is also played on
parade grounds. Music is a source of joy to mankind; it moves us to
work and helps us relax.

Drama
Contemporary drama consists of plays that express social life and
ideas. These are shown on a stage in a theatre. The audience sits quietly
to listen. They clap, laugh or boo occasionally. But at the end of the play
the audience can talk to the actors and actresses and praise or criticize
them. Drama is also used in schools, colleges and other institutions of
learning to express some ideas. It is very important to children. It helps
them to express themselves with their voices and bodies. In drama
children learn to use language more skillfully and to move easily and
gracefully.
Some Differences Between Contemporary and
Indigenous Arts
There are some differences between contemporary arts and the
indigenous arts. Table 4 is a summary of differences.
Contemporary arts are taught through formal education in institutions
of learning and there is no division of the arts according to the sexes
as there is in the indigenous arts. The indigenous artists are trained
by apprenticeship and there are no certificates of merits or proficiency
awardedattheendoftheirtrainingashappensinthecontemporaryarts.In
indigenoussocietiestaboosareobservedinadditiontosafetyruleswhilein
the contemporary arts only safety rules are essential. Symbolic meanings
are not essential features of contemporary arts as they are of indigenous
arts. Contemporary arts are made to satisfy people of all ethnic groups
and cultures, whereas indigenous arts are for particular ethnic groups
or people of the same culture. Generally speaking, indigenous arts are
inspired.by rituals. Contemporary arts on the other hand are inspired by
uses, functions, foreign concepts and essentially, by aesthetics.

Art Forms Materials
Indigenous Arts Basketry, pottery,
leatherwork, carving,
modelling, casting,
metal smithing,
weaving, dyeing,
printing, architecture,
beadmaking, painting,
calabash/gourd work,
applique.
Canes, rattan, raffia,
palms, twigs, straws,
clay, wood, bone,
metal, Horn, fibre,
wool, skin, hide,
shells, earth colours,
dyes from plants,
gourds,
calabashes, feathers
and so on.
Contemporary Arts Cinema, photography,
graphic design,
lettering, printing,
calligraphy,
ceramics, glass-blow-
ing, painting, drawing,
textiles, metalwork,
sculpture and others
Cement, fibre, glass,
synthetic fibres, oil
colours, poster and
water colours, pencils,
crayons, pens,
plastics, gouache,
papier, metal,
minerals.
1 Try to write down a few more differences between indigenous arts and
contemporary arts.
2 What are the differences between indigenous pottery and contemporary
pottery and ceramics?
References
BEIER, Ulli, Contemporary Art In Africa, Pall Mall Press Limited, London,
1968, pp. 3-14
FOSU, Kojo, 20th Century Arts of Africa, vol. 1, Gaskiya Corporation
Limited, Zaria, 1986
MOUNT, Marshall Ward, African Art: the Years Since 1920, Indiana
University Press, Bloomington, 1973

Ghanaian Arts and ArtistsFourteen
Objectives
• identify and describe forms of indigenous and contemporary arts;
• state uses of the art forms;
• explain the influences that affect the contemporary arts.
Indigenous Arts
The tools, materials, media and processes used in Ghanaian arts are
similar to those used in African indigenous arts in general, as described
in Chapter 12. Beliefs, attitudes and philosophies are also not too
different. For this reason, only a brief summary on indigenous arts in
Ghana is presented in this chapter.
Amid the network of basic beliefs, values, rites and practices, Ghanaians
have had no need to name their creative products as ‘arts’. Instead,
each object has a specific name. This is because the objects - drums,
stools, beads, carvings, houses, dolls and so on are an integral part of
the way Ghanaians live. Art making is a necessary part of everyday life.
The aesthetic aspect of life is represented by visual and physical forms
- buildings, carvings, baskets, textiles and so on but these also reflect
the philosophical, spiritual and psychological attributes of Ghanaian
culture.
Major Forms of Indigenous Art Visual Arts
Costume
Various forms of indigenous dressing can be identified. Each ethnic
group has distinct styles - for adults, children, males and females. There
are also dresses for ordinary life, rites and special occasions.

Body arts
Symbolic painting or printing of designs is done on the body. Other
body marks may be made for medicinal, decorative, religious or ethnic
purposes. Hairstyles and headgear are of varied designs, some of which
have meanings.
Pottery
Hand-built pots and bowls are round to depict the perfection of God.
They are generally used for fluids symbolizing the stream of life.
Textiles
Weaving, dyeing, priming and applique arc the main forms.
Basketry
Baskets are made from palms, raffia, straw, rattan, bamboo, bulrush
and twigs.
Leatherwork
Hides and skins have been used to make a variety of articles - bags,
hats, talismans, scats, footwear and so on.
Calabash/gourd work
Carving, printing and scorching are done.
Bead work
This is done from clay, stone, bone, shell, coral, teeth, metal and plants.
Painting
Body painting and wall painting arc old indigenous arts.
Ghanaian Arts and Artists

Sculpture
Indigenous forms are carving - wood, ivory, stone and bone; and mod-
elling and casting - goldweights.
Performing Arts
Music
Indigenous performing arts comprise music, drama, dance and verbal
art. Music is a social event organized in relation to everyday life. There is
virtually no community without any form of music. It is organized during
festivals, rites, ceremonies, entertainment, marriage, funeral worship or
communal labour. It may occur in the royal palace, town square, strector
courtyard. Singing, drumming, dancing and nonmusical gestures occur
at the same time.
A variety of musical instruments are made from available materials. Four
majorcategoriesofinstrumentscanbeidentified.Therearecordophonesor
stringed instruments which are played by striking, plucking or bowing in
order to set the siring in motion, for example hites and lyres. The second
category of instruments arc the aerophones. They are wind instruments.
Examples are horns and flutes. The third category are the idiophones or
self-sounding instruments such, as bells and rattles. The fourth category’
of musical instruments are membranophones, for example, drums.

Dance
Indigenous dance is considered original, exciting and expressive. To the
Ghanaian, dance is life in action. Performance is therefore vigorous and
life-enhancing. Dance varies from simple to complex patterns when it
is performed during hunting, harvest, festivals, birth, puberty, marriage
and funeral celebrations. Dance movements are inspired by natural
events, everyday life, religious themes, experiences, beliefs and attitudes
which may be easily translated into dance steps. Costume is used as an
extension of body gestures during dance.
Drama
It is identified in ritual, ceremonies or occasions of entertainment. There
is also the dance-drama which is found in music, poetry and dance.
Indigenous drama is a form of artistic expression and a mode of
communication. Drama occurs in the market, farm, chop-bar, public
gathering and on vehicles.
Verbal art
This consists of poetry, dirges, lyrics, oaths, libation and story-telling.
Poetry is recited or played on the drum by playing variations of tones
imitating human speech to carry across a message. Such an act is a
special skill which one has to learn. Storytelling is a narrative form of
drama.
Contemporary Ghanaian Arts
Since the late nineteenth century, Ghanaian art has been changing grad-
ually from its indigenous origins into modern forms. This change has
been brought about by foreign influences which came through formal
school education, religion and trade. Some of the factors which brought
about the influence include new materials, tools, methods and ideas for
making art. However, contemporary Ghanaian art is by no means a di-
rect copy of Western art. Some aspects of indigenous culture appear in
die contemporary art forms.

Uses of Contemporary Ghanaian Visual Art Forms
Picture Making
This includes drawing, painting, collage and mosaic.
• In education, picture-making in the pre-school and primary school
affords children the opportunity to exercise their wrists and to
overcometheir nervousness in writing.
• It helps children and students to do critical observation, judgement
and identification of forms, shapes, textures and colours of figures
and objects in their environment.
• Pictures in the form of paintings, collages and mosaics are also
used in various ways.
(a) As souvenirs (records for remembrance). They remind us of places
we have visited or events that have taken place in our lives.
(b) As aids for promoting teaching and learning activities at school.
(c) As decoration.
(d) To enhance the beauty of other art forms. For instance, pictures
can be drawn or printed on baskets, leather bags and others to
decorate them for better sales.
(e) As basic motifs for designing other forms of art.
(f) To show our cultural identity.

Graphic art
Lettering, calligraphy, illustration, poster-making, package designing
(packaging), photography, cinematography, bookcraft, printmaking,
postage stamp designing, stage designing, shop decoration and interior
decoration.
Different types of graphic art forms are used in various ways.
• Posters are used to advertise, give information or educate the public
on important issues such as primary health care, the road safety
campaign, and domestic accidents. Others are used to teach morals
such as avoidance of teenage pregnancies and use of dangerous
drugs. Information about commerce, social activities and important
events is conveyed by means of posters.
• Notices, sign and billboards are used for advertisements. They are
also used for directions and location of specific places such as the
market or hospital.
• Package designs are used to enhance industrial products for better
marketing and higher sales. Thus, a package design acts as a label
of identification and advertisement.
• Greeting, success and other cards are sent to loved ones,
acquaintances and relatives on occasions such as festivals, birthdays,
marriages, examinations, bereavements and times of illness to wish
them well.
• Photography and film (cinema and video) are used to record
important events in our lives. These might include a national day
celebration, places visited, festivals witnessed, a graduation day in a
school or sporting activities in which we have taken part.
• Print making is used to reproduce pictures, types and designs.

• Calligraphy is a stylized form of free-hand writing used for texts on
certificates, greeting cards, messages and letters. It is a decorative
form of free-hand writing that can be applied in various ways.
• Lettering is for writing posters, banners, notices and billboards as
well as the titles of some books.
Textile arts
These include the making of woven fabrics - dress fabrics, napkins,
towels, handkerchiefs; furnishing fabrics upholstery, hangings,
sheetings, tapestry, carpets, table mats; knitted fabrics such as socks,
stockings, gloves, sweaters; dyed fabrics- tie and dye (tie-dye) batik,
tritik (slitch-and-dye); printed fabrics-adinkra cloth, ‘mammy’ cloth (du-
mas and java prints); sewing tailoring and dress-making; needlework -
stitchery, crocheting, applique and embroidery. Textile products are used
for various purposes in Ghanaian society.
• Clothes are worn to cover the body of the wearer as well as protect it
against the harsh conditions of the weather. As clothing, textiles are
used for dress fabrics for men, women and children. These are used
for all social functions - festivals, parties, church services and
funerals. They are also used for travelling, school and work. Other
products include handkerchiefs, handkerchiefs, socks, stockings,
gloves, ribbons, ties, underwear, swimming suits and other
sportswear.
• As furnishing fabrics, textiles are used for cushion and pillow covers,
curtains and partitions, bedspreads, blankets, decorative wall
hangings, floor carpets, table covers and mats.
• Domestically, textiles are used as napkins, towels and dusters for
cleaning purposes.

• Some fabrics such as umbrella cloth and tarpaulin are used as
protection from rain and sunshine.
• In industry, some fabrics such as canvas and greybaft are used for
foot-wear and support for painting. Sack cloth is used as backing for
carpets as well as for making hags and sacks used in packing and
storing industrial products. Most industrial ropes, cords and fishing
nets are also textile products.
Ceramics
These include pots water coolers, water pots, tea and coffee pots;
casseroles - bowls for fufu, soup and so on; mugs cups for water, tea, beer
and so on; dishes - plates, saucers and trays; vases; storage vases for
water, wine and other liquids, and decorative (flower) vases; tiles - roofing
tiles, floor tiles, wall tiles, screen tiles (balusters); ceramic sculpture - free
forms for decoration. Miscellaneous ceramic wares heat and electrical
insulators, ceramic murals, ceramic plaques, ceramic pipes, glass
containers, bottles, sheet glass and louvre blades. Some uses of ceramic
products are as follows:
• As household utensils, ceramic products are used for cooking and
serving food. They are employed as jars, pots, vases and containers
for storing water, milk and other drinkables as well as food items
such as beans, pepper, salt, gari and others.
• Some ceramic wares are mainly for decoration. These include
ceramic sculptures and free forms which are used as garden
sculptures for decorating the compounds and lawns of homes and
offices. Flower vases are also used to brighten up verandahs, dining
and centre tables of our halls, while ceramic murals decorate the
corridors of buildings.
• Some building materials such as bricks, water pipes and roofing,
wall and floor tiles are made from ceramics. Screen tiles are often
used for balusters to enhance buildings. Other ceramic products
used in architecture are sheet glass, louvre blades, water closet
stools and sinks.

• In industry, ceramic products are employed as heat and electrical
insulators. Glassware such as bottles and other containers find their
uses in breweries, distilleries and pharmaceutical industries.
Sculpture
This includes carving - human figures, effigies, animals, drums, masks,
relief carvings (carved door panels) and shoe heels; modelling - statues
in terracotta, cement, papier maché and other appropriate materials;
casting plaques, emblems, tombstones in cement, clay, papier maché
and so on, and figurines in bronze, copper and lead; construction and
assemblage - all kinds of froe forms made in any suitable materials.
The various uses to which sculptures are put include the following:
• For domestic purposes - stools, trays, ladles, mortars and jostles are
used as household utensils.
• Some sculptures such as tombstones, plaques, emblems and
effigies or portraits are used as mementoes for the remembrance of
the dead, past heroes and important events in life. Thus, some
sculptures embody information about undocumented history of our
socio-political and cultural heritage. Through them we learn about
the past and the present and are thereby in a better position to
predict the future of our socio-political development.
• Relief carvings such as door panels and pictorial scenes as well as
human figures, animals, objects, free forms and various
assemblages are used in decorating our homes, offices, gardens
and compounds.
• In industry wooden handles are fashioned for some of the metal
tools used in agriculture, carving and carpentry. Heels for some
footwear are also carved from wood.

Metal art
This includes household utensils - sauce and frying pans, plates, cups,
bowls, buckets, trays, spoons, cooking pots, knives, bakery pans and
others; jewellery - rings of all kinds, necklaces, necklets, bracelets,
wristlets, bangles, pendants, belt hooks, cuff links, tie pins and others.
Some metal products, including sauce and frying pans, plates, cups,
bowls, buckets, trays, spoons and knives are household requirements. In
the jewellery, industry rings, necklaces, necklets, wristlets, bangles and
others arc worn as ornaments for decorating our bodies. Some farming
implements like hoes, cut-lasses, Wades and forks, as well as tools for
sculpture, carpentry and ceramics arc metal products. Others include
nails, door hinges, belts and knots.
Leatherwork
Thisincludescontainerssuchasbags,pursesandwallets;clothing-shoes,
sandals, belts, straps, hats, talismans, amulets; furnishing - cushion and
pillow covers, hassocks, saddles and others.
There are diverse uses of leather products in Ghana. However, the
particular use to which a product is put depends on the function for
which it is designed.
• Leather bags are used as containers for shopping and storing
dresses and other belongings. Money and important documents
such as cheques, money orders and receipts are kept in purses and
wallets before being put in our pockets to prevent them from being
damaged by perspiration.
• Leather shoes, sandals, belts, hats, talismans and amulets are used
as clothing. Some talismans and amulets are invoked to protect the
wearer against evil spirits, diseases and attacks by the enemy. This
fortifies him against being injured by any sharp or pointed edge
such as a knife or bullet.

• Leather is used for upholstery works, i.e. for covering cushions,
pillows and inner linings of vehicles.
Basketry
This includes all kinds of articles woven with rattan (cane), bamboo, tender
stems of plants, straw, com shuck, raffia and plastic cords, for example,
bags, chairs, tables, beds, wig stands, flower hangers, trays and hats.
There are a variety of uses to which one can put basketry products.
However, these depend on the types of product, the material used in
fashioning it and the function intended by the producer.
• Some modem basketry products are used for storing clothing and
other belongings or as bins in which dirty clothes are kept for
washing. Others are used as shopping bags and storage for fruit and
other food items.
• Straw hats are worn for protection against the direct heat of the sun
and for decorating the body.
• We sleep on all sorts of mats to protect the body from cold and dirt.
Some ornamented raffia mats are used as tablemats and sitting-room
wall decorations. Others made from com shuck and other coarse
fibres are used as door and bedside mats.
• Woven rattan chairs, tables and baby’s cots are very common on the
furniture market today. Wig stands, bottle protectors and some
serving trays are all examples of basketry products.

Contemporary Performing Arts
The main types of performing arts described in this book are music,
dance, drama and verbal art.
Music
Tins includes organized sounds made by drumming, singing, clapping
of the hands, beating of the gongon, ringing of bells, blowing of the
trumpet, biggie or flute. Also, playing of records, tapes, the piano or
organ, guitar and others arc some forms of Ghanaian contemporary
music. Some examples of musical types found in contemporary Ghana
are choral or church music, brass band music, regimental (military)
music and classical music. Others include ballroom or pop music such
as calypso, jazz, ‘’rock-and-roll, Afro beat, reggae, funk, soca, maringe
and the modem highlife beats.
Music is organized for various occasions. Some types of music arc for
joyous occasions Such as church harvests, births, marriages, recreation
and other celebrations. Some are used for religious worship and
educating the public about patriotism, nationalism and morality. Other
musical types portray melancholy, such as at times of death, burials and
funerals. Most music for such social occasions is accompanied by dance
and drama.
Dance
Dance is a systematic organization of the footsteps in relation to
movement of various pans of the body. These include swerving, swaying,
shaking and tilting the body. These activities are done in combination
with facial expressions and gestures of the arms, hand, legs and head.
Miming (telling stories with actions), stamping of the feel, leaping,
hopping, stooping, jumping, tumbling and kicking are all characteristics
of dancing.

The art of organizing all these movements into any particular dance is
known as choreography. The one who arranges and organizes these
movements into a dance is called a choreographer. Some examples
of Ghanaian contemporary dance forms are the waltz, foxtrot, quick-
step, mambo, limbo, cha-cha-cha, twist, sentimental (smooching), robot
movement and magic-wave styles. Others are the break, electric boogy,
iced-kenkey, tapping-step, digging the buffalo, knockout movement,
Alkayeda, Azonto, Amanda, Burkina, puppet, soul train, boogaloo and
free-style (highlife) dances.
Different dance types may have different functions for different social
occasions. In a dance, some specific movements or actions may be per-
formed to express the mood of an occasion or ceremony. For instance,
free-style
dancing may be done on purely recreational and happy occasions. On
the other hand specific movements may be used with certain types of
music on occasions such as state dances. However, dancing is done
basically to exercise the body. The spontaneous action in dancing may
help improve the reflexes of the dancer.
Drama
This involves all kinds of performance, such as plays for the theatre,
comedies, concerts, operas, cantatas and others. Some common forms
of Ghanaian contemporary drama are the plays and comedies organized
by drama troupes, popularly called concert parties or trios such as
Osofo Dadzie, Adabraka Drama Troupe or Tsitsige and Tsadidi groups.
Popular examples of contemporary drama are the Thursday Theatre,
Radio Theatre and Show Case, featured by the Ghana Broadcasting
Corporation television. Other popular examples of drama include
Visitor from the Past. Ananse and the Gun Man by Joe deGraft; The
Dilemma of a Ghost by Christiana Aidoo; Okomfo Anokye by Dei Anang;
The Marriage of Anansewa by Efua Sutherland; The Lost Fisherman and
Hinti by Saka Acquaye.

In Ghanaian society drama spreads through most of our activities.
For instance, the organization of music, dance and verbal art usually
takes the form of drama. Drama also plays a part in religious activities
such as the festivals of Easter and Christmas, picnics, church harvests,
preachingandtheordinationofpriests;alsointhearrivalanddepartureof
important persons at gatherings such as at the airport, durbars, political
rallies and parties. Sports and games also take dramatic forms. Due to
the various ways in which drama is expressed in society, we may
distinguish it into three closely related forms.
1. Ceremonial drama. This form of drama is usually expressed in
association with social, religious and other ceremonial occasions.
These include funerals, festivals, parties, ordination of church ministers,
marriages, speech and prize-giving days, open days, baptismal, inaugu-
ral and outdooring ceremonies. Others are ceremonies of handing-over
and taking-over positions.
2. Narrative drama. This includes all drama found in story-telling. It
involves talking and making gestures at the same lime to emphasize the
meaning of a statement. Such a drama may be associated with a
teacher in the classroom, or narration of a story.
Dance-drama. This is a form of drama in which the meaning of a song,
poem or a personal feeling is expressed through actions in a dance. For
instance, a dancer of highlife can make actions to express love, unity,
happiness, victory, displeasure or disappointment.
In modem Ghanaian society, plays for the theatre are organized as
recreational activities. They are also used to amuse the audience, boost
their morale and to teach them about their cultural heritage, events in
other parts of the world and how to live a moral life. Also the various
actions and gestures made when dancing, talking or singing are all forms
of drama. They are used to express love, happiness or melancholy and
to interpret important events in life.

Verbal art
This is the art of talking. It involves all forms of speech-making processes
such as the recitation of poems and pledges as well as storytelling. It
also includes the swearing of oaths, reciting of prayers and respons-
es, commentary, debate, announcement, conversation, counselling and
cheering sportsmen in a game or actors in a play.
Verbal activity is an essential part of social life. It gives knowledge about
the values of social and cultural life, through folktales, legends, myths
and stories about the past. It also promotes the spirit of communalism
among people. It may be used spontaneously to express the mood of
a particular moment. For instance, when an important personality such
as a Secretary of State arrives at a ceremonial ground he may be hailed
by word of mouth. While the functions of a given occasion are going
on, there may be exclamations to cheer up and boost the occasion. For
instance, in the southern section of the country, there are intermittent
shouts of an assent - ayefro doodo - to punctuate wedding or marriage
ceremonies. Shouting of praise names is a common form of verbal
activity used in boosting the morale of an actor or a performer such as
a sportsman.
The foregoing suggests that art forms are very beneficial to us and the
whole of society. Therefore as students of art we have the duty to con-
tribute to improve upon them so as to render them even more beneficial.
We can do this by exploring our environment for new materials, tools
and techniques for making art. This can be done through the design
process discussed in Chapter 4 of this book. In this way, we can renovate
the already existing art forms as well as invent new ones. This will enable
us to use our arts to promote the development of small-scale industries.
Thus, when well organized, the arts, both visual and performing, will
become a more meaningful means of fostering the social, economic
and political development of our nation.

Performing Arts as Art Forms
Artists consider the performing arts as art. The reason is that the basic
elements of design and the principles by which they are organized into
art can be found also in the performing arts.
We have learnt that to create art, one has to organize the elements
of design - dots, lines, shapes, planes, volume, space, texture, colour,
weight and patterns, according to certain principles. These principles
are unity, variety, harmony, rhythm, balance, repetition, contrast, scale,
impact, tone and others. Thus, the elements and principles of design
are together responsible for the visual qualities in art forms. In music,
dance, drama and verbal an also, we employ line, shape, plane,
volume, space, texture, pattern, unity, variety, rhythm, harmony, balance,
repetition, contrast, dominance, scale, impact, tone and others. Thus,
the elements and principles of design are found in both visual and
performing arts.
In making any art form, certain stages are involved. Usually, there is a
gradualbeginningofpreparationandgatheringofrequiredmaterials.The
next stage shows the climax or peak of the working process. This is the
stagewheretheactualexerciseisdone.Finally,thereisagradualfinishing.
In wood carving, for example, we begin by looking for a suitable wood
and sharpening the carving tools. This is followed by the actual carving.
We then sandpaper and polish the work to give it a finish. In the same
way, to organize a play (drama), we begin by planning and rehearsing
it. This is followed by the actual performance. It is then rounded off by
removing the costumes and clearing the stage.
Exercise
1. List ten indigenous Ghanaian art forms and state their uses.
2. What are the main contemporary Ghanaian art forms? State their
uses.

Effects of Foreign Influences on Ghanaian Arts
Pre-Independence art
Since the second half of the nineteenth century Ghanaian arts have
been considerably affected by foreign influences. The areas most
affected are the techniques, styles, ideas and philosophies, tools and
materials (media). The factors causing these influences can be traced to
missionary work, religion, trade and formal school education. The major
types of foreign religions which influenced Ghanaian artistic expression
can be distinguished. The effect of Christianity on art was widely felt,
especially in the southern half of the country. At that time, the Christian
churches rejected many indigenous Ghanaian customs and beliefs. They
regarded her cultural life as primitive, idolatrous, pagan and childlike.
They described the whole cultural set-up as ‘fetishistic’, meaning
irrational and superstitious.
TheeffectsofIslamontheartshasalsobeenconsiderable.LikeChristianity
Islam also attacked and denounced indigenous Ghanaian culture. Like
Christianity, Islam teaches monotheism: that is, the existence of only one
God called Allah. Therefore, Muslims condemn indigenous religious
practices as the worship of many gods. The religion does not also allow
figurative representation of deities in any visual art form. Consequently,
Islamic art has always been restricted to geometric ornamentation and
calligraphy.
The consequences of the misunderstanding and misinterpretation of and
negative attitudes towards the indigenous culture by
Christianity and Islam are reflected in the modern Ghanaian outlook
on life. For instance, religious converts became confused and adopted
a cold attitude towards their own culture. Many Ghanaian artists who
received a Western education shifted to Western type art styles. While
indigenous art forms expressed ethnic values, ideals, beliefs, attitudes
and philosophies in excellent detail and free style, the modern religious
concepts emphasized the aesthetic value of formalized styles.

