This article investigates the role of evangelical apocalyptic thought in shaping conflicts in the Middle East, with particular attention to U.S. foreign policy and Israeli politics. Beginning with the guiding question—Do some evangelicals and their apocalyptic ideas shape the fighting in the Middle East?—the study traces the historical roots of evangelical influence in American society, their rise as a political force, and their division into passive and radical groups. While the passive majority emphasizes moral living and cultural values, the radical (...) minority interprets contemporary events as fulfillments of biblical prophecy, exerting disproportionate influence on U.S. policy. -/- The article examines the views of prominent radical evangelicals—John Hagee, Pat Robertson, Mike Pence, Ted Cruz, and Marjorie Taylor Greene—particularly regarding Iran, highlighting how prophecy-driven narratives intersect with geopolitical strategies. It then poses two further questions: whether Benjamin Netanyahu, intentionally or not, aligns more closely with radical evangelicals than with mainstream Jewish perspectives, and whether U.S.–Israeli policy risks drifting away from pragmatic security concerns and geopolitical calculations toward apocalyptic frameworks. -/- By situating evangelical apocalypticism within the broader context of religion, politics, and war, the article underscores the dangers of prophecy-driven policymaking and its potential to destabilize the Middle East by neglecting realpolitik security imperatives and long-term geopolitical stability. -/- This article was written with the assistance of AI, although the major idea and conceptual framework belong to the author. (shrink)

This article advocates evangelical environmental care by grounding an ethic of nature at the centre of evangelical theology, namely, in Christ and his resurrection. As Paul points out in 1 Corinthians 15, the continuity between our earthly bodies and our resurrected bodies entails that we should take care of our bodies. Drawing on Romans 8, I argue that the same line of reasoning applies to nature: the continuity between creation and the new creation entails that we should take care of (...) nature. Finally, I consider some objections to my argument regarding its possible eschatological consequences. (shrink)

Traditionally, evangelicalism has looked upon feminist and ecological theologians with a great deal of suspicion, but the ecological challenges facing the world today require an openness to a broader theological perspective. This article will examine and appropriate elements from Sallie McFague’s Metaphorical Theology, Models of God and The Body of God in an attempt to incorporate her approach into an evangelical theological perspective. With this purpose in mind, critique will be accompanied by evaluation with the intent to draw out methodology (...) and insights that could be used within an evangelical theological context. (shrink)

Despite their purported demographic and institutional decline, White evangelical voters were instrumental in the election of Donald Trump in 2016, and even more so in his 2020 loss. The story of Trump’s electoral successes among Christian voters in the last two elections is in large part the story of religious nationalism—and White Christian nationalism in particular—because Trump personifies the convergence of nationalism-infused forms of messianism and apocalypticism intrinsic to White evangelicalism, which culminate in QAnon cultic ideology. However, these same ethnoreligious/nationalist (...) patterns and logics extend much further back than Trump’s insurgent candidacy. This chapter traces the recurring, resurgent patterns of “zombie nationalism” among White evangelical Christians in the United States over the last half century that emerged in response to periods of significant societal change and certain recurring sociopolitical issues. In particular, alongside established elective affinities around ethnicity (whiteness) and religion (Christianity), this chapter makes the case for incorporating gender and sexual politics as key factors in the articulation and legitimation of religious nationalism in the United States. White Christian nationalism tends to reemerge as a salient political force during periods of rapid social change and diversification, driven by racialized religious grievances symptomatic of Nietzsche’s concept of ressentiment, or the paradoxical internalization and reprojection of a person’s or group’s perceived endangerment, victimhood, and/or suffering, in order to gain power. Drawing on examples of marriage equality and reproductive rights, this chapter demonstrates how an understanding of sexual politics is key to both apprehending and breaking the cyclical reanimation of White Christian nationalism. Escaping the nihilistic impulses driving these cycles will require White evangelicals to develop new hermeneutical tools capable of transforming the exclusionary patterns of racism, ethnocentrism, heteronormativity, and patriarchy that fuel the engine of ressentiment animating zombie nationalism. (shrink)

A missionary religious tradition such as Christianity is distinguished from some other traditions by a commitment to the goal of converting others. However, the very nature of this goal and the norms that govern the successful realization of this goal are not often explored. In this article, I argue that evangelization can be undertaken for several distinct reasons, including epistemic reasons, particularly in cases in which evangelizers are aiming at the multivalent goal of fellowship. I argue that this account (...) illuminates several possible models of mission, that it can provide resources for further evaluation and modeling of evangelical efforts, and that it might signify the need for theologically informed positions in the contemporary meta-epistemological debate about epistemic reasons. (shrink)

God speaks. Hearing God. Two phrases of two words each are perhaps the most critical, misunderstood and even abused words in the existence of the Church and in particular for evangelicals. ‘I think God said’ and ‘I think God is saying’ are the most sagacious, precise, truthful and appropriate manner of responding to the conviction that God speaks and for shared engaging enriched discourse on what God says to ensure He is heard. The Bible must never be seen and interpreted (...) only as a handbook, instruction or rules book of propositional information, doctrine and description. Rather it is an astonishing and amazing book full of God’s wisdom for all people in all their situatedness. Peter Enns pointed out that the Bible must be seen as a source of godly wisdom to be explored, pondered, deliberated, and put into action. It is not a book about a God ‘mainly interested in whether we’ve read and understood the fine print; if not, God has no recourse but to punish us. Rather, I would beseech all Christians of all epochs to see it as a book full of wisdom relevant for each situatedness and ‘allows us to see God as a good parent, full of grace, love, and patience - the very character traits we value in earthly parents and that the people of God are to exemplify. Wisdom heals us to see God as God is.’ If there is any merit in this essay and conclusion of mine, then perhaps God can strike a straight blow with a very crooked stick. (shrink)

The belief that Christianity has a relevancy and a truth to convey is one thing, a reason to be heard is another. Christians are to be grounded in the Word, ready to give a reason for their hope (1 Peter 3:15). But, as has been experienced by the Church over the centuries ‘no one cares how much you know, until they know how much you care.’.

I have spent 40 years looking for a coherent and convincing way of formulating my worries about what, if anything, philosophy is good for. Richard Rorty had an unusually avid interest in metaphilosophy. Again and again he would return to questions about the practical uses (if any) to which philosophy might be put, about philosophy's role in intellectual culture, about what philosophy is or might become. His answers to these questions were famously negative: philosophy's practical uses are few, its cultural (...) role marginal. Philosophy is or will be whatever we make of it. Yet it is one thing to have given up on the idea of Philosophy as a Fach with a naturally occurring canon of problems, or in terms of the closely .. (shrink)

Medicine is a space to meet the weak and the defenseless. Its environment,professional object and the agents that participate directly or indirectly in the exercise of medicine have a potential generator of culture of life opposing the prevailing culture of death in today's world. In this paper we have described how the exercise of a profession, in this case of medicine, has the potential to evangelize culture. To do this, we delved into the concept of culture, its current context, the (...) generalities of the evangelization of culture, andthen to consider different angles in which medicine demonstrates its potential to evangelize culture. This potential is highlighted to sensitize young people who want to be doctors, who by being fully integrated, scientifically sound and based on ethical, moral and evangelical principles, have a significant impact on society. On the other hand, by generating a culture of solidarity, always seeking to heal escape from pain and suffering, attending mainly to the poorest and most needy. Finally, by generating spaces and initiatives to transmit ideas,reflections, knowledge and disseminating values in the exercise of the profession. -/- La medicina es un espacio para salir al encuentro del débil y el indefenso. Su entorno, objeto profesional y los agentes que participan directa o indirectamente en el ejercicio de la medicina posee un potencial generador de cultura de vida oponiéndose a la cultura de muerte imperante en el mundo de hoy. En este trabajo hemos descrito de qué manera el ejercicio de una profesión, en este caso de la medicina, tiene potencial para evangelizar la cultura. Para ello, se ahondó en el concepto de cultura, su contexto actual, las generalidades de la evangelización de la cultura, para luego al considerar diferentes ángulos en los que la medicina evidencia su potencial para evangelizar la cultura. Se destaca dicho potencial para sensibilizar a los jóvenes que quieren ser médicos, quienes, al formarse integralmente, científicamente sólidos y fundamentados en principios éticos, morales yevangélicos, ejercen un impacto significativo en la sociedad. Por otro lado, al generar una cultura de solidaridad, buscando salir siempre al encuentro del dolor y el sufrimiento,atendiendo principalmente a los más pobres y necesitados. Finalmente, al generar espacios e iniciativas para trasmitir ideas, reflexiones, conocimientos y difundiendo valores en el ejercicio de la profesión. (shrink)