That is, the modem religious art forms were made according to
established patterns of principles. Their styles were influenced by the
formal organization of elements of art such as line, shape, form, texture,
space and colour according to the principles of balance, variety, rhythm,
harmony, proportion, scale and so on. These European concepts for
making art differ from the indigenous practices. The themes were also
based on religion, such as ‘Madonna and Child’, ‘The Last Supper’,
‘The Crucifix’ and other biblical subjects.
Music, dance, drama and verbal art were all to conform to Christian or
Islamic conventions. Some religious converts were segregated from their
indigenous family homes to live in specially established Christian and
Islamic communities where they interacted mainly with other converts.
These constituted what are known today as Salem, Bethlehem and
Zongo in many Ghanaian towns. While indigenous life emphasizes
communal effort among all people, such religious groups paid little or
no attention to family matters and traditions. The social position of the
individual convert in relation to non-converts of the society, his mode of
dressing, naming, marriage, burial and funeral rites were all affected by
his religion. The intention was to superimpose foreign cultures, basically
European and Arabic, on the indigenous Ghanaian way of life. This
idea created the feeling that these imported cultures were superior to the
indigenous ones. This feeling tends to separate people from their own
cultural practices. Some effects of the religious influences on indigenous
arts can be summarized as follows:
• There was a gradual decline in the indigenous religious beliefs.
• There was importation of foreign goods which affected the demand,
production and use of indigenous art objects.
• The sculptures which originally expressed indigenous ideas, values
and philosophies were mistakenly labelled as idols.

Trade and Education
The influences of international trade and formal school education on
our arts were also immense. Trade had brought with it diverse tools,
materials and equipment for making art; some of these were poster
colours, oil paint, emulsion, acrylic, various types of paper, canvas,
brushes, pencils, pastels and crayons. Others were yams, looms and
other weaving equipment, synthetic dyes and chemicals for fabric
processing, synthetic leather, adhesive, plaster of Paris, cement, carving
tools and glazing materials.
Education on the other hand led to the establishment of schools where
new ideas and techniques in the application of the new materials and
equipment were taught Themes for art expression became varied. For
instance, politics, religion, science and technology became some of
the common themes in addition to the original expression known in
indigenous Ghanaian arts. Formal portraiture, nude studies,
landscape painting, textile production, graphic art, architectural design,
metal products design, modem ceramics and sculpture, leatherwork and
mechanized art production were introduced through education.
In the performing arts, indigenous themes which emphasized drumming
and dancing as avenues for dramatic expressions were replaced by:
• instrumental dance bands which specialized in Western-type music;
vocal dance bands accompanied by guitar and percussion.
The growth of these bands depended mostly on the educational
background of members and their ability to understand new ideas. The
kind of patronage they received from the public was also determined
by the degree of their ability to express these new ideas on modem
sophisticated equipment. Thus, music, dance and drama began to be
performed on the stage before a passive audience. The setting was
generally the ballroom, wedding reception, cafe or nightclub.

Formerly in indigenous life, these arts were performed out of doors and
involved the whole community. A dancing group roamed the street with
its music which often attracted crowds of appreciative dancers. These
new trends have now overshadowed the indigenous way of life.
Our society has become temporarily disorganized by the clash between
foreign influences and indigenous practices. While part of society
clamours for our traditions, part of it, especially the youth, is being pulled
towards the Western way of life. Observations reveal how Western and
other cultures have blended in part with the indigenous culture. But
psychologically, there is dissatisfaction with this situation in our society.
There is therefore a need to strike a balance between the two opposing
forces. This is important because if we live only the indigenous life we
will lag behind in international development. Society must grow. New
ideas, materials, tastes and techniques for expressing the arts arc always
being developed. Our society there-fore, must also change in order to
foster socio-economic development.
However, to resort completely to Western ways of life in Ghana is to
commit cultural suicide, which will destroy our identity as a people. To
strike a balance, we should integrate the foreign materials, ideas and
methods with Ghanaian images, values and concepts about life The
caution, however, is that we must preserve the indigenous form to serve
as the true basis or source of inspiration for the contemporary and
modem trends.

Post-Independence Arts
There have been great changes in the social, political and economic life
of Ghana since 1960. A new awareness, interest, understanding and
attitudes towards their arts and art forms have arisen among Ghanaians.
Art has now been used as a form of visual language to communicate
socio-political philosophies and concepts. These are mostly expressed
in posters, billboards, paintings, sculptures, photography and textiles.
Some artists also work on moral issues through music, drama and
poetry. This is one way in which religious sects have brought about new
attitudes towards indigenous Ghanaian ways of life.
The presentation of indigenous Ghanaian visual forms in a contemporary
style has attracted some foreign art collectors. This has given rise to
souvenir art (airport art), marking the beginning of a period of artis-
tic reawakening in Ghana during the 1960s. Several art shops, curios
and galleries have sprung up. There are many art exhibitions. How-
ever, souvenir art has had a great effect on the quality of Ghanaian
an, in that the originality of most souvenir artefacts cannot be readily
traced because of mass production and copying for quick returns. This
attitude does not foster creativity. Several self-taught artists have decided
to satisfy the ready tourist market. Their themes cover folktales, myths,
legends, current affairs, witchcraft, spirits and fetishes.
Between 1970 and the present, Ghanaian arts have taken off in yet
another direction. New forms, new styles and new personalities are
emerging. Two main artistic forms can be distinguished during this
period. These are the new indigenous art forms on one hand and the
contemporary art forms of formally trained artists on the other. Both forms
show varied styles and techniques and both express modem Ghanaian
life. A variety of both locally obtained and imported tools, media and
techniques are used. Music, dance, drama, verbal an, picture making,
graphic an, sculpture, basketry, beadwork, puppetry, calabash art and
all kinds of assemblages are examples.

Two major factors have contributed to the success of the present trend of
the arts in Ghana.
• The Christian Church is beginning to embrace the indigenous
culture and to utilize our art forms for Christian worship. Church doors
and panels have carvings of figures in Ghanaian styles. Neo-indigenous
textiles, sculptures, leather and bead work are common decorations in
Christian churches, while music and dance in local style form integral
parts of Christian worship.
• Art schools and colleges are modifying their curricula. This is
intended to produce artists and art educators who will create a more
revolutionary setting for the development of new and true Ghanaian art
forms.
The effects of foreign influences on the arts in Ghana have been
tremendous. Therefore our art students and artists should endeavour to
project Ghanaian identity into their work.

Contemporary Ghanaian Artists
Professor Ablade Glover (b. 1934)
Professor Glover was born in 1934 in Labadi, Accra, where he received
his basic school education. He also studied at the Kumasi College of
Technology (now Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technol-
ogy). Kumasi; Central School of Art and Design, London; University of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK; Kent Suite University, Kent and Ohio State
University, Columbus, both in Ohio, USA.
Professor Glover specialized in painting. He paints mainly in oils on
canvas using a palette knife. With this technique, the artist builds his
images gradually and carefully by a series of dots or daubs of specific
colours (thick impasto method). This technique of building images in
painting is known as the pointillist technique or pointillism. Glover’s
paintings are usually characterized by rich colours, tex-tures, lines and
planes which tend to suggest movement in the images in the picture.
Thus, his style tends to create certain impressions in the mind of the
observer.
The themes for Glover’s works are often to do with people and places,
such as interaction between people in a group: townscapes; market
scenes; and dwellings. However, he is mainly interested in people, espe-
cially women. He says, ‘What excites me about women is their courage,
as shown in the way they carry themselves - erect and brave;the way
they speak with their every movement of the body you might call it body
language. You can tell when they are showing love or hate or even
indifference.’

His images and compositions often portray indigenous Ghanaian ways
of life. This can be seen, especially, in the market scenes, where women,
some carrying things on their heads, others with babies on their backs
are transacting business. Frequently, one gels the impression that what
goes on at the market certainly goes beyond ordinary buying and
selling. The scenes also portray the social, political and economic life of
the people
As part of his contribution towards the social, cultural and political
development of society, Professor Glover researched into, and compiled
the indigenous Ghanaian proverbial Adinkra, Linguist Staff and Stool
Symbols. These he has published on charts as reading materials with
illustrations.
In sum, Professor Ablade Glover’s works tend to portray a personal
response to his environment. He has helped to keep up the artistic heritage
of Ghana through his exhibitions both at home and overseas. As an
educationist, once Dean, and now Associate Professor in the College of
Art, Ablade Glover has been a source of inspiration to his students.
Fig. 14.1 Ablade Glover; ‘Market’ (1990; oil)

Ato Delaquis (b. 1945)
Bom in December 1945 in Cape Coast, Delaquis started drawing and
painting at a very tender age through her parents who regarded art very
highly. He was educated at the Methodist Primary and Middle Schools,
and Ghana National College, Cape Coast; Achimota School and
Achimota College of Art, Accra. He also studied at the College of Art,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, where
he obtained his BA degree (first class) in Drawing and Painting. Later, he
entered Tyre School of Art of Temple University, Philadelphia (USA) for a
Masters degree in Fine Arts (MFA),
specializing in painting and printmaking.
After finishing his education Delaquis worked as a freelance illustrator
for Drum magazine and New Statesman magazine. He also taught art
at Achimota School, and at Stoddardt-Fleischcr Junior High School in
Philadelphia.
As a painter, Delaquis works in all media such as oil paints, acrylics, wa-
ter colours and casein. In drawing he uses all media available - pencils,
pen and ink, charcoal, pastels and others. In printmaking, he employs
etching, lithography, linocut and wood-cut.
Generally, the themes for Delaquis’ works are inspired by the environ-
ment in which he lives, but he dwells mostly on contemporary African city
life. His style ranges from realism to abstraction. In recent years he has
adopted a semi-abstract approach to representing images in his works.
Usually, Delaquis’ paintings arc characterized by bright colours. They
emphasize all important compositional values such as form, proportion,
colour gradation and perspective. He has developed this style from the
pointillist technique since the late 1960s.

Delaquis painted murals at the Parliament House and Rothmans
International in Accra. He has nine works at Ghana’s new Chancery in
Washington DC. He won an Entertainment Critics and Reviewers
Association of Ghana (ERCRAG) award in 1988 for his outstanding
contribution to the development of African culture through painting. He
has written numerous articles on art in both national and international
journals.
Basically, Delaquis considers the present and future development of the
arts in Ghana to higher international levels as very important. Tradition,
he considers, should be blended effectively with contemporary trends to
aid the development of the arts to meet modem standards.
Fig. 14.2Seven Northern Ghanaian Chiefs, Acrylic on canvas
(101.3 x 126.4 cm)

Professor Ernest Victor Asihene
Professor Asihene was trained as a teacher at the Presbyterian Training
College, Akropong-Akwapim. He later trained as an art and crafts
teacher at the then School of Art. Achimota, Accra. He also studied
at Goldsmiths’ College of the University of London, and specialized in
painting, sculpture and art education. Professor Asihene is a Fellow of
the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA).
He taught art in the secondary department of the then Achimota College,
Accra and Wesley College, Kumasi. He was later appointed Lecturer at
the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, where
he became Associate Professor of Art and Dean of the College. He was
elected Pro-Vice Chancellor of the University of Science and Technolo-
gy, Kumasi. During his career as Lecturer, Professor Asihene became a
Visiting Professor for Texas Southend University, Houston, US A, external
examiner for the University of Nigeria and Chief Examiner in Art for the
West African Examinations Council (WAEC), Ghana. Professor Asihene
has also conducted research into the folk arts of Ghana, and history and
appreciation of art with special emphasis on West Africa. He has
published a book entitled Introduction to Traditional Art of West Africa.
As an educationist, Professor Asihene has made great contributions in
several fields of national development. For instance, at the international
level, he repre-sented Ghana at the International Society for Education
Through Art (INSEA) Congress in the USA and Australia respectively and
at an exhibition on juvenile delinquency in London, UK.

He participated in establishing Ghana’s Embassy in Rome, to which he
became a cultural attach. He was also a cultural attaché to the Ghana
Embassy at Washington DC and the Ghana High Commission in
London. In all these cases he has been responsible for educational and
cultural programmes. He was also a member of Ghana’s cultural
delegation to Prague in Czechoslovakia.
In his home country. Professor Asihene has once been the President of
the Ghana Society of Arts. He was a member of the panel for planning
and decorating the city of Accra in preparation for the first summit con-
ference of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in Ghana. He was
in charge of the preparation of the coat of arms, conference symbols,
sculptures, fountains, exhibitions and other artistic activities. He had
been a member of the Boards of Management of the National Cultural
Centre, Kumasi (where he was also Art Adviser) and of Ghana National
Museums and Monuments Board, representing Kumasi University. Pro-
fessor Asihene was the leader of a team of artists responsible for the
sculptures and fountains of the Kumasi Face-Life Programme. He has
also done mural paintings at the Basel Mission Hospital, Agogo; Osu
Presbyterian Church, Accra and the World Health Organization (WHO)
Headquarters buildings in Ghana, Switzerland and Zaire.
Professor Asihene’s contribution as an artist to national development is
immense.

Vincent Akwete Kofi (1923-74)
Born in 1923, Akwete Kofi was educated at Achimota School and the
Royal College of Art, London. In 1959 he was awarded a United States
Government Grant to study Sculpture and History of Art at Columbia
University. He was the Head of the Arts and Crafts Department of the
Winneba Training College in 1961. Later, he was appointed Lecturer in
the College of Art, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, where
he headed the Sculpture Section.
Kofi was a renowned sculptor who worked in cement, plaster of Paris and
other sculptural media. However, he worked mostly as a wood carver.
He drew his inspiration directly from shapes and forms in nature.
Therefore, his works are naturalistic. He had a style of retaining natural
cracks and fissures in the woods with which he worked. Sometimes he
employed this technique to provide an aspect of body anatomy in his
figures. He also used the extended parts of branches of the wood being
worked to represent parts of the anatomy.
Due to the inspiration he obtained from natural shapes and forms, Vin-
cent Kofi’s works often have certain unique characteristics. For instance,
they usually followed the dictates of the natural forms and shapes of the
tree trunks he used for his sculptures. His themes were greatly influenced
by the indigenous Ghanaian outlook on life, and he tried to portray the
indigenous concepts of beauty in his human figures.

Vincent Kofi rendered the shapes of the heads, facial details and necks of
his figures in the manner of the Akan Akuaba figures. These techniques
often added a touch of grace and simplicity to the forms of his figures.
Other characteristic features of Vincent Kofi’s sculptures are his
emphasis on agility, strength and endurance. These arc portrayed by the
characteristic well-built feet and other exaggerated parts of his figures.
Kofi saw the crucifixion of Christ as symbolizing the freedom of man
from the burden of his sins. He considered that a person carrying the
burden of the sins of the entire human race on his shoulders should be
both physically and mentally strong. Hence, he made his Christ to look
heavy and powerful.
Fig. 14.3 Vincent
Kofi: The Crucifix’
(wood)

James Kwame Amoah (b. 1943)
Amoah was bom in July 1943 at Agona in Ashanti. He was educated at
Prempeh College. After that he entered the College of Art, University of
Science and Technology, Kumasi. Later, he gained an award for post-
graduate studies in pottery and ceramics at the Ceramic Department,
Gesamthochschule, Kassel, West Germany.
After his studies, Amoah was appointed Assistant Research Fellow in
Ceramics at the College of Art, Kumasi. He: was later appointed
Lecturer in Ceramics and promoted to Senior Lecturer in 1982.
As an artist-potter, Amoah attempts to express his artistic curiosity in clay.
He draws inspiration from indigenous forms as well as the proverbial
symbols and motifs used as decorative patterns on his pots. He conduct-
ed a study into indigenous pottery forms - their production techniques
and decorations - at Pankronu near Kumasi. This study has been of
great benefit to the artist and has influenced his production techniques
to a great extent. The exercise has helped Amoah to improve upon the
indigenous forms and to find new uses for them in contemporary society.
He therefore creates indigenous pottery forms using modem production
techniques, and the end-products are quite unique. For instance, the
simple forms are cither thrown or modelled and decorated with prover-
bial symbols or motifs, using slip or incising techniques. They are then
glazed and fired in electric, gas or oil kilns. These have been presented
as works of art at exhibitions, both at home and throughout the world.
Notable examples of James Kwame Amoah’s works are dinner set for
Essumenja Palace, Ghana; a mural at Swammill, United African
Company, Accra, Ghana; a mural of mask forms at the Bank of Ghana,
Accra; wall plaques in the VIP lounge, Kotoka International Airport.

Accra. Ghana; a mural at Ghana Commercial Bank, Logon Branch,
Accra. Ghana.
In 1977 Amoah participated in the FESTAC Exhibition in Lagos, Nige-
ria, as a member of the delegation from Ghana. In March 1986, a
documentary film was made on his life and works by Deutsche Welle,
the German Television service. For his contribution towards education.
Amoah has published a research report on production techniques of
indigenous pottery forms.
Fig. 14.4
Kwame
Amoah:
ceremonial
pot

Nana Yaw Boakye Ghanatta
Ghanatta (brushname) was born in 1927 at Akim Fosu in the Eastern re-
gion where he received his basic education. His talent in art was evident at
an early age and he specialized in it on completing his basic education.
I le studied fine art up to School Certificate, Advanced Level. He majored
in graphics with a bias towards cartoon work and illustration.
Ghanatta has been acclaimed the first to introduce cartoons and
comics into Ghanaian newspapers and magazines. He works mostly in
pen and ink, water colours and oil paints. His style ranges from realistic
rendering to semi-abstract figures. His techniques are usually pen and
ink drawings with water colour washes, with fine finishing.
The themes for Ghanaita’s works are inspired by events that take place
in the everyday lives of the people of Ghana. His themes are also
inspired by the social, political, economic and religious concepts and
values of the people. Sometimes the ideas are based on current affairs,
lie often tends to highlight some immoral attitudes and malpractices in
society. For example, his work warns against smuggling, drug abuse,
drug addiction, stealing, embezzlement of public funds and misman-
agement of state property. It sometimes explains and gives information
about government policies concerning new economic measures, health,
educational programmes and so on. Ghanatta also designs crests and
logos on commission bases, and illustrates messages on economic
guidelines for banks and corporations. His pocket and strip cartoons
have been an educational tool for the moral, social and political
development of Ghanaian society.
Nana Yaw Boakye’s greatest contribution to national development is in
the field of education. He established the Ghanatta College of Art and
Design in 1969. The rationale behind the establishment of the college
was to train young artists in diverse skills in art so as to help them to gain
personal fulfilment in life.

Franc Dofzidenu Kwaku Asare (b. 1936)
Asare was born in May 1936 and received his elementary school
education at Peki and Nkonya Anfoega, where his father was a school
headteacher. He attended secondary school at Kpando, and received his
postsecondary teacher’s education at the Presbyterian Training College,
Akropong-Akwapim. Later he entered the Specialist Training College,
Winneba, where he obtained a Diploma in Art Education, specializing
in painting and sculpture. Asare has a great interest in paper crafts and
book illustration. He has become a versatile artist, working in a variety
of materials - wood, clay, cement, oil paint, water colour, poster paint,
acrylic and paper.
The subjects of Asare’s paintings are usually landscapes, seascapes, vil-
lage scenery and abstract representations. The sculptures show realistic
representations with few abstract forms. His themes are often inspired
by indigenous Ghanaian practices and lifestyles. Some titles of his works
are ‘Groundnut Girl’ and ‘Mother and Child’.
The artist has taught at the Local Authority Middle School, Agbozume.
This town is a kente weaving centre so Asare had the opportunity to
learn about kente weaving there. He also taught at Tregui, a village on
an island in the Kcta Lagoon. He taught art at the Navrongo Koranic
School, Keta Secondary School and the Presbyterian Secondary School
in Legon, Accra. Apart from classroom teaching, Asare has been a
District Art Organizer for the Ghana Education Service and for Tema
and Ga Rural Districts, respectively.
As his major contribution to national development. Franc Asare partic-
ipated in the preparation of the art syllabus for art for the Experimental
Junior Secondary School Programme. He also helped in preparing the
examination syllabus for art in the same programme.

In the Educational Reform Programme, Asare has been a member of
the panel on syllabuses, textbooks and examinations, as well as on
teachers’ guides for vocational skills in the junior secondary school.
He is also one of the authors of this book and provided some of the
illustrations in the book. Other textbooks illustrated by Franc Asare are
the
Mathematics Series for Primary Schools, Books 1 to 6.
Lionel Idan (1930-82)
The late Lionel Idan was born in 1930. He studied textiles at the
Kumasi College of Technology. During his studies, Idan studied under
some indigenous Ashanti kente weavers, and was inspired to modernize
the technique of kente weaving in Ghana. He therefore undertook a
study tour of Japanese cottage industries, where he observed similar
weaving techniques.
On his return in 1977, Idan improved upon the indigenous narrow-strip
kente loom by fitting it with a warp-roller. Traditionally, the sheet of warp
has to be stretched in front of the loom and tensioned with a stone weight.
Now, the sheet of warp could be wound on to the roller, tensioned and
released into the weaving area on the loom as required by the weaver.
The advantage of Idan’s loom is that it saves space. In the same year, he
made a completely new design of the ‘foot-power loom’ (broadloom), to
suit Ghanaian local conditions. This new model weaves up to about one
metre in width or more of fabric, instead of the 15 cm width woven on
the original narrow-strip loom. It is also capable of producing a variety
of patterns, including tapestry and kente.

The main characteristics of Idan’s inventions are that he usually
incorporated the principles of the original indigenous looms into his new
designs. His models require less floor space, the techniques are faster
and capable of being manipulated for weaving more intricate designs.
His looms are in use at the Centre for National Culture, where his work-
shop was located and the College of Art, Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, Kumasi, where he was a Lecturer. He also
trained a number of school leavers in the art of textile weaving at the
Centre for National Culture, Kumasi.
In 1979, Lionel Idan made yet another important contribution to
textile weaving technology in Ghana. He invented the invaloom. The
term ‘invaloom’ was coined from two words, ‘invalid’ and ‘loom’. It is
a loom designed to help the physically handicapped who cannot use
their legs to weave. The invaloom is like Idan’s broadloom and works on
the principles of the narrow-snip kente loom. The difference is that the
hands are used in operating the pulleys for weaving instead of the feet.
The creation of the invaloom was inspired by one of Idan’s students,
Bortey Affortey, who was handicapped as a result of a motorcar accident.
Normally, this handicap would have prevented Affortey from engaging
in practical weaving techniques. Before Idan’s death in 1982 he intended
changing the name from invaloom to Affortey-loom or Afforloom, after
the said student.
Idan’s innovations could be viewed as an attempt at discouraging the
importation of certain basic materials for vocational skills. Through his
creative and inventive activities, Idan contributed to the indigenous tex-
tile weaving industry in Ghana important techniques which may have
far reaching results. His contributions have also great potential for
employment, the export trade and cottage industry development. Idan
worked in a variety of materials, notably cotton, rayon, silk, wool and
jute yams, as well as raffia. One of his works a pile rug, woven in raffia
is in the curio of the College of Art (KNUST), Kumasi. The subject is ‘A
Chief Silting in State’. It is rich in colour and has all the royal pomp of
an indigenous Ghanaian chief.