A Church is an important social institution. Historically, its significance in society has also been a face of controversies such as numerical and conceptual divisions. The Sociological Perspectives of a Religion (such as of Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx) pointed out how religion, as a social institution, is very crucial in its role in the society as it gives meaning and purpose to life, reinforces and promotes social inequality, and focuses on ways individuals interpret religious experiences. Using the (...) case study design, the study aims to determine and analyze the causes and effects of Pentecostal Churches in the Philippines specifically in Luna, Apayao. Participants in the study were chosen purposively using the unique selected sampling technique. The interview, documentation, and documentary materials were the primary tools used in gathering the needed data. Results revealed that the causes of divisions in Pentecostal-Evangelical Churches were due to financial, spiritual (doctrine), and personal matters. It was also found out, as the effect of these divisions, that society perceived it in two ways: generally good for the spread of churches and generally bad for the disunity it brought in the society. Church leaders and followers generally described this social situation as challenging to all social institutions. Results of this study could serve as a basis for developing relations between churches themselves and other social institutions in which it is to address church divisions for the sake of our society. (shrink)

The Church faces a number of challenges concerning the sociological impact postmodernism is having on society. And one very significant area that has been profoundly disputed is the epistemological content of the concept of truth. Evangelical Christians believe in Objectivism: the conviction that there exists some ahistorical (outside of history) source, foundation or framework to which we can appeal to in determining the substance and nature of truth, knowledge, reality, right or wrong that is independent and external to personal experience (...) or thinking. However, the majority of people no longer believe in absolute truth but in relativism. Relativism is the denial that there exists such an ahistorical source or foundation that we can appeal to. Truth, knowledge, reality, right and wrong are all concepts that are relative to a specific conceptual scheme, framework, or paradigm founded in a society, religion and culture. This paper represents an endeavour to dialogically reunite the two perspectives by arguing for the seeking of the truths in both perspectives. God is Objective Truth and has become involved in history: in the existential; in the material setting of our relative and infallible thoughts and the slanted interpretative experiences of the Triune God and life. The synthesis will be an affirmation that for Christians Truth is discovered and revealed in fellowship within community. And members of the Body of Christ are first and finally called to reveal and demonstrate truth to the world - in their unity. (shrink)

CO-OPTING MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. AND MALCOLM X: EVANGELICAL COMPLICITY WITH SYSTEMIC RACISM IN AMERICA -/- ABSTRACT -/- The existence of systemic racism in America is a source of heated debate. In the age of modern gentrification, proponents of differing ideologies and theologies expect their constituencies to occupy their respective corners and uphold their values. This work seeks to compare and contrast mainstream Evangelical theological and political views about racism. In this dissertation, I argue that some view the Evangelical Silent (...) Majority as a constructive force that claims to be against racism while demonstrating complicity. Some Evangelical leaders employ the words of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X to educate African Americans on how to and not to become real Americans. After a detailed discussion of their attempt to interact with African Americans politically and theologically, it is apparent that conservative politics informs their view of African Americans, which in turn informs their maladjusted understanding of what constitutes a real Christian Community. -/- . (shrink)

This paper is intended to contribute to the discussion of the “revitalization (renewal) of catechesis in the digital and social media era,” especially in the context of Millennials and Gen Z in St. Antonius Padua Parish, Kotabaru, Yogyakarta. With the advancement of digital media, the inclusion of digital media in the pastoral care of young people, especially evangelization to Millennials and Gen Z, is an urgent need to be followed up by the Church. This paper focuses on the youth’s (...) involvement in digital catechesis towards a synodal church. The authors conducted qualitative research with a naturalistic descriptive design through a participatory observational literature review to collect data. As the Church today echoes the spirit of synodality, God’s people are invited to participate in the mission of the Church with full faith and joy of love because Christ himself sent us to the world to proclaim the Gospel. The main result of this inquiry is that the spirit of synodality in the Church can be seen in the apostolic spirit that each youth carries out to realize a truly Christian life through various services in cybercatechesis. They are active in peer catechism activities, accompanying initiation sacrament lessons, and coaching young people. Their lay apostolic zeal greatly contributes to the wider spread of the Gospel, even reaching many existing places and touching the daily life of Christian people. (shrink)

RÉSUMÉ : Dans la présente contribution, l’auteur cherche à identifier ce qui, sur le plan théologique, peut inciter aujourd’hui une large part du mouvement évangélique à défendre, en face du discours scientifique moderne, une lecture littérale de Gn 1,1–3,24. La démarche consiste à relever, dans la théologie évangélique, les principaux points d’ancrage du créationnisme, par l’analyse générale de deux approches des récits de la Création et surtout par la mise en relief du rôle déterminant que jouent les premiers chapitres de (...) la Bible dans l’anthropologie biblique et, par là, dans l’ensemble de la théologie chrétienne traditionnelle. ABSTRACT: In this contribution, the author seeks to identify what it is, theologically speaking, that could incite a large portion of today’s evangelical movement to defend a literal reading of Gen 1:1- 3:24. This exercise consists of discussing the foundational points of creationism in evangelical theology, through general analysis of two approaches to the Creation narratives, and especially through highlighting the definitive role played by the first chapters of the Hebrew Bible in biblical anthropology and thereby in traditional Christian theology. (shrink)

A brief dialogue on the meaning of Christ's salvation with a Christian evangelical.

This article explores the foundations of dialogue within Christian doctrine and their historical application during the early stages of the evangelization of Mesoamerica. In the context of contemporary debates such as the "clash of civilizations," the author examines whether Catholicism possesses inherent elements that promote intercultural harmony. -/- The study is divided into two primary sections: -/- Doctrinal Foundations: An analysis of Sacred Scripture—specifically the books of Sirach, the Gospels, and the Epistles of James—to demonstrate a theological mandate for (...) conversation and mercy toward the "neighbor" over violence and threats . -/- Historical Case Studies: An examination of the Colloquies of 1524 between Franciscan friars and Nahua wise men (tlamatimine), as well as the 16th-century debates between Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda and Bartolomé de las Casas . -/- The author utilizes the Aristotelian-Thomistic framework to contrast the reductionist view of indigenous peoples as "natural slaves" against a more nuanced theological recognition of their political and rational capacities. The article concludes that the identity of modern Mexico was forged through a continuous, albeit complex, intercultural dialogue rooted in these Christian precepts, offering a model for engagement in a post-secular world. (shrink)

Research for this study was served by the hypothesis that the Christian’s lifestyle and witness in a postmodern world will depend on the definition and practice of worship and spirituality. The Old Testament reveals a spirituality that has ‘Yahweh’ involved in all aspects of life. Awareness and experience of the presence of God is linked to obedience to God. New Testament spirituality implies imitation of Christ and an effort to obey Christ's twofold command: to love God and neighbor as self. (...) Christian exhortation (contemplation/meditation) and adoration never take place in isolation from the world because God is active in the world. Adoration leads to action in the world which, in turn, leads to adoration of God. All work done and all life lived for God's sake is, in essence, worship. Being a Christian implies living a life of sacrifice, making a gift of your life to God. As the Christian strives with the Spirit's guidance and empowerment to love God with his/her heart, soul, mind, body - and his/her neighbor as him/her self, in a moment by moment way; as he/she worships God with adoration and action; then he/she is living a true Biblical Christian life and experiencing and practicing true Biblical worship and spirituality. For the postmodernist, religious relativism is incompatible with the objective truth claims of Christianity and the words ‘Christian’ and ‘Church’ mean either empty tradition or abusive totalizing metannarrative. To maintain its identity and practice effective and relevant ministry, the Church should reflect an internal unity in desire, in life, in purpose, and in love. The Church must be the incarnate and engaged love and glory of God to a world that judges Christian truth claims by the lifestyle and witness of Christians. A praxis-orientated apologetic of an incarnational engaged worship and spirituality will demonstrate Christians truth claims. This gives Christianity integrity, credibility, and intelligibility to postmodernists that seek an experiential spirituality in the postmodern era of deconstruction. Evangelism is founded in who God is and what God has done for humanity through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Christian’s demonstrate the Gospel as they love their God and their neighbor with devotion and conduct. They proclaim God’s love with plausibility when they reveal God’s love in action as a visual aid for Gods truth. As Christian worship and spirituality produce the actions that give voice to the nature and will of God, Jesus Christ will ‘rise again’ in the postmodern world through an incarnational and engaged Christian faith. Point summary: i. Authentic Biblical Christian worship is a lifestyle that takes place in an interdependent rhythm of both adoration (joyful praise of God) and action (obedient service to God). ii. Holistic spirituality is the lived moment by moment experience of Christian belief in both general and specialized forms (the Christian faith), and the reaction that the Christian’s belief system arouses in religious consciousness and practice moment by moment (the Christian faith). iii. Biblical worship and spirituality is thus conformity of heart and life with the confession and character of Jesus Christ. It is living life in the coram Deo (the presence of God) in obedience to His will out of gratitude for salvation. iv. Worship, spirituality, and the Christian faith become equivalent terms for each other and as defined in i-iii above reflect an incarnational engaged approach to evangelism. v. Worship and spirituality as a praxis-orientated apologetic presented as an incarnational engaged approach (that tells God’s story and your story) in a postmodern world, will be a more effective method of evangelism than rational apologetics and program/method based evangelism. -/- . (shrink)