Fig. 14.5 Fool-power loom designed by
Lionel ldan

Charlotte Hagan (b. 1938)
Charlotte Hagan was born in 1938 in Cape Coast. She was educated at St
Monica’s School and Holy Child Secondary School, both in Cape Coast.
She also studied textile designing, art embroidery and fashion designing
at the Haling School of Art, London. She then continued at the Garnett
College, London, where she did a course in the Theory and Practice of
Education. Later, she taught textile printing and art embroidery at the
then Department of Art Education of the Specialist Training College,
Winneba.
Hagan employs both batik and embroidery techniques in her work.
Basically, she uses conventional textile materials such as dye-stuffs,
fabricsandwaxes.Occasionally,shemakesuseofmixedmaterials-beads,
pebbles, seeds and shells to build designs. She also adapts some of the
popular indigenous proverbial symbols and geometrical shapes in
creating the designs and patterns.
The themes of Hagan’s works are often inspired by Ghanaian cultural
practices and lifestyles. The titles of some of her works are: ‘Consulting
the Oracles’, ‘The Gossipers’, ‘Dancers’ and ‘Music Makers’.
Frequently, the human figures in Hagan’s works are stylized and
elongatedinform.Themusclesonthelegshaveexaggeratedproportions.
The torsos and necks are long and the facial expressions are stylized in
an impressionist manner.
Charlotte Hagan is a freelance artist and lives from her work. She owns
a model cottage industry where dyed fabrics (mostly batiks) and
embroidery are produced on public demand. She has also established a
training facility for young school- leavers in her industry. Annexed to her
house is a small art gallery, a joint venture with the late Vincent Akwete
Kofi under the business name, Kofhag Art Mart. Here, all the works
produced by the artist are sold.
In her own small way, Charlotte Hagan has contributed enormously to
the development of cottage industries in Ghana.

James Boateng (1929-82)
James was born in 1929 at Nsuta-Kyebi Ashanti. He received his basic
education at the Obuasi Methodist School. He trained as a teacher at
Wesley College, Kumasi and as an art teacher at the then Achimota
College and Kumasi College of Technology. He also studied at the
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi and the University of Cape
Coast. Later, he underwent a training in design for television programmes
at the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation.
James taught art at Wesley College. Kumasi and Akrokerri Training
College. Later, he was appointed Lecturer at the College of An (UST). He
was head of the Art Education Department and later became the Dean
of the college. He was also an external examiner of the School of Art
and Design of the Specialist Training College, Winneba.
As an art educator, James Boateng conducted research and prepared
reports on ‘Gold Regalia in Ashanti’; ‘Spatial and Perceptual Abilities of
some Ghanaian children’; and ‘The Development of Teacher Training
Colleges in Ghana’.
James Boateng’s greatest contributions to national development are in
the field of art education. As a specialist in educational psychology, he
was committed to making society aware of educational opportunities
through art.

Dr Sylvanus Kwami Amenuke (b. 1940)
Dr. Amenuke was born at Akoele in the Volta Region. His father was a
kente weaver and his mother a porter.
He was educated at Mawuli School, Ho, studied science subjects and
art through to the sixth form. He studied art at the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi and gained a first class
Honours degree in Painting. He has obtained a Master of Fine Arts
degree in Painting at Kent State University, Ohio, USA. In order to fulfil
his intention of helping to develop art education in Ghana, Dr. Amenuke
had to study for the Doctor of Education degree in Art Education at the
University of Cincinnati, USA. He is a senior lecturer in Art Education at
KNUST, Kumasi where he works with postgraduate students.
In private life, Dr. Amenuke is simple and plays an active part in the
cultural activities of his village. These activities have influenced the
themes of his paintings, which are often representations of Ghanaian
concepts, beliefs and ideas of life. His themes are characteristic of his
indigenous environment. However, his techniques reflect his extensive
exposure to art through formal education, travel, deep research and
active participation in the organization of art within Ghana.
Being a humanist, Dr. Amenuke’s images usually portray ideas about
everyday life; as he often says, my paintings carry messages of everyday
life’. His works are characterized by the integration of Ghana’s
indigenous life with the elements inspired by modem concepts of art.
The result is that the images in Dr. Amenuke’s works greatly reflect the
modem Ghanaian outlook on life. He says, ’My imagery is based on the
ritualistic activities concerning processes in life such as pregnancy, birth,
puberty, marriage, death and religion’.

In painting, Dr. Amenuke works with mixed media - crayons, indelible
ink, poster colour, water colour, oil paint, acrylic and adhesives. Some of
his titles include ‘Pouring Palm Wine’ (oil), which is located in the College
of Art, KNUST, Kumasi, ‘Puberty Mask’ (oil) and ‘Mother’ (acrylic).
Dr. Amenuke’s greatest contributions to national development are in the
field of art education. For more than ten years, he led various panels in
planning art syllabuses for primary, junior and secondary schools. He
also co-ordinated the preparation of textbooks and teacher’s guides in
vocational and life skills for the junior secondary schools. He led
another panel in preparing the manuscript for this book.
Dr. Amenuke also co-ordinated the preparation of vocational skills
syllabuses for post-secondary teachers’ colleges. He supervised the
preparation of modular art syllabuses for the School of Art of Winneba
Specialist Training College.
AsChiefExaminerinartforpost-secondaryanddiplomacollegesinGhana,
Dr. Amenuke organized an evaluation of revision of art syllabuses for post-
secondary and diploma colleges. He also made significant contributions
to the revision and reorganization of examination syllabuses in art for
the West African Examinations Council.
At the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Dr Amenuke has
made major contributions through his effective teaching, seminars and
lectures in art. He has served on the national committee for the planning
and implementation of Education Reform Programmes in Ghana.
During his student days in the USA, S.K. Amenuke was described as ‘a
man of high esteem, integrity, initiative, dedication and remarkable
wisdom. He is a reliable professional educator, full of creative ideas’.
Dr. Amenuke is also described ‘as a likeable, sincere and mature
person. He possesses a fine mind and is dedicated to excellence and
human understanding. He can be depended upon, and can make a
difference in promoting cross-cultural understanding’.

In a citation in the US A, he was hailed as ‘an extreme example of a
good emissary representing his country; a brilliant and rare scholar who
appears on the scene once in several decades ’. Dr. S.K. Amenuke is a
leading figure in the field of art education in Ghana.
Among his literary contributions are Altitudes to Art and Art Education
in Ghana and Approaches to Ghanaian Arts. Perhaps Dr. Amenuke’s
courage, initiative, dedication and commitment have been inspired by
his wife Dorothy (formerly Agbo) who is also an artist.

Professor Kojo Fosu (b. 1938)
Professor Fosu was born in August 1938 and was educated at Fijai
Secondary School, Sekondi, and the then Presbyterian Secondary School,
Odumase-Krobo. He also studied for the Bachelor of Arts as well as
Master of Arts degree at Howard University, Washington DC, in the USA.
Professor Kojo Fosu is highly experienced in the field of art history and
art education. He has had a very wide teaching and research experience
in both the USA and Africa. He has taught African history in the
Department of Art, Howard University, Washington DC, as an Associate
Professor. Other places where Professor Fosu has lectured include the
New National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institute, Washington
DC; and Ahmadu Bello University (Depart-ment of Fine Arts), Zaria,
Nigeria. He also taught on apart-time basis in New York State University,
Brockport and George Washington University. Apart from teaching.
Professor Fosu has co-ordinated and organized several exhibitions in
indigenous and contemporary African art in both Africa and the USA,
and has prepared numerous exhibition catalogues.
Professor Kojo Fosu’s greatest contribution to Ghana is in the
development of education through research and publications. He has
researched widely into African art. The research took Professor Fosu to
almost all the countries on the African continent and this has resulted in
the
publication of a book called Twentieth Century Art of Africa. This book is
a guide for collecting and recording information about indigenous and
contemporary artists in society.
His other pieces of research are: ‘Religious Philosophical Concepts of
African Art’; ‘Royal Emblem in Northern Nigeria’; ‘Embroidery Deco-
rations of Northern Nigeria’. Professor Kojo Fosu’s other publications
include: Emblems of Royal Africa; The New Alphabet of African Art; Art
and Sculpture of Black Peoples of Africa.

Professor Fosu has been honoured by the American Conference of
Artists for outstanding contribution to the arts. This was in
commemoration of his efforts to popularize African arts in the USA.
We have learnt about various ways in which certain individual artists
have contributed to the socio-economic and political development of
Ghanaian society. Therefore, as students of art it is expedient for us to
take an active part in the development of art in Ghana.
Assignment
1 Try to identify as many art forms as you can in your environment and
state their use.
2 Explain briefly the ways in which Christianity. Islam and formal school
education have influenced the arts in Ghana.
3 Using the following guidelines,- collect and record information about
the artists listed below.
(a) Name, date and place of birth.
(b) Artist’s education.
(c) Areas of specialization in art.
(d) Medium or media used.
(e) Sources of inspiration or ideas for themes.
(f) Styles and techniques in the application of media.
(g) Characteristics and qualities of works.

(h) Contributions to the:
• artistic heritage of Ghana;
• economic, social and political development of Ghana.
(i) Other interests of artist.
Painting
Kobina Bucknow
A. O. Bartimeus
E.KJ. Tetteh
Kofi Antubam
Amon Kotei
Professor AbladE Glover
Dr. S.K. Amenuke
P.M. Amonoo
Ben Menyah
R.T. Ackam
B. Offei-Nyarko
E.C. Owusu
Prosper Tawai
E. Owusu-Dartey
Art education
E.C. Nyarko
A.K. Adipah
Textiles
Rejoice Adjasu
Lydia Ansre
H.A.K. Aduku
L.A. Baah
E.A. Asante
R.K. Ayiku
Sculpture
Saka Acquaye
Nicholas Agbo
Oku Ampofo
Kofi Antubam
W. Sackitey
E.K. Anatsui
K. Ntiamoah
Professor E.K.A. Azzii-Akator
Dr B.K. Dogbe
Graphic design
Professor A. Akpo Teye
E.T. Mate
Ceramics
W.C. Owusu
R.C. Ekem
S. H. Acheampong
K.K. Broni
Ofori Duodu
C.K. Gomez
Dr. Daniel Kobblah
D. K. Zigah
History of art
Dr B.K. Dogbe
References
CHAPMAN, Laura H. Approach to Art in Art Education. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Inc., USA. 1978, pp. 4-5, 93. 95
FOSU. Kojo, 20th Century Art of Africa Gaskiya Corporation Limited, Zaria, Nigeria,
1986
NKETIA, J.H., Ghana Music, Dance and Drama. University of Ghana Press. Ghana.
1965,

Form, Symbolism
and Functions in Ghanaian ArtsFifteen
Objectives
• identify the basic symbolic forms in Ghanaian arts:
• understand the meaning of the symbolism in Ghanaian arts;
• understand the functions of the symbols.
In Chapter 14 we learnt that indigenous Ghanaian art is done mainly
for utility purposes. This chapter explains the meanings and functions of
the basic forms and symbols in the arts.
Forms in Ghanaian Arts
The arts of a people reflect their ideas and values. Some Ghanaian
values include the attitudes, behaviours, habits and beliefs which we
think it is important to practise in our everyday lives. For instance, we
cherish honesty, respect, honour, hospitality and hard work. Other
values are to do with how we deal with our neighbours, the part we play
in society, and the ways in which we dress, talk and address people. Our
ideas about religion and the rites of passage (birth, puberty, marriage
and death) also reflect some of our values.
The forms in Ghanaian arts are meant to represent the basic social
principles which have guided our general outlook to life throughout the
ages. Hence, to the Ghanaian, there is no distinction between the arts
and general ways of living. Whatever forms are created are an integral
part of life. They include sculptures, pottery products, textiles, jewellery,
basketry, leather products,
calabash and gourd work, music, dance, drama and poetry.
So traditionally the Ghanaian does not do ‘art for its own sake’. All our
indigenous art forms are functional. They are used in every aspect of our
lives social, religious, political and economical.
Therefore, they serve as the means by which we are identified as a
people. Below are examples of the significance and functions of some
Ghanaian art forms.

Sculpture
This is a Ghanaian art form of great importance. Some examples of
sculptural forms include stools, ceremonial swords, linguist staff tops,
umbrella lops, wooden (akuaba) dolls and goldweights.
Stools
The stool symbolizes the soul of society. It serves as the symbolic link
between the common people in society and their head (i.e. the chief of
a village or town, or the head of state). Every component part of the de-
sign of the stool represents one of the main ideas that make a perfect
society. For instance, Figure 15.1 shows part of the design of the female
version of the stool, and its significance. The female stool is believed to
be the first stool design created in Ghanaian tradition.
The top are of the stool (shaped like a crescent moon) symbolizes the
loving embrace of a mother. It also represents the warmth of the female
influence in society. The four rectangular-shaped pillars at the comers of
the stool represent the influence of male power in society. They signify
strength, power and good fortune and represent the way in which
society depends on its male members for subsistence, growth and pro-
tection. On the outer side of each of these pillars arc a number of small
triangular projections. There is usually an odd number of them and they
represent the children in society. Those that have pointed ends represent
male children, while those with rounded ends stand for females. The
way in which these projections are joined to the pillars reflect how
children are usually attached to their parents.
Form, Symbolism and Functions in Ghanaian Arts

The strong circular pillar in the centre of the stool symbolizes the power
and presence of God in society. The small square or rectangular holes
in the central pillar signify the justice and fairness for which God stands
in society.
The flat base of the stool signifies the stability of the earth. If the stool is
designed with curved pillars shaped like the arc of the rainbow it signifies
a common sharing of responsibility among men and women in society.
Fig.15.1 Symbolism of the stool

Ceremonial swords
These are indigenous state swords used for royal ceremonies. Whenever
an Akan or Ewe chief sits in state, ceremonial swords are arranged in a
semi-circular (horse shoe) formation before him. Frequency, these are
decorated with animal motifs done in gold. Some of the animals often
used are:
• the lion, which signifies strength, power and might;
• the crab, which signifies simplicity and peacefulness;
• the eagle, showing greatness, superiority and determination to
succeed.
The ceremonial sword signifies the social standing of the clan, group
or state in terms of strength, wealth and attitudes. Among the Akan, a
ceremonial sword is presented to a great warrior who is retiring. It is to
serve as a recognition of his bravery and devotion to his state. He then
becomes a warrior chief. Figure 15.2 shows some ceremonial swords.
Fig. 15.2 Ceremonial swords

Linguist Staff Tops
In Ghanaian society it is not proper for a chief to address his subjects
directly. In the same way, it is an act of disrespect for any person to
address the chief directly. The linguist is, therefore, the official
spokesman of the court through whom, all statements to and from the
chief are addressed. As a sign of his office, the linguist bears a staff
which has a proverbial symbol at the top. Linguist staff symbols vary
with each clan. The nature of any symbol also depends on the attitudes
and general outlook on life of the clan. However, most of them are in
the form of human beings, animals and fruits. Some common examples
are:
• Three human heads carved together. This reminds us that one head
cannot go into counsel, and that it is improper for one person to take
decisions for a whole society.
• A hand holding an egg. This represents a warning to people who
are in authority. It indicates that power is as delicate as an egg: when
held too tightly, it may break; it may fall and break when held too
loosely. This shows that a person in authority needs to be firm and
consistent, but sympathetic.
• A bird with the head turned backwards picking something from
behind (the sankofa bird). This indicates that it is not a taboo to return
to fetch something that has been forgotten. We can always correct our
mistakes.
• A pineapple. The pineapple is plucked and eaten only when it is
ripe, otherwise it can be sour. This indicates that whatever has to be
done should be done at the appropriate time. Things done in a rush are
often not done rightly.
Usually, these figures are carved in wood and plated in either gold of sil-
ver. Frequently, the animals or objects used as linguist staff symbols are
totems of the clans and groups who use them. The term totem refers to
animals or objects which are believed to have a special relationship with
a particular people or clan. Very often the nature of a clan is portrayed
by the nature of its totem. Some examples of totemic animals and their
significance are listed below.

Totem Significant
Chameleon
Tortoise together with snail
Tortoise
Porcupine
Slow but sure in action Peace
and harmony Independence and
self-sufficiency Warlike; always
ready to wage war
Umbrella tops
At durbars, festivals and other ceremonial occasions, we will often see a
splendid display of umbrellas over the chiefs and elders of society. Very
often, the tops of the umbrellas arc decorated with symbolic objects and
figures. These objects usually signify the nature of the chiefs and people
of the clans or states. For instance, a lion signifies power and might,
while the horn of a deer or antelope indicates the fighting power of the
state and its chief. Usually, these are also carved in wood and plated in
gold or silver. Most umbrella tops are interchangeable with linguist staff
top symbols.
Fig. 15.3 Some linguist staff and umbrella tops

Wooden (akuaba) dolls
These are usually carved from a type of white hardwood called sese. It is
darkened with a black colour prepared from a mixture of soot from the
base of the cooking pot and albumen from raw eggs. Also added to the
mixture are potash from burnt plantain skins and rust from metals.
Wooden dolls have four main purposes. They are used as fertility
symbols, beauty symbols, children’s dolls and charms. The form of a
wooden doll is determined by the purpose for which it is to be employed.
A childless women may request an akuaba doll which is believed to
make her fertile. The form of the fertility doll is determined by the wish of
the woman and her husband. For example, if a female child is desired
the doll is carved with the characteristics of a girl. This always has an
oval-shaped head, a long ringed neck, oval buttocks and calves, long
toes, thin fingers and hairy eyebrows. These are believed to be the sym-
bols of beauty. The doll is also dressed exactly like a girl among Akans.
A wise and religious male child is represented with a circular head. By
rule, the akuaba fertility doll is made by the husband for his barren wife.
She bears it at the back, plays and sleeps with it till she gets a baby. The
purpose of this is to ensure that when she gives birth, her child will have
all the qualities of beauty mentioned above. If she dies childless, she is
buried with the doll to warn her spirit never to return to life childless.
As a charm the akuaba doll is used in finding children who go missing
from their homes. In the past, it was believed that a missing child was
captured by dwarf spirits. Therefore, a doll was carved to represent the
image of the child. This was dressed up in clothes and placed by a tree
at the edge of the nearest bush. Some unsalted, mashed yam mixed with
palm oil and eggs was placed by the doll to attract the spirits. Thus, in
their scramble for the food and the doll, the dwarf spirits set the child
free. Dangme and Ewes also make wooden dolls to represent their dead
twin children.

Pottery Symbols
Generally, indigenous Ghanaian pottery is made in particular forms.
These are usually oval, spherical or half-spherical in shape. Oval-shaped
pots are used for washing purposes and as containers for palm wine.
The spherical-shaped pot is used as a container for storing drinking
water. The sphere is like a circle in cross-section. The circle is a symbol of
purity. It signifies all things that arc sacred and pertain to God. Thus, the
spherical (circular) pot is usually associated with God, who is the giver
of life. Symbolically, water is a factor that promotes life and so a
circular pot is used to store it in. In smaller sizes, the spherical pot is used
in storing pito, com drinks and medicine.
The half-sphere shape is related to the crescent moon symbol, which
signifies the warmth and affection of a mother. Pots of this shape are
used in serving food. Like water, food is important in promoting life. The
half-sphere shaped pot is also used for storing pomade. The brilliance
in the oil is an attribute to God, the giver of all life.
We can see, then, that all indigenous pottery forms are associated with
the promotion of life. Perhaps that is the reason why potters feel like
relating their shapes to the symbols of God. Figure 15.4 illustrates
different forms used in indigenous Ghanaian pottery.

Fig. 15.4 Forms in indigenous Ghanaian pottery
Textile Symbols
Generally, it is the nature of the Ghanaian to choose cloths with
colour and motifs that bear symbolic meanings. Frequently, we want
to wear cloths which signify the feelings of particular occasions. There
are costumes for joyful occasions, such as festivals, durbars, outdooring
of children, puberty and initiation rites and marriage ceremonies. Sad
occasions such as funerals require the wearing of different costumes.
For example, joyful occasions are often associated with white and gay
colours, while funeral and mourning activities go with colours ranging
from dark red or blue through brown to black. When a person wears a
dark red or brown (burnt sienna) cloth, it is a sign that he has just lost a
close relative. The colour signifies a deep feeling of melancholy. A black
or indigo-blue cloth (birisi) shows prolonged grief over the death of a
loved person such as a mother, father, son, daughter, husband or wife.
Very often, the fabrics have motifs which are proverbial symbols. The
names given to these symbols indicate their significance. In most cases
the meanings are associated with the day-to-day activities of the
society. They express the general beliefs and ideas of the people.

These motifs are known as adinkra symbols and they are usually stamped
all over the surface of the cloth. Adinkra means ‘saying goodbye’. In the
past, the final stages of royal funerals were marked by wearing adinkra
mourning cloths. Today, adinkra is used for all funerals, irrespective of
the rank of the deceased person. The significance of adinkra is to bid
farewell to the spirit of the dead. Some examples of adinkra symbols
are:
• Obi-nka-bi. This literally means ‘bite not one another’ or ’avoid
conflict’. Therefore, it is a symbol of unity.
• Akoma (Nya akoma). Akoma means ‘heart’. Nya akoma literally
means ‘take heart’ or ‘be patient’. It is a symbol of patience and
endurance.
• Osrane ne nsoroma. This means moon and star. The two together
form a symbol of faithfulness.
• Nkyn kyia or several curves. This literally means changing one’s self.
It is a symbol which signifies that there is the need for adjusting
oneself to be able to play many roles in society.
Fig. 15.5 Some adinkra symbols

On joyful occasions such as durbars and festivals, we often sec people
gaily dressed in kente. The colours and weave patterns in kente also
have symbolic sig-nificance. Weave patterns show the way in which the
yams in the kente are inter-woven. Kente is usually assigned names that
have symbolic meanings to do with some of the ideas of the society.
A study of kente designs in Ashanti indicates that about five basic kinds of
weave patterns can be distinguished. These are (dwini), akyem, ahwepan
(hweepan), nkyeretire (nkyereano) and faprenu.
• Adwin (dwini) means designed or patterned.
• Akyem is the name of a bird with beautifully coloured feathers.
The bird akyem is therefore regarded as a symbol of beauty. Thus,
it is not uncommon for an Akan to relate the beauty of a thing to this
bird.
• Ahwepan (hweepan) means ‘design less’ or ‘without motifs or
pattern. This is the type of kente with coloured stripes running the
length of its surface. It is the easiest to weave and the cheapest.
Originally, it was meant for young people.
• Nkyeretire (nykereano) is the type of kente on which the designs and
patterns are concentrated only at the ends of the individual strips.
• Faprenu is a kente with a double weave. It is usually woven with two
different warp sheets put together. It is compact, strong and heavy
due to the weaving technique used. It is often worn by very important
personalities in society, because it is very gorgeous.
Generally, it is the manner in which these weave patterns are arranged
or combined into designs that determines the name of a particular kente.
Adwinasa, for example, is the name of a kente with a very intricate
weave pattern and rich in colour. It is a combination of adwin (design)
and akyem (colour).

Adwinasa literally means ‘all designs have been exhausted’. This
signifies that the weaver has exhausted all his ideas in the design. He has
produced his best in kente design. This one is the richest and loveliest of
all kente. Another popular kente is the Fatia fata Nkrumah, translated
as ‘Nkrumah deserves his beautiful wife, Fatia’. Osagyefo Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah was the President of the first Republic of Ghana. Fatia fata Nk-
rumah is another beautiful type of kente, rich in both colour and patterns.
It is worn by the great and rich in society. Kyeretwie is yet another type
of kente which combines adwinasa with all the other kente designs and
patterns. It is the most gorgeous but a less popular type. The reason is
that it is never produced for sale. It is woven only by specially selected
weavers for great chiefs. Kyeretwie literally means ‘ability to capture a
live leopard’. The name therefore signifies power and might; hence its
restriction to great chiefs.
In the Volta region, there are such kente names as ehidnaga, which
literally means ‘money is needed*. It means that one needs a lot of
money to buy that particular design because this particular kente is so
gorgeous and expensive that only the rich can afford it. Lolozuavi is
literally translated as love has turned into suffering’. This signifies that
one’s expectations may not always be fulfilled. Afiadekemefa o means
‘nowhere is cool’. It is advice to people to be content with whatever they
have. Fiawoyome means ‘second to kings’ or ‘next to the royals’. This
means that the fiawoyome design is very rich and intricate and whoever
wears it is deemed very great.
Among the Ewes there is a particular type of kente which has representa-
tions of images incorporated in its weave pattern. Here are some exam-
ples of these images.
• The stool, which signifies authority.
• The hen and its chicks, signifying how the young ones in society are
eared for and protected by their parents.
• The snake, which is very cunning. It signifies wise and witty activities
in society. Whoever wears the snake does so to show his wisdom;

• The star to signify excellence. It is chosen for the great and
outstanding in society.
Apart from adinkra and kente there is yet a third type of cloth known
among the Akans as akunintama (‘the cloth for the great’). Its designs
are usually done in applique or embroidery and are also made up of
meaningful
symbols. Here are some examples.
• A circle with two triangles attached to it on either side. This
symbolizes the partnership of the female in society.
• A circle with two rectangles attached to it on either side. It
symbolizes union and partnership in society.
• A circle with four crescent moons shielding it. This symbolizes the
protection of the female and children by the male in society.
Jewellery Symbols
The symbolic nature of things is also shown in jewellery. Finger and toe
rings, earrings and beads have names which symbolize events or pro-
cesses in life. Symbols on rings are numerous. Here are two examples.
• The mud-fish. The usual place for the fish is in water. Thus, if one
manages to catch and possess it, this symbolizes total ownership.
Also, it is not the choice of the fish to be roasted on fire, but if this
happens, the situation is accepted in good faith. The mud-fish there
fore signifies the need to adapt oneself to diverse situations.
• The dove, a symbol of peace and hope.

In the beadmaking field too, there are such names as adiagba
(Dangme) meaning wealth’; and koli (also Dangme) meaning ‘precious’.
Both names portray the greatness and worth of the wearer. Among the
Akan one comes across such names as:
• Teteaso wonnkyere, meaning ‘God the Father of ancient times is not
pointed to anyone’. This signifies that everybody, including children, are
aware of the existence of God as the giver and sustainer of life.
Gyanae ye perentoa nso onnkasa. This is translated as ‘Gyanae is a
glass bead, yet it is always noiseless. This symbolizes quality, and that it
is unwise to boast about one’s wealth. A wealthy person can be identi-
fied through his lifestyle and not through his boasts.
Canoe Symbols
Indigenous Ghanaian fishermen have their own symbols, often carved
and painted on the sides of their canoes. Canoe symbols have
proverbial meanings. These proverbs often serve as pieces of advice or
compliments. They also communicate some social values and concepts.
Sometimes, spiritual meanings are associated with the designs to
portray the beliefs and aspirations of the society.
Some designs of canoe symbols usually occur together, while others
stand alone.
The snake and fish
These two symbols are always presented together at the stem of the
canoe. Sometimes the design is represented by a snake looking fish
called dankyiwofa. This literally means ‘turn round and take’. The snake
is said to be waiting for food, and the fish is food which may come from
any direction.

The snake is therefore ready to pounce on it in any direction. Thus, this
design symbolizes the cunning ways in which the fishermen trap fish at
sea. It is also a symbol of readiness to work at any time.
The anchor
This is the device used in keeping the canoe from being swept away by
the current of the sea or river. The anchor is therefore a symbol of
stability.
The crab
The crab may be made together with a bird or alone. This symbolizes
the fact that- a crab does not give birth to a bird, but a crab. It shows
that the behaviour of children often reflects their parents’ attitudes and
lifestyles. It is therefore, advice to the adults in society to live exemplary
lives.
The bird
The bird usually represented is the seagull. Its presence at a particular
spot over the sea shows the presence of fish. Thus, the seagull directs the
fishermen to fertile grounds for fishing. It is a symbol of hope.
The elephant
This is the largest animal in the forest. It symbolizes the greatness of the
particular fishing groups that carve it on their canoes. It also symbolizes
royalty. There is-a proverb which says ‘When one follows the path of an
elephant, one does not get wet from the dew on the bush’. Therefore,
the elephant is also a symbol of reliability. The fishermen who draws its
image on his canoe is hoping for successful fishing expeditions.

The heart
This is either carved singly or in groups to form a pattern on the bow
(front end) of the canoe. The heart is a very important organ. It gives
life but it is very delicate. Therefore, anything connected with the heart
needs to be handled patiently. It is a symbol of patience.
The star
When the fisherman loses his way at sea, he uses the stars at night to
find his direction. The star is therefore, a symbol of hope.
The arm and hand
These signify that the arm and hand are meant for work and not for mis-
chief. This is advice given to idle persons. Thus, the hand is a symbol of
hard work.
The arrow
There is a symbol composed of an arrow with an arrowhead attached
to either end of it, and a cord wound loosely round the stem. This is
called akosaasan, meaning ‘go into battle and return’. It is a symbol of
protection and safety. Figure 15.6 shows some canoe symbols.
Fig. 15.6 Some canoe symbols
1. Bird 2. Crab
3. Anchor 4. Arm and hand

Body Arts
Arts of the body are a form of symbolic art in Ghana. Some common
body arts in Ghanaian society include face-marking and coiffure or
hairdressing.
Face-marking is an important form of body art. Many clans or families
practise face-marking as a means of identifying themselves. On the other
hand, when a family loses two or more babies by death, it is believed
that the gods, ghosts or some spirits in the other world have called them.
For this reason, the next child is marked on the face to disfigure him; to
make him unattractive to the citizens of the spiritual world. Another
instance in which the body is sometimes marked is during sickness. Little
cuts are made at specific pans of the body, such as forehead, back of the
neck and joints. Herbal preparations are applied to the cuts as a form
of protection.
Hairdressing is a form of body an. Some examples are: dansinkeran,
which is the original female hairstyle in Ashanti, and lakwa which is a type
of hairdressing typical of Fante women. In Northern Ghana and Volta
Region, women’s hairstyles arc varied. However, among the women of
many ethnic groups in Ghana a hairstyle in which all the hair is tied
up into one bunch on the top of the head signifies that the woman is
mourning a dead husband. Attendants of the paramount chief stool,
drink and sword bearers and maidservants of the queen mother also
wear symbolic hairstyles as signs of their office or rank.

Symbolism of the Human Body
Among indigenous Ghanaians, the beauty of the human body lies in
the symbolism of its forms. Kofi Antubam observes that every part of the
body is described in terms of shapes such as a circle or an oval. For in-
stance, the shape of the head from the side or front must appear like an
egg with the wider portion towards the top. The face should look larger
from the front. The neck should have wrinkles or rings on it. It must be
long and with the smaller part towards the head. There should be an
odd number of rings on it to give an effect of perfect beauty.
The torso from the shoulder to the waist must appear as an oval with the
larger part towards the neck. The thighs from the waist to the base of the
knee cap should be oval-shaped with the wider part towards the waist.
The legs, from the centre of the knee cap to the bottom of the ankle
should appear as oval with the wider part towards the knee. When put
together, the feet should give an oval shape on the ground tapering
from the toes to the back of the heels. The buttocks area from the waist
to the base of the buttocks should be circular in shape.
Basically, these are the requirements of beauty. To emphasize these, a
mother sometimes consciously tries to tic beads at the major joints of her
child - the waist, elbows and below the knees. It is probably this form of
beauty which is expressed in the female akuaba doll.

Symbolism of Shapes and Lines
Basic shapes and lines also have symbolic significance in Ghanaian aris.
The circle
This is often used to symbolize the presence and power of God. It also
symbolizes the spirit of the male in society. It is a symbol of purity and
holiness. It is for this reason that most temples for deities and gods fol-
low circular plans. Some examples are the temples for La Kpa of Labadi,
Accra, Digblch of Prampram, Tano of Takyiman and Ntona of Elmina.
The circle appears also in the construction of most sacred objects in
Ghanaian society. Notable examples are the Otutu shrines commonly
found in Labadi, Teshie, Nungua and Prampram.
The circle also appears in the design of the central pillar of most stools
to represent the presence and spirit of God in society. It forms the basic
shape of the indigenous pot for strong water as a symbol of the ‘life-
stream’. It is the central motif in the hairstyles of the aged stool bearers
for queen mothers in the royal courts of the Akim people. It is also the
central motif fashioned in gold for decorating the tops of Akim royal
stools. The circle appears four times in the adkinra symbol of knowledge
and wisdom known as male masie which are attributes of God. In the
adinkra symbol of old age and dignity, mpuanum the circle appears five
times.
In the symbolism of the human body, all sexual and sensory organs are
regarded as sacred due to the special functions they perform. Hence all
these arc described in terms of circles. The back-rest of the Akan roy-
al seat must, as a rule, have a circle on it, or else it is not perfect. The
shape of the ladeo the disk of office of the soul-bearer of the Akan
royal court is always circular in shape. Also, before any ritual dances
take place among some tribes in Ghana, the fetish priest has to make a
circle with white powder to sanctify the place.

The oval
This is the symbol of female beauty. It is the basis of all concepts of the
ideal shape of the female human figure. This means that to be beautiful,
all the main parts of a woman’s body should fall into oval shapes. The
oval appears in the shape of the palm-wine pot and that of the pot used
for washing and bathing before the introduction of buckets. For these
reasons, the oval is used to symbolize cleansing power in society.
The square or rectangle
Either of these two shapes stands for the sanctity (purity) in the male as
well as God’s influence on society. Because of its pure nature, the square
is often inscribed on the wooden door of some royal stool houses. The
same symbol is cither embroidered in yellow on white cotton cloth, or
done in yellow leather on black leather, and placed by the bed of the
paramount chief. The idea is for him to step on it straight from bed so
as to be sanctified.
Sometimes the square is used to symbolize the extent of power of a ruler.
For this reason, it appears as the central motif of the gold bracelet worn
on the right wrist of counsellors on royal duties.
The square or rectangle appears in the following areas of Ghanaian
arts. The back-rests of most male royal chairs are usually based on a
square or rectangular symbol with a circle in the centre. The square
represents the stainless purity of God, while the circle stands for his
sacredness. Therefore, the two put together represent such qualities of
God as perfection in wisdom, faithfulness, justice, courage, fairness and
mercy. The indigenous shields for battle also always take the shape of a
square or rectangle.

The triangle
This is a female symbol and it is one of the most commonly used
symbols in the art of Ghana. It is the basic shape of the gold ornament
usually hanging over the chest of Akan chiefs. Triangles arc also used as
adornments on the chiefs’ headgear, elbow bands, sandals and sides
of the four stands of their stools. When applied in this way, the triangle
signifies ‘the attraction and warmth of friendship’.
Sometimes the triangle appears in the shape of the roofs of temples
of some shrines. Notable examples can be seen in Prampram, and in
Accra at Labadi and Teshie and in Elmina. The Tano shrine temples in
Takyiman, Wenchi and Nkronza also provide good examples. Triangu-
lar roofs are also very common in indigenous compounds of Northern
Ghana.
During the puberty rites for a girl in the Akan community, her husband-
to-be may present her with a symbolic chewing stick in which the
triangle forms part of the design. This symbolizes his wish for an endless
and faithful love. When it appears in the design of a stool, the triangle
is a symbol of jealousy and pride.
Finally, the triangle appears as a motif in the border decorations of
royal hassocks of Northern Ghana. Generally, the triangle is a symbol
of female influence in society.
The crescent moon
The half-moon shape is used to symbolize the general characteristics of
the female influence in society. This involves female tenderness, warmth,
affection, kindness, calmness and gracefulness.
The crescent moon is used in several Ghanaian art forms. For instance,
it is the shape of the top scat of carved indigenous stools.

Here, it signifies that the female also contributes to the successful
development of society. When it appears in the designs of the indige-
nous royal applique cloth, the crescent moon is a symbol of feminine
protection and love. When it appears together with a star in the design,
then it symbolizes female faithfulness in love.
Other areas in the arts in which the crescent moon appears include:
• the golden breast charm worn by leading state priests, usually of the
Akan court;
• the hairstyle of the Akan court stool bearers called
kondwasorfopuaa;
• the structure of the Akan stool as a symbol of peace and calmness.
The crescent moon also appears in the shape of hats worn by
sword-bearers in the Akan court.
The concentric circle or whorl
The concentric circle is used as a symbol of fertility. It often appears on
some of the rectangular brass pots in which the shaved hairs and cut
fingernails of a dead man who has fathered no children are kept. It is to
signify a warning to the dead man never to return into this life again in-
fertile. The concentric circle is also used to decorate the foreheads of the
terracotta heads used in funeral ceremonies among the Akans. These
are later buried in the graves of the dead to make their souls fertile when
they are reincarnated. It is also made at the back of fertility dolls which
barren women carry on their backs in the hope of becoming fertile.
Finally, the concentric circle appears in the decoration of the neck disc
of the female soul-bearer of the Akan royal court to wish fertility on the
whole society.

Line
Undulating lines are used to represent the stream of life. For this reason,
they are often used in decorating water pots which are believed to
support the life-force. Undulating lines are also used as decoration on
the blades of ceremonial swords.
Zigzag lines are used to symbolize a good application of wisdom. They
are often used in decorating pots, chairs, stools, linguist staffs and royal
cushions. They appear in kente designs and also on royal breastplates.
The spiral line is used to symbolize the delicate nature of women. It also
symbolizes peace, mercy and continuity of growth. It appears as a
decoration on gold hairpins and the double bladed ceremonial sword.
Practical work
1 Find out about the following:
• Symbolism of the days of the week. • Symbolism of numbers.
• Symbolism of time. • Symbolism of animals.
You may use the following format:
(a) The meaning of the symbol. (c) Its significance.
(b) What it is associated with in general life. (d) Its uses.
2 Using the same format, make a chart of all symbolic forms in your
town or village.
References
ANTU8AM. Kofi, Ghana’s Heritage of Culture, Koehler and Amelang. Leipzig,
1963. pp. 89-164
SARPONG, Peter, Ghana in Retrospect Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture.
Ghana Publishing Corporation (Printing Division). Accra-Tema. 1974. pp 99-
100. 106

Art AssociationsSixteen
Objectives
• identify various an societies and art-based industries in Ghana;
• understand the roles and contributions of an societies and industries
to national development.
Generally, most Ghanaian artists have been freelance and received little
or no recognition in society. As a result, some artists have seen the need
to unite themselves into groups or societies known as art associations.
The aim was, firstly, to encourage better identification and recognition
of artists of various disciplines in both the visual and performing arts,
and secondly, to reflect on the roles of the art associations and industries
in nation-building programmes. Today, several art associations and in-
dustries exist in Ghana, although only the Ghana Association of Artists
will be discussed here. The names of some other art associations and
industries in Ghana are also given, however, so that you can find out
about them.
The Ghana Association of Artists
This association was formed in 1973 to bring together practising artists
from all branches of art under one canopy. It embraces all the visual
arts and oilier national associations of artistic disciplines such as music,
dance, drama, indigenous craftsmen and writers.
Aims and objectives
The basic objective of the Ghana Association of Artists is to help promote
and develop the arts in Ghana. Its other aims and objectives are to:
• provide expert advice to the member associations on matters
relating to the development of the arts;

• assist artists in all their creative endeavours, and to reawaken the
creative ability of the Ghanaian artist;
• stimulate national awareness, interest and appreciation of the arts;
• co-operate with international artistic bodies in the promotion of the
arts;
• act as a central advisory body to-the Centres for National Culture;
• provide a clearing house for creative and social exchange;
• act as a focus of co-operation among artists; it provides an ideal
ground for the artists of the nation to exchange views on common
problems.
Roles of Art Associations and Industries
Art associations and industries contribute greatly to nation building
programmes such as education, industry, health, trade and others. For
instance, an art association helps individual artists to gain personal
fulfillment in life through art activities. It helps to promote the image of the
artist through expert advice on the location and acquisition of materials,
new methods, exhibitions, costing and marketing of art works. The artist
thereby gains more self-confidence, especially if he is then able to live
from his work.
Art programmes mounted by art associations often educate the
public about the artistic heritage of Ghana. The programmes help peo-
ple to understand the gradual development of the arts through the ages.
Usually, these programmes are in the form of exhibitions, congresses,
discussions and lectures. Others include the collection, preservation and
interpretation of works of art. Through these activities, people get to
know how artists of the past and present have created ideas for their
works. They also learn how the artists have applied the visual qualities -
lines, shapes, textures, colour and the like in their works. Finally, people
can find out how experts in the various disciplines of art have employed
different art materials through the ages.
Art Associations

Some of the programmes of the art associations also teach us about our
cultural heritage. In the absence of written records, art forms may be
sources of information about our history. Through the visual qualities of
artefacts as well as the performing arts - music, dance and drama - the
artist’s main objective is to convey a message to the observer.
Frequently, such messages contain Ghanaian concepts, ideas, beliefs
and social values. Thus, we learn about indigenous cultural practices
from various works of an. Other examples of works of art through which
we learn include structures of buildings, sculpture, painting and
decoration, body art and fragments of objects dug out of the ground.
Others include proverbs, folklore, wise-sayings, myths and dirges. Thus,
art makes history a living reality: without it some aspects of the history of
Ghana would not have been known. Ideally, art programmes teach us
about the past and present of our cultural heritage and may help us to
organize our future.
An association have used the artistic process as a creative and problem
solving activity in society; and this has led to the generation of several art
industries in Ghana. The art bring pleasure and boost the morale of
the artist and observer by helping them, to understand the realities of
everyday life. In this way, art tends to foster harmony and peace be-
tween individuals and the environment in which they live. Thus, it acts
as a source of unity among the people in a society. Ideally art acts as a
means by which individuals in a society are identified as a people. This
spirit of communalism is often portrayed when groups of artists exhibit
their work for viewing.
Finally, the art societies and industries promote artistic activity as an
attraction to tourists.
Art Associations

Practical work
Table 6 contains the names of some art associations and industries in Ghana.
Find out about each of them and record the information in your notebook.
Use the following formal:
(a) Name of the association or industry.
(b) Year of its establishment.
(c) Its aims and objectives.
(d) Its functions or contributions to society.
Visual art associations and
industries
Performing art associations
• National Craftsmen’s Association
• Ghana Artists Association Ghana Art
Teachers Association Akwapim Six
• Batik and Tie-Dye Producers
Association
• Cane and Furniture Makers
Association
• Tema Textiles Limited
• Ghana Textiles Manufacturing
Company Limited
• Saltpond Ceramics Apple Pie
Afromedia
• Ghana Dance Ensemble
• Kusum Agroma
• Abibigroma
• Osofo Dadzie
• Obra
• Daakyi
• Adabraka Drama Group
• Tsadidi Croupe
• Okukuseku International Band
• Suku Troup
• Wulomei
• Bob Cole’s Concert Party Winneba
Vocal Band
Table 6: Art associations and industries
Art Associations

Product DesignSeventeen
Objectives
• understand concepts of design of hand-made articles;
• explain factors to consider when making articles by hand;
• demonstrate understanding of materials and their properties;
• describe the process of designing and making an article;
• design and make an article.
The word ‘design’ as used here refers to the planning of hand-made
articles. A child’s first experience in designing an article occurs when
he makes toys with empty tins and other scrap materials - wood, paper,
cloth, clay, shell or metal. The nature of the toy may be largely
determined by the kind of tool and material the child uses.
Most of our hand -made articles are defined by the materials and
sometimes, tools used to produce them. Wood, metal, clay, fibre,
leather, paper, bone, bamboo, cane, calabash, horn, feather and others
are commonly used. Hand-made articles - baskets, mats, kente, pots,
wallets, bags, beads and others - are the works of individuals who have
personal control over the tools, materials and processes of creation. A
creative designer is strongly oriented towards nature for the choice of
ideas, materials, shapes, colours and textures.
A person who designs and makes articles by hand respects the nature of
his materials. This means that all features and qualities of the materials
he uses must be considered in the design. For example, to design with
cane, wood, horn or clay, the designer finds shapes and forms that suit
the nature of the materials. A piece of mahogany board is suitable for
relief carving; plastic clay is appropriate for making tea cups; soft leath-
er is useful for making wallets and small articles. A designer looks for
ideas from his environment, especially from nature.

For example, features of natural order variety, rhythm, balance,
harmony, unity and repetition - are good sources of ideas for designs.
Skills in designing an article are as important as any other skill. Design
in the senior secondary school is particularly important because it will
help you develop skills in planning and carrying out your own projects.
To design and produce what is designed promotes your ability to act
with a purpose.
Designing and making articles provides us with useful skills and
abilities. We learn to investigate a problem, design, make and evaluate
an article. It is important for students in the secondary school to identify
their own problems or those of their communities. They can try to find
effective solutions to some of these problems through project work. The
activity of designing and making an article is an important preparation
towards designing industrial products. At this time of our country’s
development, we need to design our products well so that people will
like and buy them. Good designing will enable us to produce articles in
our factories for the good of our communities.
The Design Process
The beginning of the design process is to identify the need for an article.
An article may meet needs found in the home, farm, work place, market
or school.
Stage 1: The problem
Identify a problem. For example, we do not have good containers to
carry our tomatoes from the farm to the market. We need a basket or
wooden
container.
Product Design

Stage 2: Definition of the problem
State the specific nature of the problem. For example, rattan cane is
available in the town. Wood is expensive. Therefore, a strong cane
basket will be suitable to carry tomatoes from the farm to the market. At
this stage of the design process, you should clearly indicate what is to be
done.
Stage 3: Investigation of the problem
This stage of the design process requires research, investigation and
analysis of the problem to be solved. For example, if an article is to be
made, you need to know its specific uses. You also need to consider
• the shape, size and form of the article;
• the place where the article will be used;
• the kind of tools and materials to be used in making the article
(suitability, durability and availability, cost and preparation);
• the cost of making the article;
• the making process;
• safely in handling the article; rough or sharp edges must be smoothed
to prevent injury in using it;
• cultural elements, such as colour, symbols and features which can
readily identify the work as a Ghanaian product;
• beauty or aesthetic qualities of the article; its finish, decoration and
presentation.
Product Design

Stage 4: Possible solutions
Suggest possible solutions to the problem. To do this, study the design
of objects in nature, for example, fruits, seeds, leave, shells, insects, and
select ideas from their structures, shapes, patterns and colours. Make
free-hand drawings of shapes. Redesign the shapes until you find the
most suitable one. Consider organization of the design - shapes,
colours, textures, patterns, rhythm, balance, scale, variety and
repetition. Include qualities that are suitable for your design. Several
designs can be made and the most suitable one chosen to make the
article.
Stage 5: Sketch model
Choose a suitable material such as paper, clay, sawdust, wood, straw,
raffia, bamboo or cane and make a model of the article you want to
make. Where it is possible, the actual article may be made instead of the
model. Whether it is the model or actual article, it is important to eval-
uate it and make necessary corrections. Evaluation of the work involves
appreciation, criticism and judgement.
Stage 6: Prototype
With the model as a guide, make an example of the finished article
(prototype). In art, this prototype may be the final article. In industrial
design, the prototype is examined critically and necessary corrections are
made. It must work exactly in this form before the final article is made.
Product Design

Stage 7: Working drawing
If several articles are to be produced from the same design, it is neces-
sary to draw the prototype to scale so that the manufacturer can build
the final article from the drawings. This type of drawing is known as a
working drawing. In the metal arts, ceramics, leatherwork and sculpture,
it may be necessary to prepare working drawings for certain articles if
they are to be produced in large numbers.
Stage 8: Production (making the article)
At stage 3 of the design process, we found out which kinds of tools,
materials and methods would be suitable in making the article. At stage
8 these tools and materials are used to produce the article.
Stage 9: Evaluation
Test the finished article to see if it can serve die purpose for which it was
made. Ask yourself some questions.
• Is the article suitable?
• How much does it cost to produce it?
• Is it well finished?
• Is it beautiful?
• Who will use it - children or adults?
• Are there any defects on the article? (If there are defects, correct
them.)
Product Design

Practical Illustration of the Design Process
Designing and making an article should be done as a project in response
to an actual problem. For example, there is need for a nurse’s handbag.
Project
1 The problem. To design and make a lady’s handbag.
2 Specification. To design a bag for a nurse on duty in a hospital.
3 Investigation of the problem. The nurse will use the bag while on
duty in the wards of a hospital. She will keep her note pad, pen,
pencils and small articles in it.
• Shape. The shape of the bag may be geometric or derived from a
natural form. Its size should not be less than 30 cm across.
• Tools and materials. The bag will be made out of raffia - the
commonest material in the locality. Two pieces of cardboard, a piece
of fabric, thread and needle will be needed.
One 10 cm needle:
One piece of cardboard:
Thread: ¢50.00
1 metre piece of fabric:
4 bundles of raffia at ¢50 each:
Transport:
Total:
Time and workmanship: 25%
This amount represents the total cost involved in making the bag. It does
not include the market value of the finished bag.
• Making process. Braiding and simple stitches.
• Symbolic motifs. The shape could be round to suggest female
qualities.
• Safety. The edges and inside part of the bag should be smooth to
prevent injury when being used.
• Aesthetic consideration. Braiding and stitching will create texture on
the outside of the bag.
¢50.00
¢100.00
¢50.00
¢300.00
¢200.00
¢450.00
¢1,150.00
¢285.00
¢1,435.00
Product Design

4 Possible solutions. A series of preliminary drawings should be made
and the most suitable shape selected, see Figure 17.1.The material
(raffia) used in making the bag is such that several bags cannot be re-
produced by machine. In this case, there is no need to make a prototype
for factory production.
5 Paper model. The paper model should be made the same size as
the finished bag.
6 Evaluation. The colour of the raffia may be retained, or it may be
dyed before it is used. An appreciation of the finished bag should be
made. Making articles by hand is a slow process. Machines can be used
to produce several articles within a short time. This is useful when we
need many of the same articles for some purpose. If made on the same
machine, all die articles will look the same. In hand made goods, tool
marks may be left as part of decoration on the article. The marks some-
times identify the article as made by a particular artist. This means that
hand-made articles have their own special qualities which make them
different from other articles.
In order to help in the development of our country, it is important to
learn how to make things with our hands. The joy we get from making
articles with our hand, cannot be found in making things by machines.
Reference
AMENUKE S.K. Design and Technology through An. unpublished
paper presented at Technical Teachers’ Workshop. Kumasi. Ghana.
January 1990.
Product Design

Two-dimensional and Three
dimentional CompositionEighteen
Objectives
• plan and organize shapes into a picture;
• cut and paste shapes;
• organize elements of art into a design;
• translate two-dimensional designs into three-dimensional forms.
A work of art may be designed in a form that has length and breadth.
This is called two-dimensional form. It may also be organized in a form
that has length, breadth and height. This form usually has volume and
is called three-dimensional form. Examples of two-dimensional works
arc drawing, painting, poster design, mats, fabric, collage and mosaic.
Three-dimensional artefacts, include pots, tea cups, bowls, jugs, carved
drums, linguist’s staffs, stools, baskets, bags and others.
In two- and three-dimensional designs, the emphasis should be on
problem solving, designing and making art works. Three dominant
processes are involved in designing artefacts.
1 Visual investigation. We explore the visual world through
observation and translate what we see into designs.
2 Learning of skills. We learn skills and processes by making artefacts.
3 Problem solving. Thinking is done with tools and materials in
designing and making artefacts.

Making a
Two-dimensional
Design
To start with, plan the arrangement
of your subject in the picture area.
Basic shapes lines, patterns,
textures and colour should be
organized in terms of variety,
harmony, unity, rhythm, contrast,
repetition, balance, scale and
proportion. Variety in size, shape
and texture can make your design
pleasing. Keep your main shapes
and elements united. Note the
direction of main lines in the
composition. Your arrangement of
elements should lead the viewer’s
eyes smoothly across the design
and view each clement one after
another. A two-dimensional work
may be drawn, painted, printed or
built as a collage or mosaic (Figure
18.1).
Fig. 18.1 Batik by Portia Asare
Practical work
1 Cut shapes out or pictures from a magazine, newspaper or old
calendar. Vary the sizes - large, small, and very small. The shapes should
also be varied - rectangular, triangular, circular, irregular and so on. Ar-
range them on a plain sheet of paper in such a way that there is variety,
balance, rhythm, contrast and repetition.
2 Collect Hat pieces of natural materials com shuck, tree bark,
banana bark; feathers or similar materials. Cut them into a variety of
shapes and arrange them on a suitable piece of cardboard, plywood or
surface. Paste them down with a strong adhesive.

Making Articles in Three-dimensional Form
To produce articles in three-dimensional form means that the articles
have been designed in solid materials such as wood, clay, paper,
metal, sawdust, plastic, cane, straw, raffia, bamboo and others.
Designing artefacts in this manner takes into account qualities such as
line, shape, plane, colour and texture. The form of the figure may sug-
gest balance, rhythm, contrast, repetition, proportion, scale, unity and
harmony. When designing three-dimensional works, we must pay atten-
tion to these visual qualities. For example, in Figure 18.2 the sculpture
was made with washed terrazzo. It is a solid work which has weight and
volume. Its parts are united into one whole piece. The sculpture occupies
space and it can be viewed from different angles. One can also move
round it. These visual qualities are features of two-dimensional works
also. They are essential in designing a work of art, whether in a two- or
three-dimensional form.
Fig. 18.2 ‘Thinker’ by
Martin R. Shamo Mensah
(washed terrazzo;
97cm x 51cm; 1990)

The work in Figure 18.2 can be split into two halves, such that one half
balances with the other. Its scale is life-size. The upper arms join the
forearms resting on both knees to suggest a continuous movement. The
upper and lower legs join the elbows at knee level so that the legs and
arms are in a rhythmic movement. Shapes are repeated to emphasize
rhythm in the arrangement of parts. The graceful curves of some parts
contrast with the sharp edges of other parts.
Relationship between Two-dimensional and
Three-dimensional Works
In many art activities, three-dimensional work is preceded by two-
dimensional design. Concepts are explored and preliminary designs are
made before certain artefacts are produced. Two-dimensional design
gives us the opportunity to analyze and select those aspects of our
environment which motivate us to make three- dimensional art.
Designing an article is not the same as basic design and neither should
be done in isolation of making an article. Designing and making art
are integrated activities. Two-dimensional designing is an important
step in the making of a three-dimensional object. Common to two- and
three-dimensional work are the identification, selection and examina-
tion of visual information derived from the environment; the exploration
and use of tools and materials in producing artefacts; and the feeling
that is derived from, or aroused by the finished work.
An effective way of relating two-dimensional design to its three-
dimensional form is to design and construct forms in a variety of
materials. First, set yourself a problem: the need for a three-dimensional
object. For example, you need a solid, decorative object.
Two-dimensional and Two dimensional Composition

You may begin the designing process by observing natural or man made
shapes in your environment. You would make several drawings of the
shapes, deleting or adding some parts as you draw. You would then
select a shape from your drawings to be used for the construction of
your decorative object.
Draw the shape boldly, indicating its solid form by means of light and
shade. This drawing serves as a guide in building the three-dimension-
al form. The next stage of your work is to build the three-dimensional
object based on your drawing. The object may be built in clay, sawdust,
paper, wood, metal or
other suitable material. Thus, a two-dimensional design can be translat-
ed into a solid three-dimensional form.
Practical work 2
1 Design and construct a container in any suitable material - paper,
clay, sawdust, wood, plastic, metal, clay, bamboo, raffia, straw,
rattan, bulrush, fan palm leaves or palm rachis.
2 Collect a variety of natural solid objects - feathers, bones, shells,
stones, barks, seeds, fruits, flowers, roots, hoofs, horns and skins or
other suitable materials. Draw their shapes and indicate their
patterns in a two-dimensional drawing.
3 Collect a variety of natural and man-made objects - large, small,
short, high, low. Arrange them on a flat surface to portray variety,
unity, balance, contrast, opposites and rhythm. Note that the objects
are three-dimensional and that there will be space around each
object as well as
between one object and the others.
Reference
CLEMENT, Robert The Art Teacher’s Handbook, Century Hutchinson Ltd.
London. 1987. pp. 8 and 201
Two-dimensional and Two dimensional Composition

DrawingNineteen
Objectives
• apply skills in observation, analysis and communication to problem
solving and self-expression;
• draw objects and scenes in two-point perspective;
• draw parts of the human, figure.
In this chapter the emphasis is on the application to drawing of skills
already acquired in observation, analysis and communication. Observe
objects which show signs of age, decay or rottenness. For example, you
may make drawings of all kinds of broken down machinery or tools.
Practise drawing decayed and worn out objects to bring out their form.
You may also draw parts of a device or event indicating a start, a process
and an end. The idea is to capture a sequence of actions in a form of
communication. As you observe objects in the environment, you will be
able to build a deeper understanding of the shapes, patterns, textures
and structures of objects. As you record these visual elements through
drawing, you are making personal statements about the environment.
Your emphasis should be on accurate observation. Your eye must search
for detail.
Practical work 1
1 Collect objects that show signs of rust, decay or rottenness and make
enlarged drawings of their parts.
2 Select old buildings or machine parts and make detailed drawings
of them.
3 Listen to some sound. Attempt making drawings to represent what
you feel about the sound.
4 Draw lines to express the following ideas: confusion, explosion,
jumping, bounding, lightening, breakage, flowing, stillness, flatness,
undulating, running, boldness, strength, growth, balance, anger,
wind and flight.

Two-point Perspective
In a composition, the picture space may be divided into two major groups:
flat space and deep space. The principle of perspective makes it possi-
ble to deal with volume and deep space in drawing. For convenience,
you may
divide your picture area into sections: foreground, mid-ground, horizon
and background, as shown in Figure 19.1
In a picture area, the distance between the foreground and the horizon
suggests flat or deep space. This distance increases as the horizon is
raised higher in the picture area. In order to view an object in perspec-
tive within the picture area, two points are selected on the horizon (van-
ishing points) where all horizontal lines appear to disappear or ‘vanish’
(Figure 19.2).
Objects or parts of objects decrease in size towards the horizon. For
instance, objects in the foreground would appear larger than those in
mid-grounds and close to the horizon. The key to successful perspective
drawing is observation and practice. You should observe scenes, streets,
roads and buildings in perspective. Watch the direction of lines - those
that remain vertical (not affected by perspective), and those that obey
the laws of perspective. Similarly, when objects are arranged for draw-
ing, you must identify your vanishing points and direction of main lines
in order to draw the objects in perspective.
Practical work 2
1 Practise drawing rectangles and squares in perspective.
2 Observe a building, street or road in perspective and draw the
scenery.
3 Compose a picture from memory based on a story, a dream or a
poem.
Drawing

Fig. 19.1 Sections of the
picture area
Fig. 19.2 Two point
perspective
Fig. 19.3 Structures in
two point perspective
background
vanishing point
horizon mid-ground
foreground

Drawing from the Human Figure
In Chapter 8 we discussed the basic proportions of the human figure
and us parts. When the proportions are understood, you can join pans
of the body together into a whole Figure (Figure 19.4). It is important to
balance the body on its vertical axis. When you are a beginner, the axis
should be drawn to guide you. When the basic form of the figure is well
mastered, go on to the detailed features, the head should be considered
as comprising six planes; top, front, back, sides and the base of the
head occupied by the neck and jaw. The planes should be emphasized
when drawing the head.
Think of the eye as a ball in a socket. The eyelid is drawn to ‘go around’
the eyeball. From a front view, the opening of the eye between the lids
may be oval, while it may be egg-shaped from a three-quarter view. The
character of die nose depends upon its form and how it projects from
the face. The African nose is generally broad with large nostrils (Figure
19.5).
The shape of the mouth and lips depends on the shape of the teeth. A
few generalizations may be useful in drawing the mouth. Think of the
upper lip as three sections and the lower lip as two. African lips are gen-
erally thick and bold.
The ear is a simple disc comprising the rim, bowl and fleshy lobe. The
structure and position of the car on the head need careful observation
during drawing. Practise drawing the car from different positions.
The hand can be drawn in limitless positions. In any drawing of the
hand, its basic structure should be remembered. The proportions of the
hand can best be studied on your own hand.
Observe measurements of the parts of your hand and make sketches.
The foot rests flat on the ground. The outside of the foot is lower than
the inside. Planes of the foot comprise the top, sides and sole. The ankle
serves as a pivot for the foot to move forward and back.
Drawing

Fig. 19.5 The face and eyes
Fig. 19.6 The nose and mouth
upper lip in three sections
lower lip in two sections
Fig. 19.7 The ear
Fig. 19.4 Body parts assembled

The above information about the basic forms of the Figure should
enable you to attempt drawing your own figures. Remember to visualize
the various parts of the figure in terms of cylinders, spheres or cubes.
After you have mastered how to fit parts together, practise drawing the
figure in action, maintaining the cylindrical form of the parts.
Practical work 3
1 Practise drawing the features on your face using a mirror.
2 Draw your hand in several positions and performing different ac-
tions.
3 Observe the feet of a friend and make drawings.
References
REED Walt. The Figure: An Artist’s Approach to Drawing and Construc-
tion. North Light Publishers, Westport. Connecticut. 1976. pp. 71.87.
89. 109
RUBINS. K. David. The Human Figure. The Viking Press. New York. 1975
Fig. 19.8 The hand
Fig. 19.9 The foot

Colour WorkTwenty
Objectives
• understand colour schemes and practise painting in them;
• identify, describe and explain Ghanaian colours and their meaning;
• describe and explain colour perspective.
Previous discussions about colour in this book introduced you to
primary, secondary and tertiary colours by way of a twelve-hue colour
wheel. We do not advocate heavy reliance on conventional colour the-
ories. Colour theory, as we now know it, has its limits and no hard rules
can be adhered to about how to mix particular colours. For example, a
type of yellow and a type of blue make a type of green. It is therefore
confusing to say that yellow and blue make green. The variety of greens
that can be made from such a mixture is enormous. For this reason, it
is useful to make colour yourself by mixing one colour with another and
observing the result.
It is a bold practice to draw objects in colour as you paint them. A useful
practice is to make several studies of the same objects in different paint
media - crayon, poster or powder colour, water colour or colour pencil
before the final painting is done in one medium. This method teaches us
that paint is a flexible medium and helps us to bridge the traditional gap
between drawing an object in pencil outline and filling it in with colour.
As you continue to mix and paint colour, you will discover that colours
relate to one another in various ways. Some groupings of colours are
pleasing while others may not be. When we introduce different colours
into our painting it makes our work colourful, but more difficult to
control. A good painting depends upon how colours are used to
produce it, hot how many colours are used.
In painting, we learn about colour harmony, that is, the pleasing
organization of colours.

This can be achieved through a variety of colour schemes. The idea of
colour schemes only guides us in colour work. It does not guarantee
success, failure or control in our use of colour. The effect of one colour
is determined greatly by the colours around it. For example, yellow
painted on a white background loses its effect when violet, blue, green or
another colour is painted around it. You may try your own experiments.
Practical work 1
1 Paint yellow on a piece of white paper. Paint another colour around
it. Repeat the process by painting groups of yellow with other colours
around them.
2 Painl one colour on white paper. Paint its complementary colour
around it. Repeat the process by painting several colours and their com-
plementary ones.
Some Colour Schemes
Several variations of colour scheme are possible. No fast rules can be
made for the various possibilities. Objects in a scene may be painted in
warm colours such as red, violet, yellow, orange or their mixtures against
a cool background (blue, green, violet or their mixtures). Objects may
be painted in cool colours, against a warm background. A light colour
can be painted in contrast with a dark colour. A painting done in two,
three or several colours can satisfy a kind of colour scheme. You need to
practise painting in these colour schemes.
Practical work 2
Arrange objects on a surface and paint:
• objects in warm colours against a cool background;
Colour Work

• objects in cool colours against a warm background;
• objects in cool colours against a cool background;
• objects in warm colours against a warm background;
• objects in warm or cool colours against a grey background.
Notions of Colour in Ghana
In Ghanaian indigenous culture, the beauty of colour is in both its visual
qualities and in its social meaning. Indigenous meanings assigned to
colour are not based on modem scientific theories but on philosophical,
psychological and spiritual meanings related to life. It is difficult to make
generalizations about colour which apply to all the many ethnic groups
in Ghana. But some common ideas have been discussed in this chapter.
Some of the common colours identified are gold, yellow, silver, red, blue,
green, brown, grey, black and white. Each colour is associated with the
colour of a natural object. The meaning of the colour is derived from its
relationship to life. Ghanaian notions of colour are summarized in Table
7. Very little distinction is made between pure colours and gradations of
colour. In whatever form a colour appears, it carries the same meaning
as its pure form. It is important to note that colours have their peculiar
meanings and uses. In life, colours are not often used in isolation of
one another. For example, several colours are used in the kente cloth.
The idea is that it lakes all those colours to make a total life, with each
colour playing an important role. This signifies the wholesome nature of
African life.

In the past, we have been taught Western concepts of colour. We have
used the concepts to produce forms of art which were relevant to our
development. Today, we must place our emphasis on learning about
Ghanaian concepts of colour and their uses in society. We need to adapt
our ideas of colour to modern ways of life. In this way, we shall create a
new colour culture which will be relevant to our present ways of living.
Colour Work

Colour Association in
Nature
Meaning(Symbolism) Use
Gold
Colour of gold
metal, chicken fat,
juice of ripe
pineapple.
Royalty; continuous
life; warmth and
controlled fire; rule of
God or king;
prosperity of
individual and state.
King’s ornaments,
outdooring, puberty,
marriage and other
Yellow Colour of ripe
lemon.
As for gold.
As for gold. In addition,
used by persons in high
office, e.g. chief, priest.
Silver Colour of silver
metal.
Second in position,
i.e. next to a leader;
female
Queen’s ornament; roy-
al regalia of
sub-chiefs.
Red Colour of blood
and red tomato
Close blood relations;
war; anger;
aggression; violence;
calamity; death; riot;
force; danger.
Funeral; violence rallies;
puberty initiation;
outdooring
ceremonies; used as
sign for warning against
danger.
Blue Colour of sky.
Early dawn; love;
female tenderness;
serene appearance;
rule of a queen.
Love charms; puberty
and marriage
ceremonies.
Green
Colour of
green
vegetation.
Newness; fertility;
growth; vitality.
Outdooring and child
ceremonies; puberty;
hunting ceremonies;
used at funerals to keep
the mouth shut;
purification of spots
for sacred ceremonies;
used to pull off spirits of
the dead from spots of
accidents;
Table 7. Notions of colour in Ghana

Colour Association in
Nature
Meaning
(Symbolism)
Use
also to sprinkle
medicinal water during
purification ceremonies.
Brown Colour of soil and
rotten objects.
Decay and rottenness;
things that have
passed away;
closeness to the soil
(fanning and hunting)
Mourning the dead;
hunting and farming
dresses.
Grey Colour of ashes
Pity; shame; blame;
degradation.
Used to-paint corpses of
persons who have suf-
fered accidental death;
ash is used to prevent
dysentery and strength-
en weak foundations of
houses.
Black
Colour of
charcoal, ebony,
black stone and
night.
Vice; sadness;
strength; something
that belongs to the
past, old age and his-
tory.
Used to mark relies or
objects of history; for
funeral, e.g. blackening
of stools Used to make
charms against wild an-
imals and evil forces;
and for body painting
White
Colour of white
cotton, egg shell
and white clay
(kaolin).
Joy; victory; happi-
ness; purity; virginity;
faultlessness of God
All joyous occasions. e.g.
birth, outdooring, puber-
ty, marriage ceremonies;
victory at war or from any
form of struggle; funeral
for old people and
victims of accidental
death (joy after death).
Table 7. continued

Practical work 3
1 Prepare a table on colour similar to Table 7 and indicate the
meanings
and uses of colour in your locality.
2 Compose a picture based on a scene that you have observed and
paint
it with some of the colours indicated in Table 7. Try to interpret your
painting in terms of Ghanaian concepts of colour.
Colour Perspective
The colour of objects in a distance usually appears pale while colours
near the viewer are intense. This means that when we paint a picture,
colours near the horizon and background should be pale, and colours
should be more intense towards the foreground. When colour is used to
suggest distance in a picture, it is known as colour perspective.
A picture may be painted in flat colour shapes suggesting no distance or
depth in the picture. In colour perspective, it is useful to understand the
main sections of the picture (Figure 20.1). The differences in intensity of
colour in each section determine the nature of colour perspective being
depicted.
Practical work 4
1 Paint colour shapes in the following manner on the same sheet of
paper
• large shapes in tints;
• medium shapes in hues;
• small shapes in shades:
• very small shapes in intense colour;
• some of the shapes in very light colour, light, dark or very dark
colour.
Colour Work

Place the completed work in a vertical position and stand back to look at
it. Note the colour shapes which appear to recede or advance towards
you. Note also that very dark or intense colour shapes may tend to ad-
vance
towards you due to their intensity. Similarly, very large but pale colour
shapes may also tend to advance due to their size. Thus, size as well as
intensity of colour shapes can be used to suggest distance in a picture.
2 Mark out a picture area on a while sheet of paper. Indicate the
horizon line. Make a few mixtures of one colour ranging from pale to
intense shades. Paint the pale mixtures near the horizon and grade the
mixtures till they become very intense in the foreground. Similarly, paint
mixtures of another colour in the background, beginning with pale tones
at the horizon and
increasing the intensity towards the top of your picture area. Place the
completed work in a vertical position and note the perspective that is
created.
Fig. 20.1 A painting in colour perspective by Baxton

3 Compose a picture of a scene in the landscape where you can
clearly see the horizon. Paint the scenery. Remember that colours near
the horizon are pale while those closer to you are intense.
4 Paint flat colour shapes in a picture area using different colours of
the same intensity. Compare the completed work with the painting in
(3) above.
References
ANTUBAM. Kofi. Ghana’s Heritage of Culture, Koehler and Ametang.
Leipzig. 1963, pp. 75-85
AMENUKE S.K. Colour Book for Schools and Colleges, (unpublished),
July 1990
Colour Work

Gothic Lettering and
CalligraphyTwentyOne
Objectives
• identify and explore different styles in block lettering;
• explain Gothic lettering in communication design;
• use letters to express ideas in communication design.
Chapter 10 of this book deals with three types of lettering: free-style
(free hand), block lettering and calligraphy. Block letters are constructed.
Free-hand letters are drawn. In calligraphy, pens, pencils and brushes
tire used to write the letters. An artist who designs with the letters of the
alphabet is called a letterer. A letterer who designs the text of notices on
billboards, signboards, signposts and papers is a poster designer. The
one who chooses typefaces for printing is a typographer.
When printing was invented, different styles of lettering were developed
from the original serif block letters. In the nineteenth century, serifs on
the letters were removed to form another style of lettering called sanserif
(without serifs). This new style of lettering was admired by many artists in
different countries. Therefore different names were given to it: Gothic -
due to the thick or heavy lettering style; grotesque because the lettering
was said to be strange, fantastic and laughable. The structure of sanserif
allows for more varieties of letter shapes.
Principles of Gothic Lettering
Shapes and parts of letters
Each letter of the alphabet can be identified by its shape. The body of
some letters have straight stews (strokes), for example.
AFIIIJKLMNTVWXYZ. Letters such as C O Q S U have curved stems (lobes).
Other letters like B D G P R M are combinations of straight and curved
strokes or stems. Observe these shapes and design them according to
their structures when you are constructing, writing or grouping them into
words.

Figure 21.2 shows various parts of letters and their names. A and H
have crossbars. The projected bars forming the arms of E and F arc
the spurs. The curved part of a letter is the lobe or the bow. You have
to identify the position of these parts ill your guidelines.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVUXYZ&
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqr stuvwxyz
Fig. 21.1 Examples of sanserif lettering styles
Gothic Lettering and Calligraphy

Guidelines in lettering
When designing a notice, letters of the alphabet should be arranged
in a certain order to conform with the principles of lettering. All letters
are designed to stand between four straight horizontal lines. The top
line is the cap line. Below it is the waist line or the centre line. The body
of all letters rests on the base line. The lowest line is the drop line. The
straight vertical stroke or stem of b, d, f, h, k or 1 touches the cap line.
This stroke is called the ascender. The body of small letters rests between
the waist and the base lines. The tails of g, j, p, q and y are called the
descenders. They go down below the base line and most of their bodies
rest on the drop line. Letters designed in capitals stand between the cap
line and the base line. They are said to be in upper case. The small let-
ters are in lower case. In forming a word, letters should be all lower case
or all upper case, except when an initial (first) letter needs to be upper
case. For example, ‘OrAgEn’ is a wrong combination of letters whereas
‘ORANGE’ or ‘Orange’ is right.
Fig. 21.2 Shapes, parts and guidelines in lettering

Size of letters
All letters of the alphabet arc not of the same size. Some letters arc wide,
others are narrow, very narrow, round or normal. Letters said to be of
normal size are A H K NRTUVXYZ. The wide letters are M and W. The
narrow ones are B E F L P S. The very narrow ones are I and J. Those with
round shapes - C D G O Q - are all the same size (Figure 21.3).
AHKNRTUVXYZ
MW BEFLPS
I J CDGOQ
Spacing of letters
Putting equal spaces between letters in a word is a mechanical way of
spacing. It does not make for the best appearance because of the varia-
tions in the size of letters. When designing notices, each letter in a word
should appear as part of a unified unit of the whole lettering design. The
area around the words should harmonize with the darkness or lightness
of the letters. No letter in a word should stand out in isolation from the
others. Remembering this will help you to achieve evenness of colour,
weight and balance. When harmony is overlooked or neglected in let-
tering, the work looks of poor quality. To achieve harmony, you have
to adjust the space between letters according to their shape. Consider
whether they are:
normal
narrow
roundvery narrow
wide

• letters with upright strokes on both sides - H M N U or with one side
curved and the other side upright: B DPR;
• circular letters: Q and O;
• letters which have an oblique angle and diagonal strokes: A V W;
• letters which arc open on one side only: C E F G J K L;
• letters with both sides open: S T X Y Z.
Here are some guidelines to follow.
• Widen spaces between letters with straight, upright and parallel
strokes, e.g. HIIL NIB HIL HE.
• Leave a moderately closed space when an upright stroke and an
open- sided stroke or circular-stroke letter are placed next to each
other, e.g. IS HO LP IC XE.
• The inter-space should remain closer between two open-sided
letters, e.g. ES KS SX YS.
• Allow a very small space between (a) circular letters, e.g. OO OC
OG OQ; (b) an upright stroke and a projecting stroke, e.g. LI XE FIX;
(c) two open-sided letters and a circular letter, e.g. TOY ZOO OX.
• Projecting strokes on the same level may (a) touch each other if
desired, e.g. RA EV EX LA TZ AA; (b) overlap if on different levels,
e.g. TA LY ZY AV WA.

Practical work 1
1 Construct the following in block letters and space them correctly:
• HP YS AA OC HO HD
• BOOK TATA LAZY RALLY AWAITS HEADMASTER RAILWAYS RAA
FOX QUICKLY JUST PUMPS ZOO
2 Rule lines as a guide and write this sentence in capitals: ‘The quick
brown fox jumps over the la2y dog.’ You may use felt pens, crayons or
paint and brush.
3 Write letters with ascenders and descenders, using pen and ink or
felt pens. (Write boldly.)
4 Cut samples of different letter styles from old newspapers,
magazines and discarded packages and study them. Copy the
letters in your sketch book.
Making Posters
A poster is a notice designed to carry a message or information. They
are used to advertise and promote sales and fund raising. Every poster
should satisfy some conditions. It must be easy to read, attract attention
and look pleasing. These Conditions can be met by good layout and
lettering. Posters attract attention when sizes of letters are varied and
maybe the text is combined with pictures. The effective use of colour can
also enhance poster designing.

Kinds of posters
There are endless varieties of posters in different sizes, letterings and
designs. They can be made for shops, schools, farms, clubs, churches,
villages, cinemas, houses, commercial business, radio and TV
(television) announcements.
Tools and materials
Requirements for poster designing are the same as those needed for let-
tering. Some of the basic items include brushes, pens, ruler, eraser, set
squares, ink, palette, paint rag, drawing board, paper, stencil, plywood,
card, cardboard and wooden boards.
Planning posters
When planning a poster, consider the size and aim for simplicity, clarity,
precision and neatness. A good layout leads to high quality work. The
size of your lettering will determine the type of tools you may need. Fig-
ure 21.4 shows some examples of planning posters.
Layout
This is the arrangement of elements of design, pictures and lettering in a
poster. When preparing your layout, you should aim to fit these elements
together in a harmonious way.
The written material or the message to be designed as a poster is called
the copy. In your layout the copy should fit into a required space.
The copy should spell out the message using the most important words.
Therefore it should be simple and to the point, for example, ‘Come to
Picnic’; ‘See Football Match’; ‘Attend a Speech Day’; ‘Buy Yams and
Plantain ; and so on.

The layout of a poster can take several forms depending on the art-
ist’s practice, choice and experience. A well planned layout may enliven
weak lettering but good lettering cannot make up for a weak layout.
Begin your layout by trying various formats. After that, decide on one for
the final layout.
Lettering in posters
Here are some guidelines.
Plan your layout; do preliminary sketches.
• Rule lines in your final layout to guide your points or write letters in
upper or lower cases.
• Select your writing or printing tools, felt pens or brushes.Decide on
your lettering styles.
• Extend, condense or spread letters as you desire. In lettering, to ex-
tend means to widen the letters; to condense is to make the letters and
the spaces between them compact. To spread is to allow more space
between the letters.
Fig. 21.4 Layout Planning

• Use free-hand lettering, pen lettering or block lettering where
necessary.
• You may also draw letters with a ruler.
• Leave sufficient borders around your design.
• Remember that your design will be weak if tall and thin letters are
condensed.
• You can write directly with your tool (e.g. brush) but it is a good idea
to mark out the position of the letters first in pencil.
• You may draw the outline of letters first and fill them in later.
Calligraphy
Using the square-cut nib
In Chapter 10, you practised some trial strokes holding the pen tilling at
different angles. You can now concentrate on one style of holding the
pen, with the nib tilting regularly at the same angle. Begin with a square-
cut nib, for example, the bamboo pen you learnt to make in Chapter 10.
Use squares to guide you to write your strokes. Your vertical, horizontal
and curved strokes need to be written with care. Begin by practising with
horizontal strokes on the line and below the line. Move your pen steadily
gently and firmly as you write each stroke. Next, try to write the vertical
and curved strokes. When you have practised this for a while, write the
letters of the alphabet from A to Z in lower and upper eases. Then you
can practise your calligraphy on horizontal guidelines.

Practical work 2
1 Write the alphabet in sets of capital and small letters, for example,
Aa, Bb, Ce, Ee, Ff, Zz.
2 Write two-, three- or four-letter words. You may start each word
with a capital, for example. Add, On, Of, This, Up, Till. Moon.
An, Views.
3 Write the following sentence (which contains all the letters of the
alphabet): ‘The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.’
4 Practise the strokes with round-lip pens. Write down the differences
in the strokes.
5 Write the alphabet on a square paper using a thick round-tip felt
pen. Let letters with curved bodies (O C Q G D) occupy a full
square.
References
GALE. Elizabeth. From Fibres to Fabric. Mills and Boon Limited,
London, 1978. pp 155-159
PLUCKROSE. Henry. The Book of Crafts, Evans Brothers Limited.
London. 1971.pp193-20

Block PrintingTwentyTwo
Objectives
• develop skills in cutting positive and negative shapes and use them
for printing;
• design on paper and prepare blocks with different materials;
• make prints from various relief blocks.
Block priming is an advanced form of relief work in which the colour
and pattern are stamped on to a surface with a carved block. The prin-
ciple remains the same as for other types of relief printing in that the
non-printing areas are cut out and chipped off leaving the areas to be
printed to stand in relief. It is always necessary to draw a preliminary
design on paper before drawing on the surface of die block. At the
drawing stage one must decide if the drawing is to appear as a positive
or negative image in the completed print. If a positive image is to ap-
pear in print, all the areas around the image should be cut and chipped
off. For a negative image to appear in print, the image itself is cut and
chipped off leaving the surrounding areas to print.
The basic tools needed for this method of printing are cutting tools,
hand roller, a printing surface and a glass slab. Line and wood cutting
tools for this type of work consist of broad flat gouges used for clearing
away large areas of the block and the finer V-shaped tools employed
for detailed cutting.
However, if these tools are not available, sharp edges such as pocket
knives, razor blades and chisels may be used.
Images may be cut out on materials such as linoleum, wood, clay, leath-
er, thick cardboard and the soft rubber sole of sandals. With the excep-
tion of clay and sawdust, the materials may be mounted on wooden
blocks for best results. Wood for wood cuts should be soft like wawa so
that it will be easy to cut with simple tools. However, hard wood may be
used in wood engraving processes.

Clay blocks should be prepared while the clay is leather-hard, so that
they can be carved easily.
Designing
The subjects for printmaking are many and varied. The choice of subject
depends on the theme as well as the effect desired. If the print is to be
repeated several times, the design should be done in such a way that the
edges join perfectly when repeated.
It is necessary to plan the preliminary design fully in paint on paper in
order to decide whether the positive or the negative image is to appear
in print.
Practical work 1
1 Cut out a rectangle of white paper and draw a simple shape on it.
2 Paint the shape in black.
3 Cut another piece of paper the same size and draw the same shape
on it.
4 Paint the background in black leaving the shape white.
(Note: Both papers show the same shape, but the shape painted in
black is positive and the other paper shows the negative shape.)
Practical work 2 (Woodcut and linocut)
1 Select a theme and make a suitable design on paper.
2 Collect pieces of suitable metal that can be fabricated into cutting
tools.
3 Cut and fashion pieces of metal into Hat, broad and V-shaped
gouges and sharpen them.
Block Printing

4 Cut a piece of lino, wood or any suitable material such as leather,
cardboard, hard or rubber sole of sandals to a reasonable size.
5 Mount the lino, rubber sole or leather on a block of wood for best
results.
6 Paint the surface of the block with light-coloured poster or powder
colour
so that the design will stand out when it is drawn.
7 Transfer the design on to the block by drawing or tracing with any
suitable medium.
8 Place the block in a bench hook or against heavy blocks to prevent
it from slipping when culling.
9 Use broad, flat gouges for clearing away large areas and the finer
V- shaped tools for detailed culling.
(Note: Cutting and chipping off the block should be done away from the
worker to avoid accidents.)
10. Test and modify the design until it is appropriate.
Practical work 3 (Styrofoam, polystyrene and latex foam
blocks)
1 Collect pieces of Styrofoam, polystyrene and latex rubber foam and
cut
them into blocks.
2 Draw a suitable design on the surface of the blocks.
3 Place a suitable metal tool in lire to heat.
4 Scorch along the lines drawn with the hot tool in such a way that the
design stands in high relief.
(Note: The block may be cut with any suitable tools.)
Block Printing

Practical work 4 (Clay block)
1 Collect clay. Pound, wash and sieve it into a container and leave it
to harden a little.
2 Wedge and knead the clay thoroughly.
3 Place the clay in a suitable mould and press it into a solid block.
4 Leave the clay in the mould until n is leather-hard.
5 Make a suitable design on paper and transfer it on to the surface of
the clay block.
6 Carve the block in relief. The clay block may be used when it is
bone-dry or bisque fired.
Practical work 5 (Printing)
1 Make a relief block using any of the processes described.
2 Place a sheet of paper on a table and mark out the repeat size of
the design along the length and breadth of the sheet of paper.
3 Draw lines to join the marks in order to create spaces for each unit
repeat.
4 Prepare the printing paste by mixing poster or powder colour with a
little water and cooked starch. Water-base and oil-base printing
paste may also be used.
5 Put a little paste on a flat surface and roll it with a hand roller or any
suitable text until the paste is of a sticky consistency.
6 Transfer the paste or ink to the block.
7 Place the inked surface squarely in one of die spaces marked on the
paper.
8 Use a mallet or object to hit the back of die block gently to ensure
perfect contact of die relief surface with the paper.
9 Lift the block gently by peeling off the print.
10 Leave the print to dry.
Block Printing

Fig. 22.1 Design and block for prnting
Fig. 22.1 Printing with a block
Reverse Printing
In this process the design is
transferred to the printing paper or
fabric from a roller.
The colour is first applied to the
surface of the block. A clean roll-
er covered with a blotting material
is rolled over the relief surface to
pick up the ink. The roller is then
run over a clean sheet of paper to
transfer the print on to the paper.
Usually,
reverse prints are light and are used
only when special effects are
required.

Practical work 6
1. Make trial prints using reverse printing methods and compare the
effects with those of other prints.
2. Make designs for block printing that would be suitable for book
covers, place mats, wall hangings and greeting card.
Use a combination of print techniques in this exercise.
Multicolour Printing
Block printing can be done in two or more colours. Every different
colour in the design requires a different block. The design should first be
planned and painted in the number of colours desired. It should then be
transferred on to blocks such that each block will be used for only one
colour. It is advisable to begin two-colour printing with simple patterns.
The work of transferring designs and cutting the block should be done
accurately to avoid cutting away certain areas which are to be primed.
In most two-colour designs the colours are distributed in such a way that
one colour dominates the pattern. Colours which are light in tone
cannot be printed successfully over dark colours; but dark ones are
visible on light colours.
Block Printing

Practical work 7 (Two-colour prints)
1 Make a preliminary design in two colours.
2 Prepare two blocks with suitable materials.
3 Transfer the design on to two separate blocks.
4 Cut away all the areas of the blocks which arc not to be printed.
5 Make trial prints on paper to ensure that the blocks have been well
cut.
6 Prepare printing paste and put into separate containers.
7 Ink one of the blocks in light tone.
8 Take a print from the block and allow it to dry.
9 Prints the second colour alter registering the block exactly where it
should be.
10 Ensure that the print is even.
Practical work 8
1 Make a composition suitable for a wall hanging using printmaking
techniques.
2 Design and make prints suitable for the following items: place mat,
coaster, book cover, pencil holder, shopping bag.
3 Make designs and print them oh cotton fabrics to make table
napkins,
table runners, scarves, ties and so on. Use a suitable fabric paste.
References
GALE. Elizabeth. From Fibres to Fabric. Mills and Boon Ltd. London.
1978. pp 155-159
PLUCKROSE. Henry. The Book of Crafts, Evans Brothers Ltd. London.
1971. pp 193-201
WESBO. E 8. Art Education. Heinemann Educational Books (E.A.) Ltd;
Nairobi 1980
Block Printing

Objectives
• that art is the mouthpiece of the culture producing it;
• that indigenous African arts are basically the same in many respects,
yet there are differences in style.
In sub-Saharan Africa, the concepts, religious beliefs and requirements
that motivate artistic activity are basically the same in the different
societies. It is the detail and outward appearances of the artefacts, or
interpretation of their purposes, that differ from one ethnic group to
another. For instance, the style of drumming and dancing, the words
of the prayers and the statues for Yoruba fertility riles are different from
those of the Ewe, Ashanti or Dogon for similar rites. Similarly, in twin
cull the Yoruba ibeji figures are different in appearance from the Ewe
(Ghana and Togo) twin figure - ametikpakpe. The differences of style
account for the unique aesthetic qualities peculiar to each ethnic group.
The media and techniques used in the indigenous arts have remained
unchanged among the Ashanti, Fon, Dogon, Yoruba. Baga and many
others. However, the quality and quantity of some of the indigenous arts
have diminished. This chapter deals with the works of art peculiar to four
ethnic groups: Mende, Bambara. Baule and the Nok culture of northern
and central Nigeria.

The Mende
TheMendeareagroupofpeopleinSierraLeone.Theyaremainlyfarmers.
They believe in God the creator, ancestors and animism, and practise
magic, witchcraft and sorcery. The Mende organize themselves into
kinship groups and autonomous villages and towns ruled by chiefs. The
chiefs have limited powers and they do not have a traditional authority
over all the chiefdoms. Therefore the social and political life of the Mende
is dominated by groups of welfare societies for men and women. Such
societies are often described by scholars as ‘secret’. The men’s secret
society is called Poro and the women’s one is called Sande, Yaasi or
Bundu. The societies, in their initiation rites, prepare the young men and
women for adult life. The societies teach them sexual conduct, personal
hygiene, etiquette, the law-s of the land, beliefs and concepts of life,
warfare and other things. During the teaching, art forms are used as
audio-visual materials. Among them are songs, dance, poetry, stories,
masks, statuettes, costumes, hairstyles, beads and jewels.
Mende women spin cotton into threads. The men weave the threads
into indigenous cloth. The Mende practise many arts but it is their wood
carvings that are outstanding. The most beautiful carvings are the Bundu
masks and female figures called minsereh.
The Bundu mask is varied but has the following characteristics: it is like
a helmet into which the weaver puts her head; it shows female features;
the face is small and delicate and it is overshadowed by a high bulging
forehead, the nose is straight and small, the lips arc tightly closed and
are very close to the lower edge of the face - because of this there seems
to be no chin for the face; the eyes tire small and closed or they are
represented by slits; the face is often decorated with incised geometric
designs; the hair is arranged in a heavy crest and adorned with
emblems; there are spiral or ring-like bulges of fat around the neck - they
are signs of beauty and prosperity; the surface of the mask is smooth,
painted black and highly polished; die average height of the mask is
38 cm.

Usually there are two slits beside the jaws at the level of the mouth through
which the wearer of the mask sees out. Figure 23.1 shows examples of
Bundu masks from the Ghana National Museum, Accra. They reveal a
perfect balance between the triangular shape of the head and the chin
line. The concave nature of die face enhances its roundness. The wearer
of such masks is covered with a black costume of palm fibres and she
holds a sceptre carved of wood in her hand.
Fig. 23.1 Bundu masks. Mende. Sierra Leone
(wood; Ghana National Museum, Accra)

The Bambara
The Bambara live in Mali.
Theyarefarmerswhobelieve
in Faro, the creator of the
universe. All while things like
cloths, eggs, cowry shells
and animals are given to
Faro as gifts. The people
consult him through ora-
cles before undertaking any
project. There are about six
secret societies which rule
the lives of the
Bambara in their villages.
Among them are the Komo
and the Flankuru societies.
Each society has a particular
function. The Komo for
example, exercises judicial
powers and the Flankuru
supervises agricultural
activities. All men join these
societies.Boysagedbetween
7 and 12 years join the
Ntomo society which teaches
them good behaviour and
protects them from danger.
Fig. 23.2 Discharge-dyed cloth. Bambara.
Mali (cotton; indigo;)
The societies use arts in discharging their functions. The Bambara have
adhered strongly to the practice of their indigenous arts. The women
make discharge-dyed cloths of cotton. These are covered with beautiful
geometric patterns. The women use a dye bath of boiled bark or leaves,
hot iron as a tool, mud and local soap. Figure 23.2 shows a piece of
the cloth. The smith and the carver are the most respected and feared
people in the communities.

The smiths make beautiful ritual staffs representing antelope heads or
equestrian figures (people on horseback) and other objects from iron. The
carvers use the wood of the kapok tree. Their sculptures are blackened
with red- hot iron and then rubbed with shea butter. Finally, the works
arcedecorated with glass beads, rings, red jequirity beans, cowry shells
and strips of copper sheet. They are rarely painted. Among the carving
are wooden bowls with lids in female forms: ancestral and fertility
figures, cults objects like harps, stools and flutes, door latches, masks
and headdresses.
The Baule
The Baule people live in the central pan of Ivory Coast. They speak the
Akan language for they were once part of the Ashanti of Ghana. They
believe in the creator God, Alura, and many other gods. Ancestor beliefs
are of the greatest importance to the Baule. Their art forms are directed
to this purpose.
Among their pottery products is a remarkably beautiful pot with a human
head or form mounted on the lid. The pot is usually decorated with lineal
designs and low reliefs of mythical figures. They are well smoothed and
blackened. The pots are used as containers for shea butter. The Baule
anoint themselves with the butter for ancestral and other ceremonies.
The shea butter is believed to possess power and protect the people
against all invisible dangers. The Baule produce cotton cloth decorated
with patterns by the dyeing process. In this process, bast fibre is used in
lying the cloth before it is immersed in an indigo bath.

The Baule practise metal casting by lost wax technique. They produce
gold masks, jewels, pendants and oilier metal objects. Carving is a
popular art among the Baule, because of the great demand, especially
for statuettes. Carving is done by professionals. They use hardwood on
which they cut detailed designs with knives. The hardness of the wood
facilitates details and precision (i e. high polishing). The carvings receive
special treatment. After carving the works are dipped into mud and black
juices and then polished.
The works that leave the carver’s shop include doors with ancestral and
mythical figures or geometric patterns in low relief, drums. fly whisks,
handles, looms (heddle-pulleys), stools, thrones, rattle staffs, bowls,
ointment pots, household objects (e g. combs, ladles and others), masks
and various types of figures. There are two kinds of ancestor figures - small
and large. The large statues belong to the whole village or community.
The small ones are owned individually as personal ancestor figures. The
individual cherishes and cares for the statuette. It is brought to great
ceremonies so that it can be refilled with spiritual powers. A person
may also commission the sculptor for another type of figure. The Baule
believe that every person lived in heaven and had a mate before he or
she was born. The mate a person chooses on earth is not the same as
in heaven. A Baule sees the heavenly spouse in a dream. He describes
the spouse to the sculptor who carves a likeness in wood for the person
to keep. This practice accounts for the great demand for figures and the
large numbers in which they are produced.
The ancestor figure has certain characteristics: it shows careful execution
and superb craftsmanship: the figure is slightly tall and slim: some parts
of the face and the body are decorated with cicatrices, (little swellings):
the legs are rounded and bent at the knees; the thighs are short and the
feet are flat and close together; the arms rest gently on the stomach; the
torso is long with the stomach slightly bulging out; there is a protruding
cone on the stomach in the place of die navel; the head is large; the hair
is high, carefully structured and covered with lined patterns; the neck is
relatively long and cylindrical.

Fig. 23.3 An ancestor figure Baule. Ivory Coast; wood;
British Museum)
The beard on the male figure is plaited; the face is concave due to the
strong and rounded forehead; the eyebrows are emphatically curved to
join the downward flow of the nose; the nose is long and narrow: the
eyes are closed, they are either in the form of half-circles or shaped like
coffee beans; the mouth is small; the face is usually oval and delicate;
Figure 23.3 shows a typical Baule figure with these characteristics. Baule
masks have similar facial characteristics to the figure. Some masks have
a bird or two perching on them.

The Nok Culture
Nok was a tin mining village in Nigeria. The name Nok was given by
the archaeologist, Bernard Fagg, in 1943 to a culture of people who
lived in north and central Nigeria. This culture began 2000 years ago
and continued until 200 AD when it perished. Some remains, especially
terracotta sculptures, were discovered by Fagg at Nok. The people of
this ancient culture had a well-organized system of administration and
economy. They made iron tools and weapons. They also produced a
large number of beautiful sculptures.
These sculptures consist of realistic animal and non-realistic human
figures in terracotta, hollowed and fired over open t ire. The firing gave
the works a brownish colour with black marks. They were burnished with
smooth objects. The animals modelled included the head and full figure
of elephants, monkeys, rams and other quadrupeds. The largest number
represent snakes of all kinds. This suggests that the people practised a
snake cult. The human figures vary from small ones of less than 10 cm
in height, to large figures of 125 cm high and sometimes life-size.
The characteristics of the human figures are as follows. Rulers and
very important persons were made bigger and taller than attendants;
emphasis is on the head which is often depicted larger than life-size.
The ratio of the head to body is one to three or four whereas in nature
the ratio of the head to the body is about one to seven. This unnatural
proportion of the figure is known as African proportion of the figure
because it is a common characteristic of figures in African sculpture. The
head is usually cylindrical, spherical, ovoid or conical. There are various
elaborate hairstyles, some of which are still worn by people in this area
of Nigeria today. The pupils of the eyes are almost perforated, show-
ing large and perfectly round holes. The eyes often take the shape of
inverted triangles with strong outline in low relief. The upper lids of the
eyes are horizontal.

The mouth is thick-lipped,
sometimes open but
without showing teeth.
The nose is broad with
wide perforated nostrils.
The ears are exaggerated
in size and are unnatu-
rally positioned. They are
also pierced. The figure
often wears
jewels - bracelets, neck-
lets and anklets.
Owing to the
deformities or the
caricatural nature of
the heads and the
figures, scholars be-
lieve that they were used
for magico-medical
purposes, funeral cere-
monies, ancestor cults
or other religious rituals.
Figure 23.4 shows an
example of a Nok
terracotta head.
The sculptures of the Nok
culture represent one of
the oldest traditions of
sculpture in sub-Saharan Africa. Many characteristics of these sculptures
are found in the sculptures of other ethnic groups in West Africa. For
instance, the wood or stone carvings by the Sherbro of the Baga, Yoruba
and others in Sierra Leone show huge heads, short and bent legs which
are derived from the Nok culture. The hairstyles of the people of Ife also
derived from the Nok culture.
Fig. 23.4 Head, part of a figure (Nok culture:
terracotta)

Swazi
The Swazi live in the southern
part of Africa. They are farmers
and cattle rearers. Their wealth
is mainly from cattle. In their
indigenous religion, ancestors are
greatly respected. One important
work of art they produce is the
carved milkpot.
Fig. 23.5 shows a milkpot carved
from one piece of wood and
decorated with ridges and high
relief. Among the Swazi milking
was done ceremoniously, and milk
was stored in such pots and tested
by the chief or authorized persons
before it was used. These rituals of
milking and testing the milk gives
it ‘a blessing’, making the milk free
from ritual harm. The aesthetic
qualities and functions of the pots
are important to the Swazi.
Fig. 23.5 Milkpot. Swazi. Swaziland,
Wood. 48x38cm. Private collection,
London
Baluba
The Baluba live in eastern and southern parts of Zaire. They are farmers
who practise several arts. These include pottery and weaving. The Baluba
have a long tradition of carving. They have reputation and produce
many carvings. They practise matrilineal inheritance, and the women
play important roles in art and politics. This is why Baluba carvings are
predominantly female figures. The carvings include seated or kneeling
figures with bowls, figures that support small neckrests or stools and
free-standing figures.

The figures are characterized with remarkable aesthetic qualities. They
are rendered smooth and highly polished. They show roundness of form.
The legs of kneeling figures are elongated and folded back to form a
long and stable base for the big bowls often held between the knees.
The legs of standing figures are short and bent at the knees, while the
torsos are extremely elongated. The abdomen and the back are often
covered with patterns of scarification in high relief. The breasts are small,
conical and point downwards. The head is huge and is covered with a
large and elaborate hairstyle. The forehead is prominent and the nose
is often elongated.
1 What is the social significance of the Bundu mask?
2 What is African proportion of the human figure?
3 Compare the sculptures of the people of the Nok culture with the
sculptures of the Baule, Bambara or Mende.
4 Why are there similarities between the terracotta sculptures of the
Nok culture and the wood or stone sculptures of some ethnic groups
of West Africa?
References
FAGG. William. African Tribal Images. Cleveland Museum of Art. Cleveland.
1968
GILLON, Werner. A Short History of African Art. Penguin 8ooks Limited.
Harmondsworth. 1984. pp. 75-86. 116-20, 140-6
LENZINGER. Elsy. The Arts of Black Africa. Studio Vista Publishers. London, 1972.
pp. 40-53, 96-8, 108-14, 140-2
WINGERT, Paul. Primitive Art: Us Traditions and Styles. Oxford University Press.
New York, 1962, pp. 3-183

Attitudes to Ghanaian Arts
Objectives
Students should be able to understand:
• the relevance of Ghanaian arts in national development;
• the effects of positive and negative attitudes of jteople to the arts;
• the need to develop positive attitudes to Ghanaian arts;
• the range of possible careers in visual arts.
Works of art are usually appreciated for the feelings we have towards
them. These feelings derive from the meaning, uses and roles of the arts
in life. The extent of the feeling is determined by the attitude of people to
the arts. In this chapter we shall discuss the altitudes of Ghanaians to the
arts in their society. Since attitudes vary from one person to another, one
group to another, and one establishment to another, we can categorize
them as follows: altitudes of the government, the Ministry of Education,
educated Ghanaians, students, and the public.
The Government
There have been significant contributions of various governments of
Ghana in promoting the arts through its agencies. Among them, the
Ministry of Information promotes the arts through photo exhibitions,
films, publications, radio and television. The Museums and Monuments
Board exhibits and purchases visual arts such as paintings, ceramics,
textiles, sculptures and others. To some extent, the Museum patronizes
the arts and artists. One of the government’s major contributions to
the promotion of the arts was the establishment of the Arts Council of
Ghana to promote the arts. The Council organized several exhibitions
in and outside Ghana. It also organized cultural festivals in which art
was displayed in various forms. Two significant national art contests
were organized by the Council in 1968 and 1972. The Arts Council has
therefore been a major patron to Ghanaian artists.

The National Cultural Centre at Kumasi and die regional branches of
the Arts Council” were other agencies through which the government
promoted the arts. These centres have been reorganized into Centres
of National Culture yet another demonstration of the government’s
commitment to the development of the art. In addition to these, the
National Film Institute (NAFTI), the Symphony Orchestra and the Ghana
Dance Ensemble are oilier agencies of culture that continue to promote
the arts.
Other important national activities that promote the arts have been the
Ghana
International Trade Fair (1966), the International Tourism Fair
(Inter-tourism 1986), Industrial and Technology Fair (Indotech 1988),
Ghana International Furniture Fair (Gifex 1989) and the Pan African
Festival of Music (PAFAM 1990). These have been bold attempts by the
government to promote the arts, showing a very positive attitude. What
is left for the artists is to do is to unite and work as one national body. In
this regard, the Ghana Association of Visual Artists (GAVA) was formed
in October 1990 as the official body of artists to help preserve, transmit
and promote the visual arts.
Ministry of Education
Art has been an integral part of the school curriculum for many years.
The Ministry of Education organizes the preparation of art syllabuses
for schools. It provides some funding for art materials, especially in
pre-university educational institutions. Some art teachers complain
about inadequate funds for art. Funding of art programmes, like others,
depends on the state of the national economy at a given time. In some
schools, there are separate classrooms for art lessons. In the Education
Reform Programme, visual arts have been given more attention than
ever. One reason is that art is one of the most important subjects through
which creativity can be fostered.

Ghana needs creative citizens to help solve national problems. In this
regard, much credit should be given to the Ministry of Education for
making available a greater variety of vocational opportunities for visual
arts in senior
secondary schools.
The Educated Ghanaian
Some educated Ghanaians look down on art and artists. To them, people
who study art arc those who cannot cope with ‘more difficult subjects’
such as mathematics, science, medicine or engineering. Some would
persuade their children to study science rather than art. A few educated
Ghanaians buy art because they want some kind of decoration in their
homes. Some also like art but think that artefacts should be given to
them as gifts. Some people also believe that it is very valuable to offer
artefacts to important personalities as gifts. Thus, there are diversified
attitudes to art among the elite. These attitudes are genuine. The nature
of the old system of education was such that most of us lost faith in our
own arts. We did not have adequate knowledge about our own arts
in order to understand their values. The visual arts programme in the
Education Reform will help change our attitude to the arts.
Students
Some students in our old secondary schools believed that art was not an
important subject. For this reason, they would attempt to offer art for the
General Certificate Examination although they had not studied much of
it. Visual art in the senior secondary school provides a variety of career
opportunities in art. The subject is designed to allow students to find their
interests among the many art subjects. Besides, art activities provide the
student with education of the head, hand and heart. In this regard, art is
one of the important subjects worth studying in our schools.

The Public
In indigenous life, art is functional. Artefacts are objects which have
specific uses in everyday life. Their purpose may be religious, economic,
personal or political, so that our arts and life are inseparable.
Contemporary Western type art is therefore unpopular in our homes
because it has no immediate purpose. But today, formal Western-type
education has broken our art tradition, and the milieu of cultural
support that backed traditional education is lacking. Children have not
been apprentices anymore because they have to attend school. There-
fore a gap is created between school and the arts of our motherland.
The altitude of the older generation is that their artistic tradition must be
preserved while the younger generation believe that the old traditions
are inconsistent with the life of today. We must therefore work towards
establishing an artistic trend today that is basically ours, derived from
the roots of the past.
One fact is vitally important: if various sections of the public can un-
derstand the role of art in our society as well as in education, it will be
accorded the same value as other subjects. In this regard, we need to
examine the relationship between art, the individual, culture and the
public. There is a growing national concern about the importance of the
quality of life. This problem faces our education system with an obliga-
tion which makes it imperative that art should play a more dominant role
in Ghanaian education. Art in the school is both a body of knowledge
and a series of activities designed to meet specific goals. The sequence
and depth of these activities are determined by the nature of the subject
itself, the objectives of art programmes and the abilities and needs of
students. When an individual produces art and discusses it, he is using it
to help him understand himself and the world around him.
Individual identity, awareness, self-esteem and self-accomplishment are
imperative in our society for a healthy advancement. Amidst the kinds of
crisis we have today, every individual must be able to discriminate
visually and judge correctly. Art can provide each person with this
competence.

Through the ages, man has used art to build and enrich his environment.
Art helps us to understand visual qualities of the environment so that we
can improve upon it. Art therefore can contribute to the improvement of
personal and public life. Artists have the task of accepting this respon-
sibility because it is particularly important during this period of rapid
technological development and social change in Ghana. The visual arts
provide a record of the achievements of mankind, since the values and
beliefs of a people are uniquely manifested in the art forms they pro-
duce. A critical study of these forms can lead to a better understanding
of both past and present culture. It is imperative that we preserve, pro-
mote and transmit our cultural values through art. The usefulness of art
in any society cannot be underestimated.
Art provides several career opportunities in our society. Some of these
are:
• History of art and appreciation. Art critic, art editing, art historian,
curator, art director, art collector and art consultant.
• Basketry. Cane-work, rattan and bamboo works, straw and raffia
work, bulrush work, macrame plaited work, hat-making,
basket-making, mat-making.
• Pottery and ceramics. Brick and tile work, studio pottery, ceramic art,
cooler and flower pot work, industrial ceramics, ceramic murals,
architectural ceramics.
• Graphic design. Postage stamp designing, illustration, poster
designing, stage designing, greeting cards designing, logo
designing, printmaking, sign-writing, package designing,
calligraphy, rubber stamp
designing.
• Other careers and vocations are in leatherwork (shoes, bags,
wallets, upholstery, hats, shoes, belts and others); picture making
(drawing, painting, collage and mosaic); textiles (weaving, dyeing,
printing), beadwork, calabash and gourd work.

This book makes its own contribution by outlining procedures in crea-
tivity, design and appreciation. We must stress the role of our arts in the
socio-economic development of our country.
1 Why are the attitudes of some Ghanaians negative towards art?
2 Why must art be included in the school curriculum?
References
AMENUKE S.K. ‘Attitudes to Art and Art Education In Ghana’. Imago,
(Journal of College of Art). Kumasi. 1979
ANTUBAM. Kofi, Ghana’s Heritage of Culture. Koehler and Amelang.
Leipzig. 1963. pp. 199-201

Art Forms and their Functions
Objective
The student should be able to understand the uses of art in society.
In Chapters 12 and 13 we identified the indigenous and contemporary
art forms respectively. In this chapter we attempt to group functions of
the arts according to social needs and activities. The grouping will help
us to realize the effects of the arts in social relations and communication.
As art students, the grouping will enable us to assess the extent of the
need for art in society. It will also help us to view the extent of our social
responsibilities as future artists. The groupings according to the uses of
the arts are as follows:
Art as Gifts
Art is given as gifts to express love, appreciation and respect.
• Parents give dolls, toys and other artefacts to their children to express
their love.
• Married couples exchange art forms as gifts; friends and relatives
also give each other gifts in art forms. Such gifts may include all typos
of furniture (stools, scats, chairs, beds, tables and so on); jewels (rings,
beads, necklaces and other ornaments); pottery (bowls, vases, cups, din-
ner sets and others); silverware; footwear; costumes; glassware: carpets;
carvings; paintings; photographs; cards; music (on tapes, records and
compact discs); books and others. In some eases a house (an art form)
may be presented to a couple. Drama, dance and poetry may be
performed during marriage ceremonies. These gifts are to express and
strengthen the love, dignity and respect accorded to marriage.

• Friends or families exchange gifts of art works from time to time on
special occasions like birthdays, times of mishap (accident, sickness, loss
of personal effects), national celebrations (festivals, durbars, Christmas,
Easter, post-Ramadan and others). Here too, the gifts are many and they
are gestures of love, solidarity and understanding.
Nations, societies or ethnic groups may exchange art forms as gifts. In
diplomacy, works of art are often exchanged as gifts. These usually carry
symbolic messages that may be compliments, or act as pointers to the
intention of the donor state or group. In such eases the gifts are treas-
ured as priceless and they express dignity. Among such gifts are medals,
national or indigenous costumes, emblems, statues, paintings respect
and others.
Art for Religious Purposes
Art is used to create and promote effective environments for worship
and spiritual practices. The history’ of art amply demonstrates this. The
various religious groups have built places of worship such as mosques,
churches,
cathedrals, temples, altars, shrines and others. The inside and outside
of these places arc often decorated with paintings, sculptures, furniture,
fabrics, carpets, beautiful metalwork and so on. Religion teaches belief in
supernatural powers, offers people an interpretation of existence and a
senseofsecurity.Imagesorsymbolsareusedtorepresentthesupernatural
powers. Effective teaching and indoctrination are done through vast lit-
eratures, sacred myth, music, dance and rites. Costumes are used in
religious rites to identify people, and to indicate hierarchy and status.
In some religions art forms are banned. For example, Islam and Chris-
tianity tried to destroy the ‘idols’ of indigenous people or banned their
use of the idols. Islam introduced new’ forms of architecture and music,
costumes, writings, stories and culture.
Arts Forms and Functions

Art in Politics
Political systems often rely on art for effective communication of an
ideology and in administrative and military areas. Art is used to give
character, identity and status to individuals, groups and institutions.
Among the works of art that serve political purposes are banners, flags,
uniforms, music, posters, badges, masks, photographs, logos, paintings,
statues, anthems, pledges and literature. All these help in identifying types
of political systems; in providing a sense of belonging; communication;
entertainment for relaxation or propaganda; expressing loyally to the
political party; and administration. In inter-state or ethnic politics, the
power and wealth of a state or ethnic group were often shown to another
through diplomatic contacts. Emissaries’ costumes and their ranks show
the respect or lack of it that their state or group had for them. Respect,
loyally and love arc shown to a nation’s flag, coat of arms and pledges.
Art in Commerce
Works of art are traded or exchanged for financial gain and cordial
relations. Abuse and unfair exploitation of works of art can result in
lawsuits involving financial exchange. People can invest in collecting
works of art. The art works are collected by people and kept for some
time and sold later for higher prices. There are people who buy and sell
continuously. They are known as art dealers. There are scholars who cam
their living by writing and criticizing art, artists and the public’s attitude
to art. They are art critics and historians. Works of art of great value can
be mortgaged. They can also serve as national treasures.

Art for Aesthetic Purposes
Works of art provide pleasure and cultivate a sense of critical judgement.
The values we attach to beautiful works of art and the pleasure we derive
from them motivate us to collect them for prestige. Aesthetics in art
sharpens our sense of appreciation and thereby reduces our urge for
wanton destruction.
Art in Agriculture
Artefacts are employed to promote farming, fishing, hunting and
harvesting and to induce fertility of the soil, animals and people. In
indigenous societies, works of art in the form of music, dance, costumes,
statues and others are also used in these ways. The patron gods of the
various agricultural
activities are evoked for their assistance. Shango may be invoked for rain,
Asaase Yaa may be appealed to for a good harvest. Post-harvest fes-
tivals are organized to thank the gods. Pottery, basketry and archi-
tecture provide the means of portage and storage. In contemporary
societies, agricultural produce is displayed in beautifully designed
packages and baskets. Advertising of agricultural equipment, machinery
and chemicals is done through photography, painting, illustration,
lettering; all forms of graphic design.
Art in Education
Education may he purveyed and promoted at all levels through the arts.
Teaching and learning are done through teaching aids or audio-visuals.
Works of literature are works of art learning a craft or an artistic
discipline can lead to a career.

The uses of all the arts and their effects on our society cannot be dealt
with exhaustively here. There are several other areas in which the arts
contribute to society, such as the military, the police force, the judiciary,
science, health and medicine. The arts and their functions seem insepa-
rable from life in both indigenous and contemporary societies.
1 What are the uses of the arts in the military, the police, the
judiciary, health and medicine?
2 Compile a table indicating art forms and artefacts used in
Christianity, Islam and the indigenous African religions. Are there
any similarities between the arts as used by these religions?

Advance Design
Objectives
• derive ideas from the environment, and make two-dimensional
designs with them;
• design and construct three-dimensional forms.
In Chapter 17, we discussed basic concepts of designing and making
articles. We also learnt about developing ideas from natural and man-
made shapes in the environment. In this chapter, we shall further explore
design in two- and three- dimensional forms.
Let us begin with a natural object, for example, okro. Explore it by
looking at it and handling it. Observe its texture, colour, weight and
shape. Is it rough, smooth, long, short, light or heavy? Its shape may
remind you of an idea or object. Study it carefully. Look for variations in
its shape, colour, texture and structure. You can develop new ideas from
the shape of the okro. Cut part of it to change its outer shape and size;
replace the cut part with your own shapes; add your own texture.
Explore the features of the okro in detailed drawings. Do not work
towards a preconceived shape or design. Make ds many drawings as
you can arranging and rearranging the shapes. Cut the okro in half and
make sketches of the cut pieces. Develop new ideas by combining vari-
ous shapes, textures or features of the okro in different drawings. Select
one drawing that appeals to you from which an article can be made.
From this experience you will realize that it is possible to begin the de-
sign process by exploring ideas or shapes from the environment and
creating new ideas from them. These ideas can then be transformed
into articles of various kinds. This method of designing is important in
our country where we need to design articles from materials available in
our environment.

Fig. 26.1 Development of ideas from okro
Practical work 1
1 Observe and make sketches of as many natural and man-made
objects as you can. Explore their features in detail through drawings.
Develop ideas from their shapes and forms for articles to make.
2 Identify common problems in your community, for example, women
need containers for fish, groundnuts, millet, guinea com and tiger nuts
in the market. We also need bowls to serve ‘face-the-wall’ or kokonte
in a chop bar. Design shapes of the containers and bowls. Note that the
designs are created to solve problems. Your design must therefore be
suitable for the uses to which your article will be put.

Three-dimensional Design
In a three-dimensional design, shape and volume are important
features. Shape indicates length and width; while volume consists of
length, width and height. Volume and shape are similar in the same sense
as a square and a cube or circle and sphere. In three-dimensional design,
our attention is often drawn to- positive and negative space. The object
or form may occupy positive space while the surrounding area becomes
negative. These conditions may be reversed as we consider the ‘design’
of a solid form. If we deliberately focus our attention on both types
of space, we find that they are equally important in three-dimensional
forms. Artists shift their attention from time to lime in order to study visual
forms of objects clearly.
Shapes may appear to be solid and opaque; volumes may be block-like or
transparent and open. In everyday life we are concerned with the shapes
and forms of the three-dimensional objects we use. For example, our
simple tools such as hoes, cutlasses, knives, gouges; our containers such
as baskets, pots, bags; our utility objects such as furniture, household
utensils, and many others can be designed to meet specific needs. Our
sculptures in public places and the home should be designed to meet
our needs.
Three-dimensional Constructions
We can construct a frame by means of cardboard, empty cartons, pack-
ing cases and plywood. Rectangular shapes of a suitable solid material
- cardboard, plywood or clay slab may be cut and used to construct a
solid frame based on horizontal and vertical relationships. The shapes
may be varied and arranged in a variety of planes. The structure may
have different surfaces. There should be adequate spaces between the
shapes so that we can see through them. Note that the solid construction
is an object in space, and that you can walk around it or view it from
different sides.
Advance Drawing

Materials that may be used in constructing three-dimensional forms are:
wood, clay, bamboo, raffia, straw, rattan, sawdust, metal, paper and
cement. As was discussed in Chapter 17, it is important to design the
form before it is constructed.
Practical work 2
1 Form a group with one or two other students. Collect a variety of
objects - sticks, rope, boards, mats, cardboard, plywood, nails, and
others. Build a structure in the open applying several skills - nailing,
tying, wrapping, binding, gluing and so on.
2 Prepare clay slabs and build a structure with open spaces through it.
3 Collect pieces of wood and glue; tie and nail them into a structure
of different surfaces. You may paint some of the surfaces and texture
them.
Fig. 26.2 Three-dimensional design work by Dorothy A. Agbo

Advanced
Composition and Drawing
Objectives
Students should be able to compose pictures:
• from objects;
• from scenery;
• based on expression of ideas from memory.
At this stage your composition should be done with simple shapes,
whatever the subject: landscape, objects or figures. In a drawing, line
may be used to depict the shapes. If you paint, the shapes should be
in simple colour values. It is advisable to work from the centre of the
shapes outwards to the edges rather than drawing or painting outlines
and filling them in. In colour compositions, three tones - light, middle
and dark - are adequate.
In the compositions, pay attention to the qualities of design - values, lines,
colour, balance, focus, texture and others. For example, symmetrical and
asymmetrical balance may be considered. In symmetrical balance, one
aims for even or similar distribution of visual elements. Asymmetrical
balance is the equal distribution of unequal features within a picture.
Colour, shape, texture and other visual elements of the picture should
be balanced. In addition, certain elements may be focused upon or
emphasized. The artist may want a viewer to pay attention to a particular
feature in the picture; this may be colour, shape, texture or the rendering
of a form. Endless varieties of composition can be created by altering
the scale of your composition or moving the focal point of attention to
another part of the picture.
The relative size of forms, hues and values may convey visual messages
to the viewer. Where elements of a picture are very similar, shape, colour,
value or size may be used to change the focus or centre of interest. When
one element is made to dominate in the picture, emphasis is created.

Practical work 1
1 Collect a variety of shapes - large, small, textured, short, angular,
rounded, narrow, wide - from paper, cardboard, tree bark or fabric.
Arrange them on a flat surface such that there is balance, contrast,
rhythm, variety and a focal point of interest.
2 Make drawings from the completed work in (1) above.
Fig. 27.1 Composition work by S. K. Amenuke.

Composition from Objects
We often arrange objects and make drawings from them. No hard rules
can be made about how to arrange the objects; but some basic principles
should be followed. Consider the sizes of the objects in relation to the
size of the picture area. If the objects are large and many, it may be
necessary to reduce the scale of their sizes so that their shapes can Fit
proportionately into your picture area. The objects may be varied: high,
low, short, long, cylindrical, angular, broad, narrow, large, small or very
small. A selection representing these varieties may be more convincing
than a group of similar shapes, sizes, colours or textures.
Compositions may be made according to themes or related ideas. For
example, a composition may be based on toilet articles - bath soap,
sponge, tin of powder, toothpaste and brush, towel and so on. A group
of objects for a composition may relate to a farmer’s articles: cutlass,
hoc, knife, footwear, farm dress and so on. The theme for another
composition may be fruits oranges, bananas, garden eggs, mangoes,
pawpaws, pineapples, pears and so on. Themes based on all kinds of
aspects of life can form suitable subjects for composition.
Practical work 2
1 Make a series of compositions based on a variety of themes such as
tools, books, artist’s materials, kitchen utensils, toilet articles, cleaning
materials. For each theme, collect the relevant articles and arrange them
on a flat surface. To do this, take into account the principles of composition
discussed in this chapter. Pay attention to the space between one object
and another, as well as around each one. The objects must be seen as
one united group and not a collection of isolated objects. Note also that
the objects should be organized and arranged, not just thrown about
anyhow.
Advance Composition and Drawing

2 Make several drawings from the objects you have arranged in (1)
above.Look for variety, rhythm, balance, contrast, harmony, unity, points
of interest and other visual qualities in your drawing.
Composition from Scenery
Eventsanddifferentkindsofsceneryformexcitingthemesforcomposition.
Landscape, seascape, market, townscape, celebrations and ceremonies
are suitable subjects for compositions. The events and scenes serve as
direct sources of ideas for the compositions. This means that you should
witness the events or scenes and compose pictures from them.
Composition from scenery may involve the use of horizon, and depiction
of forms in perspective and three-dimensional space. In this kind of
composition, objects and forms in the picture may be depicted in ways
in which viewers can recognize the forms in the picture. This kind of
composition may include human beings and animals. You need to have
a large reservoir of themes for the many compositions you can make.
Remember that the principles of design apply to composition from
scenery also.
Practical work 3
Make a series of compositions based on scenes that you have witnessed.
The work may be drawn or painted. A variety of media - charcoal, pencil,
crayon, paint or others - may be used.

Composition from Memory
This kind of composition gives you the opportunity to use your imagination
and memory to create pictures. You may compose a picture from a scene
that you have witnessed previously but which you have remembered. It
may also be a scene which you have imagined for the first time. For
example, you are told a story of how the monkey was once a priest
wearing cowries, beads and a straw hat. You may immediately imagine
this monkey in a pulpit preaching to a congregation of elephants.
Sometimes the theme for such composition may be based on abstract
symbols, proverbs and wise sayings. For example, you may compose a
picture based on canoe, adinkra, stool, umbrella top, linguist’s staff or
colour symbols. This kind of composition is non-objective. This means
that the forms in the picture arc not drawings or paintings of actual
objects or forms, but that they represent ideas. This is the reason they
are known as abstract works of art.
Composition from imagination may also be a means of personal
expression. This may be done through drawing or painting. You then
move beyond the simple description or activity of conveying information.
We draw with our feelings when what we draw makes meaning to us.
Expressive drawing or painting indicates what we feel about an event
or situation rather than the mere physical appearance of things. The
scenes and events we are familiar with can be changed into strange
compositions or pictures.
Imagineyourselfwearingamaskwhichispaintedinstrongcomplementary
colours; with bones, animal teeth, feathers and hair attached to it.
Certainly, your drawing or painting will indicate what you feel about the
mask.

As we listen to different types of music, we have different feelings: sad-
ness, excitement, joy or others. Your drawing or painting of a thunder-
storm will suggest what the storm does. A dream may be a good subject
for a composition. Other people may also show their feelings about
events. Their expressions of these feelings can form subjects for our
compositions.
Practical work 4
1 Listen to some sounds - music or noise of any kind. Compose a
picture to depict some aspect of the sounds.
2 Make a composition based on a sad or happy event.
3 Compose a picture based on a dream you have had recently.
References
ANGELOCH. Robert. Basic Oil Painting Techniques. Grosset and
Dunlop. New York, 1970. pp. 11-15
CLEMENT, Robert, ThoArt Teacher’s Handbook. Century Hutchinson.
London. 1987, pp. 1

Advanced Colour Work
Objectives
• explain and describe colour relationships in the environment;
• harmonize unrelated colours;
• explain the need to harmonize unrelated elements;
• explain colour harmonics in their work and other people’s works.
Observe the colour of natural and man-made objects. You will notice a
large variety of colours in numerous tones. Nature has carefully mixed
colours into pleasant harmonies. For example, stones have different
tones of colours. Leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are of different colours.
Animals and insects are decorated in different colours. Some of these
colours are complementary, some are opposites; they may be intense,
dull, bright, light and dark.
Collect some natural and man-made objects and make colour studies
from their patterns. Observe a cluster of flowers in bright sunlight or
rain falling on coloured objects, and make colour studies from them.
You will note that colour changes with our environmental conditions.
For example, we can make colour studies of pebbles in water, trees,
buildings and coloured objects in the rain, objects at dawn and in the
evening, the sky at dawn and in the early evening, objects with strong
lights on them, objects viewed through coloured glasses and so on.
You will observe that it can be pleasant to look at these colours in our
environment. You will also notice that some of the colours are opposite
or complementary, yet nature has harmonized them.
As you paint with all sorts of colour mixtures and combinations, you will
understand that it is pleasing to harmonic colour and other elements of
art. This idea is important to us in our country because it reminds us of
our need to develop friendly relations with other people in order to live
in peace and harmony.

Practical work 1
1 Select two contrasting colours, for example blue and yellow, red and
black, green and white and so on. Paint one colour on white paper and
paint the contrasting colour around it. Observe the effect of one colour
on the other.
2 Paint different colour shapes on white paper. Make colour mixtures
to harmonize them.
Painting
Before you embark upon a more advanced piece of work, you need to
plan your design. Place the main elements of your picture in position,
in simple colour sketches. To cover a large area rapidly with a wash of
colour, apply the paint thinly with a flat, large brush, foam or rag. You
can then apply other tones of colour over the flat areas to indicate detail.
It is not advisable to complete one small unit of the picture before going
on to the next. Sometimes, you may want to paint thickly from the start.
In this case you must be sure where to paint each colbur mixture.
Colour work can be done with a variety of media - crayons, oil pastels,
water colour, powder colour, poster colour, colour pencils and felt pens.
Experiment with what is available to you in order to gain some degree of
mastery in the use of your media’. One way of studying colour is to study
colour work done by other people. You could try observing other people’s
paintings first; then try observing natural or man-made coloured objects,
putting them away and trying to make mixtures of colours to paint the
objects from memory.
Advance Colour Work

Any subject may be painted - objects, figures or scenery. There are
no hard rules about painting. You can develop your own style. You do
not have to paint like anybody else. What is important is your basic
knowledge about what colour is, and how to make and use it. You also
need to practise painting with colour in order to master it. Remember that
colour is not used only in painting. In your printmaking, poster design
and sign-writing, colour is used differently but it is still very important
Practical work 2
Make a colour composition from a group of objects or fruits, or from
scenery.
Body Painting
During certain ceremonies in Ghana, women paint their bodies with
white and green patterns to rejoice for a year of plenty. This happens
during part of the annual Homowo of the Ga. Also, during birthday
celebrations for twins among the Ga and Fante, the twins at one point
paint their bodies with white clay. Indigenous priests and priestesses in
Southern Ghana, Ashanti and
Volta Regions also paint their bodies with white clay during certain rites.
While the colour green symbolizes growth, and white stands for joy,
victory and happiness, green and white combined signify a bountiful
harvest. Where blue and white are tinted with red, yellow and black, the
combination stands for complete sanctity or cleanliness. The corpse of a
person who commits suicide is painted with grey (ash) to ‘disgrace’ the
body for a shameful act. The Asafo groups often paint their faces with
combinations of black and red colours during celebrations and rites.
The black is dedicated to the spirit of the dead, while red signifies blood
relations. This use of colours by the Asafo reflects the violent, aggressive,
war-like behaviour of the groups.
Advance Colour Work

Red and yellow painted together on the body symbolize life and its
power over sickness. Variations of these colour combinations may appear
on the body of young girls going through puberty initiation rites.
Other uses of colour in Ghana have been outlined in Chapter 20. Com-
paring these ideas about colour with those of other cultures, we find that
colour in indigenous Ghana is used according to its meaning. This idea
must be kept in mind in your colour work. In this way, we will be able to
find new meanings for the colours we use in modern life.
Practical work 3
Compose and paint pictures using Ghanaian ideas of colour. Suggest
meanings to your paintings.
Reference
ANTUBAM. Kofi. Ghana’s Heritage of Culture. Koehler and Amelang.
Leipzig. 1963. pp. 82-86
Advance Colour Work

Roman Lettering and Calligraphy
Objectives
• understand the importance and uses of Roman lettering in
communication design;
• use lettering to express feelings;
• understand the need for qualities of patience and precision in
lettering.
Roman Lettering
Roman lettering has been used in communication design for many
centuries. The Roman letter forms ore said to be derived from the
inscription on a monument in Rome. This monument was a column built
by Emperor Trajan of Rome in about AD 114. Therefore, the Roman
capital letter forms became the source from which many later styles of
lettering were formed. The small letters were designed later to resemble
the same design as in the capitals. The basic structure of all stylish
types of Roman lettering is recognizable as that of the original forms.
There are simplifications such as the even stroke letters without tails and
nourishes. These are the sanserif variations (see page 95). Those styles
which maintain the tails are the serif or Roman letters. This stylish let-
tering can be identified not only by the serifs but also by the beautiful
combinations of thin and thick strokes.
The quality of any lettering depends on its legibility, arrangement or
layout, beauty of forms and the knowledge and experience of the
artist. Whatever lettering you do, it must be easy to read. You can achieve
a legible quality in your lettering if you remember to make your letter
forms simple and distinct. The thinness or thickness of your strokes will
also determine the quality of your work. Finally, you have to comply with
the basic rules in spacing letter forms in each word. Also, the correct
compactness of each word in relation to another will result in a unified
look.

Italic Lettering
A slanting version of Roman and other letters is termed italic. The early
italics were cursive (flowing) only in the lower case. This can be related
to modern formal handwriting. The capital italics were oblique Roman
letters. It is said that this kind of lettering was designed for printing as
early as the year AD 150 in Venice. Since that time up to the present day,
italic lettering has been used for writing and printing books, and various
short messages on greeting cards. Christmas cards, complimentary
cards, and in many other decorative printed messages. It is also used to
emphasize important words or points in texts. Books printed in italics are
less expensive as the condensed and compactness of the letters saves
space.
If we look at any italic lettering, we will see that the slam is about ten
degrees from the position of a perpendicular stroke. Each letter form is
made with thinner strokes and the shape is narrower than in non-italic
letters. For example, all circular letter forms become ellipses; and all
other letter forms are also narrower proportionately. The italic lettering
style looks nicer, more condensed and closely fitted than any upright
lettering style.
Characteristics of Roman Letters
In the original Roman letter forms, there are some peculiarities of which
you should take note. They can be grouped into narrow, full and wide
letter forms. These relative widths are only meant to be a guide to correct
proportion. All strokes of the straight letters should conform to either
wide or narrow stems. The narrow strokes should be about half the
width of the wide ones. Exceptions arc the curved letters such as O C Q
D and others. Their narrow portions are slightly thinner than the narrow
parts of straight stroke letters, such as F E and Z. The wide portion of
a curved letter slopes gently into its narrow’ part to avoid making the
curved letters appear heavy. The serifs on each letter arc meant to give
stability and finish.

Therefore, they must be made to form continuous flowing lines into it.
Figure 29.1(a) shows examples of Roman letterforms in upper and low-
ercases. Compare the structure, shape and size of these to the other
forms of letters in this book.
Today, in modem typography, other combinations of letter forms are
being introduced bearing the names of their inventors or their countries of
origin. These even stroke letter forms, with even stroke serifs (the block/
slab serif letter forms) include many other innovations; for example,
the styles known as Egyptian, Rockwell and Bembo. You do not need to
study all types of lettering styles before you can become a good letterings
mist. The few lettering styles that you know must be practised thoroughly.
You will acquire enough skill through patience and practice to achieve
accuracy and precision in lettering.
Importance and Uses
The use of Roman letters in communication design cannot be
over-emphasized. They have been used for centuries to communicate
information to the literate public. Today, these letterings are still of great
importance to the community. We still express many ideas through them.
We print books, posters, Christmas cards, birthday greeting cards, success
cards, notices, signboards, billboards, signposts.
We also keep records of our past and present events in lettering. We can
affect the feelings of people through the style of lettering we use; this is
particularly obvious in advertising material.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU-
VWXYZ&
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w w x y z
Fig. 29.1 Examples of some letter forms A-Z: (a) Roman (lower and upper cases)
(b) Engrossing (c) Block serifs (d) Old English (c) Gothic initials (j) Text
Fig. 29.2 Examples of calligraphy or pen lettering styles
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Practical work
1 Observe carefully different notices written on different surfaces, for
example: signboards, mile posts, billboards, road signs, lorries, buses,
T- shirts. etc. Note down the following:-
• Lay out — setting and arrangement of letters.
• Legibility and clarity — how bold are the writings? How far away
can they be seen? and read?
• Colour — what hue or hues are used, their suitability and harmony
with the background.
• Different letter styles used.
• Combination of pictures and letters in the notice.
2 Make a lettering pen from straws or bamboo sticks and use it with
any ink to write words on greeting cards, posters and display cards.
3 Make a notice for a Drama Club in your school, staling the
important information on what, where, and when a play is to be
staged.
4 Write an attractive passage to be hung on a wall of a room, using
your practical knowledge and skill in calligraphy. You may use suitable
extracts from the Bible or Koran

Screen Printing
Objectives
• develop Skills in composing designs and transferring them on to
stencils for printing;
• develop skills for conveying simple and precise messages in design;
• prepare screens using various methods;
• register a screen on fabric for printing.
Screen printing is founded upon the basic principle of stencil printing.
Silk screen printing is one of the oldest printmaking methods known.
The method is used extensively by printing houses for the production of
cards, calendars, posters, fabrics and so on. In screen printing, all the
areas that are not desired to print are blocked leaving the open pans of
the design for the dye or ink to penetrate. Whereas in block printing the
colour and pattern are stamped on to the surface with blocks, in screen
printing the colour is forced through specially prepared stencils. A useful
aspect of this process is that work can be done on surfaces such as pa-
per, wood, metal, glass, textile, rubber and plastic with ease.
Materials
The essential tools and materials consist of wooden frames, a suitable
mesh such as silk, nylon, terylene or organdie. Others are a squeegee,
filling or masking material, printing paste and stenciling tools.
Wooden frame
Soft wood such as wawa should be used to allow easy penetration of
stapling pins for holding the mesh. The frame should always be bigger
than the image or pattern to be printed to allow enough space to act as
an ink duct, or screen reservoir. Uncovered picture frames make ideal
screens.

Screen Cloth
The types of mesh suitable for screen printing are organdie, nylon,
terylene or silk. It is necessary to know the mesh count because the
coarser meshes are good for fabric printing while the finer meshes are
most suitable for paper, plastic and other less absorbent surfaces. For
fine work such as design with delicate lines and minute details, good
quality silk or terylene is recommended.
Squeegee
This is the device used to pull the printing paste across the screen in
order to make a print. The basic type consists of a flat piece of wood on
which a thick rubber blade has been fixed. The squeegee should always
be slightly shorter than the screen frame. Different sixes of squeegees
may be purchased but a neatly cut rubber sandal sole can be slotted into
a grooved edge of a flat piece of wood and used as a squeegee.
Printing paste
The printing paste should be slightly, sticky, a consistency that would easily
pass through the mesh during printing. For prints on paper, water-base
colours mixed with cold water paste or cooked cassava starch are useful.
It is necessary to use fast fabric printing dyes so that they do not wash
off or fade. Some fabric dyes are prepared ready for use. Others have
to be mixed with some chemicals as well as thickening agents. Examples
are dylon, indosol, helizarin and procion.
Screen Printing

Covering the frame
It is necessary to cover the wooden frame with organdie or any suitable
screen cloth. It is essential to ensure that the warp and weft threads of
the organdie or mesh run parallel to the sides of the frame. The cloth
may be fixed by stapling or with a strong adhesive. For the stapling
method, it is necessary to obtain a stapling gun. Using the selvedge of
the organdie as a guide, staple two adjacent sides. Stretch the organdie
diagonally and staple the other two sides to make it drum-tight. Intervals
between staple pins should be as close together as possible. The stapled
areas should be reinforced with gummed paper. When the screen cloth
is firmly stretched on the frame, it should be washed with warm soapy
water to remove any dirt or grease before it is used.
The frame may be covered with an open-weave or any kind of loosely
constructed meshed material, for example, curtain net or lace.
Practical work 1 (Printing from natural objects)
1 Collect natural objects such as leaves, flowers and grass and press
them as flat as possible.
2 Make a wooden frame of a reasonable size and stretch any suitable
mesh on it.
3 Arrange the natural objects on the printing surface.
4 Place the screen on top of the objects with the screen cloth touching
the printing surface.
5 Put a little printing paste in the ink duct.
6 Using a squeegee pull the printing paste from the top to the bottom.
7 Lift the screen carefully with one hand as the other hand holds the
printing paper.
8 Wash and dry the screen.
Note: The same screen can be used for more exercises on printing.
Screen Printing

Practical work 2 (Waxed screen prints)
Wax may be used to block certain parts of the mesh in order to create a
pattern.
1 Rub candle wax or black wax crayon over the outer surface of the
screen.
2 Rub in a vertical, horizontal, zigzag or any suitable direction.
3 Put a sheet of printing paper on the printing table.
4 Place the screen on the printing paper with the outer surface
touching the paper.
5 Place a little printing paste in the screen and pull the paste with the
squeegee across the screen.
6 Lift the screen carefully from the print.
7 Wash the screen immediately after printing to prevent any blockage
in the mesh.
8 The wax in the mesh can melt with hot water.
Fig. 30.1 Prints from natural objects

Fig. 30.2 Waxed screen process and prints
Practical work 2 (Waxed screen prints)
Wax may be used to block certain parts of the mesh in order to create
a pattern.
1 Rub candle wax or black wax crayon over the outer surface of the
screen.
2 Rub in a vertical, horizontal, zigzag or any suitable direction.
3 Put a sheet of printing paper on the printing table.
touching
the paper.
5 Place a little printing paste in the screen and pull the paste with the
squeegee across the screen.
6 Lift the screen carefully from the print.
7 Wash the screen immediately after printing to prevent any
blockage in the mesh.
8 The wax in the mesh can melt with hot water.

Practical work 3
1 Make a suitable design on paper and transfer it on to the outer
surface of the screen.
2 Put pieces of wax in a small bowl to melt over a low heat.
(Note: the heat should be constant to keep, the wax in a liquid
state.)
3 Place the screen on a pile of newspapers with the outer surface
upwards.
4 Dip a paint brush into the wax and paint the negative areas of
the design on to the screen.
5 Place the screen in a safe place for the wax to harden and dry
thoroughly.
touching the paper.
7 Put a little printing paste in the screen and print.
8 Lift the screen from the print and wash the screen to prevent block-
age.
Note: Wax may be removed for the screen to be used again.
Practical work 4
1 Prepare screens with loosely constructed fabric such as lace and
curtain
net and make experimental prints.
2 Select a theme and make a design. Print the design with any
combination of printing styles.
3 Make prints from a composition of objects of different sizes.
Screen Printing

Paper Stencils
Paper stencils and paper doyleys make interesting prints. Stencils can be
cut from newsprint, cartridge paper, newspaper or any printed paper.
The shapes can be drawn and cut out with a cutting tool or torn out.
After the shapes are cut away, a stencil is obtained. The cut out areas are
the spaces through which the ink is forced by the action of the squeegee
to penetrate the weave of the screen cloth in order to form the image on
the printing paper. Paper doyleys may be used as stencils for printing.
A special stencil paper can also be bought and used. The most popular
paper of this type is known as ‘Profilm’. This is a thin paper treated with
a chemical called gelatine. It is transparent and can therefore be placed
on a design in order to trace the shapes to be printed. The shapes are
cut out with a stencil knife or razor blade. The stencil is then fixed to the
screen with the gelatine surface in contact with the screen. The screen
cloth is ironed causing the gelatine to melt and adhere to the screen.
There are also self-adhesive paper stencils which may be purchased and
used.
Practical work 5
1 Stretch the organdie drum-tight on the frame.
2 Cut a sheet of paper large enough to cover the outer surface of the
screen.
3 Draw suitable shapes on the paper.
4 Cut or tear out the shapes from the paper.
5 Cut the negative form of the stencil as a hole so that it can be
printed.
6 Fix the stencil onto the outer surface of the screen with an adhesive
tape.
7 Put a clean sheet of printing paper on the table.
8 Place the screen on the printing paper.
9 Put a little printing ink inside the screen.
10 Use a squeegee to pull the ink across the screen.
11 Lift the screen carefully.
Screen Printing

Repeating the Design
When making a design which will be repealed several times during
printing, it is necessary to plan the design in such a way that one repeat
will dove-tai 1 into the other to avoid gaps. Simple full repeal, side
by side, half-drop or counterchange repeats may be planned from the
beginning. Variations within a design may be done by changing the
direction of the screen while printing. In this way a simple repeat can
become pan of a larger composite one.
Transferring the Design on to the Screen
If a design is to be printed over a long period of time or if it has delicate
lines and minute details, a more suitable method of masking the screen
should be used. Simple full repeat, side by side or half-drop repeats
may be planned from the beginning. The design should be transferred
on to the screen by blocking the negative areas with a suitable chemical
such as shellac or wood lacquer or by the photographic method. An
alternative method to paper stencils is the filled screen method of wood
lacquer.
Fig. 30.3 Repeating the design

Shellac or wood lacquer screens
Instead of using paper shapes to mask the screen, wood lacquer is mixed
to the right consistency with thinner and painted on the non-printing
areas of the screen. Shellac with methylated spirit as solvent can also be
used in the same way as lacquer. Lacquer screens are fast drying and
can last for a considerable length of time unlike the paper stencil which
will become saturated with printing paste and disintegrate within a short
time. Another advantage of this medium is that it is possible to achieve
fairly detailed designs.
Practical work 6 (Making the lacquer screen)
1 Prepare a screen of a suitable size.
2 Make a suitable design which will repeat perfectly when printed over
a large area.
3 Centre the design on the screen by indicating with a pencil line on
the screen.
4 Mask off the remaining areas with gummed paper on both outside
and inside the screen.
5 Give the gummed paper a coating of lacquer to seal the edges
properly.
6 Transfer the design on to the screen indicating the areas which should
be masked.
7 Put a little lacquer in a small bowl and mix it with thinner to a
flowing consistency.
8 Dip a paint brush into the lacquer and paint the negative areas of
the screen; allow it to dry.
9 Give it a second coating to ensure that there are no pinholes where
the printing paste will penetrate during printing.
10 Allow the lacquer to dry thoroughly.
11 Test for print holes by putting the screen on the bare printing table
and rubbing powder along the surface of the design.
(Note; the powder will penetrate the open areas of the screen and
register on the table.)
12 Lift the screen, examine the print and seal all pinholes, if any, with
lacquer.
Screen Printing

Fig. 30.4 Registration of screen and printing
Registration of Fabric, Table and Screen
An ideal printing table should have a waterproof, plastic or rubber
covering. A suitable adhesive is used to fix the fabric on to the table.
Adhesives from local plants may be used for this purpose if gum arabic
is not available. The adhesive is prepared to a thin consistency and
spread on a clean table by means of a squeegee. The adhesive is left
to dry thoroughly after which the fabric is ironed to fix it on to the table.
It is essential to have the fabric absolutely smooth without creases or
wrinkles in order to achieve good results.

The screen should then be registered accurately. This is done by plac-
ing the paper design on the fabric so that it fits exactly into one of the
spaces. If lines along the edges of the design are extended, they should
coincide with the crosses. The screen is placed on top of the design and
marks are again made on the outside of the screen also to coincide with
the crosses.
The next step is the table registration. This is done by measuring and
marking out the repeat size along the length and breadth of the fabric.
Two people are required to do this activity.
The necessary materials are a thin string or thread and coloured chalk.
A length of string is rubbed with the coloured chalk and stretched taut
across the fabric with the ends touching the marks. The coated siring is
lifted upwards with the thumb and forefinger and allowed to spring back
on to the table leaving a guideline. This process is continued until the
whole table is marked into spaces for each unit print.
Printing
The printing process involves two people. One person holds the screen
firmly in position while the other pulls the printing paste across the screen
with a squeegee. The paste may be pulled across the screen twice, from
top to bottom and back. The number usually depends on the quality of
screen cloth as well as the effect desired. Printing should be done in al-
ternate spaces so that the screen docs not pick up the wet printing paste
and deposit it on the fabric.
Screen Printing

Practical work 7 (Printing)
1 Clean the printing table to remove any traces of dye.
2 Prepare the table by spreading gum on it.
3 Allow the gum to dry and iron the fabric on it.
4 Make registration marks on the table using a chalked siring.
5 Make registration marks on the screen so that they coincide with the
marks on the table.
6 Test the screen by printing on paper to ensure that there are no
pinholes.
7 Wash and wipe the screen thoroughly.
8 Place the screen on one of die areas marked, making sure that the
registration marks on the screen coincide with the marks on the
table.
9 One of the persons should hold the screen firmly in position.
10 Put a little printing paste in the screen reservoir.
11 With the squeegee, pull the printing paste across the screen.
12 Skip the next printing area, place the screen and print.
13 Remove the fabric from the table and let it dry thoroughly.
14 Fix the fabric by ironing, steaming or as recommended by the
literature on the dye.
Photographic Screens
Photographic screens give the most accurate and sharp prints. They are
made cither by daylight, the solar energy process, or with a photograph-
ic device fitted with a strong light. Both processes require die use of
chemicals such as gelatine and potassium dichromate. However, there
are different makes of prepared sensitizing chemicals on the market. Lit-
erature on the application of such chemicals should lie studied carefully
before they are used.
Screen Printing

Practical work 8
1 Prepare a screen by covering the frame with a suitable mesh.
2 Put a quantity of about two to three tablespoons of gelatine in a
bowl and add about three quarters litre of water and mix slowly with
a spoon.
3 Stand the bowl in a big saucepan containing lukewarm water.
4 Put the saucepan over a gentle heat for the gelatine to dissolve, but
do not allow it to boil.
5 With a large paintbrush, apply three coats of gelatine to the outer
surface of the screen as smoothly as possible with each brush stroke
overlapping the other to avoid pinholes.
6 Apply each coating of gelatine in opposite directions allowing each
one to dry thoroughly before applying the next.
Note: The gelatine should be kept on a low heat and not allowed to cool
and harden while it is being used.
Practical work 9
1 Make a suitable design for printing on tracing paper.
2 Paint all the positive parts (the areas that will be printed), in black
poster colour.
3 Place the paper design on a table and place the screen on it with the
outer surface touching the design, and trace the design on to the
screen.
4 Paint all positive areas with cellulose, lacquer or any quick-drying
enamel paint.
5 Look for pinholes and block them with lacquer.
6 Allow the lacquer to dry and paint the entire outer surface of the
screen with a solution of potassium dichromate.
References
GALE, Elizabeth. From Fibres to Fabric, Mills and Boon Limited. London. 1978,
pp 155-159
PLUCKROSE, Henry. The Book of Crafts, Evans Brothers Limited. London. 1971,
pp 193-201
SEARLE. Valerie, and CLAYSON. Roberta. Screen printing on Fabric. Studio
Vista.London 1968
Screen Printing

General Knowledge in Art for Senior High schools

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General Knowledge in Art for Senior High schools