In this paper, I analyze the evangelical Christian film series God's Not Dead. I argue that the film series functions as Christian Nationalist propaganda through its rhetoric and aesthetic choices. I then develop two forms of epistemic manipulation that the film uses to fulfill its propagandistic function: hermeneutical priming and linguistic hijacking. I suggest that the film series' use of these rhetorical strategies highlights some of the ways that evangelical Christian cinema is engaging with rising right-wing political movements and developing (...) unique evangelical imaginations. (shrink)

This paper studies the cooperation of theology in the new evangelization in societies of ancient Christian tradition which are suffering an advanced process of secularization. It begins with Spain, where a recent debate on the influence of Christian intellectuals on social life suggests the ineffectiveness of ecclesiastical resources in transmitting the rich Catholic doctrinal heritage. Then the author deals with the idiosyncrasy of contemporary man, which lies near the one of the immediate future’s man: an uprooted subject who does (...) not believe that life has any meaning, is deeply marked by emotivism and attaches little significance to truth. The theology of tomorrow cannot feed this emotivism but must be proactive in its own way. The proclamation of the Gospel is not different from the exposition of the Church’s doctrine. To detach evangelization from the teaching of Christian doctrine cannot help the encounter with Christ. In order to succeed in transmitting this doctrine by making it suggestive, theologians should work together with experts in communication. (shrink)

In the apostolic exhortation Evangelii gaudium, Pope Francis traces a relationship of clear interdependence between the evangelizing mission of the ecclesial community and the experience of joy that it lives in the faith in Jesus Christ. This work presents some contributions from the theology of Alexander Schmemann, in For the Life of the World, and from the philosophy of Fabrice Hadjadj, in Le paradis à la porte, which can enrich the reception of this programmatic document of the pontificate of Francis. (...) In this path, we identify four points of convergence between the two authors' vision: the rediscovery of the eucharistic dimension of joy, as an experience of a gift that extends itself as thanksgiving; of its paschal dimension, which goes through evil and pain, fertilizing them without denying them; of its epiphanic dimension, as a look that allows us to recognize the proximity of the mystery in everyday life; and of its transforming dimension, as a gratuity that spills over into an truly disinterested service. (shrink)

Within contemporary evangelical theology, a peculiar controversy has been brewing over the past few decades with regard to the doctrine of the Trinity. A good number of prominent evangelical theologians and philosophers are rejecting the doctrine of divine processions within the eternal life of the Trinity. In William Hasker’s recent Metaphysics and the Tri-Personal God, Hasker laments this rejection and seeks to offer a defense of this doctrine. This paper shall seek to accomplish a few things. In section I, I (...) shall first set the stage for a proper understanding of the discussion. Section II will articulate the basic Trinitarian desiderata that must be satisfied by any model of the doctrine of the Trinity. This will help one understand the debate between Hasker and the procession deniers. Section III will offer an articulation of what the doctrine of divine processions teaches. Section IV will examine Hasker’s defense of the doctrine point by point. I shall argue that his defense of the doctrine of the divine processions fails. (shrink)

Purpose This paper offers a critical exegesis of popular culture and its intersections with the other cultural expressions in the contemporary Philippine scene. As a distinct Reformed-Evangelical critique, the paper hopes to shed light on the areas of popular culture that are often assumed rather than discussed; affirmed but not analysed. -/- Design/methodology/approach Although the following exposition is readily and arguably Western by orientation, most especially on the (post)modern mood in the space it belongs, as hegemonised by Anglo-American discourse, most (...) of the concepts that this paper tackles are definitely universal and principled in praxes. The persuasion is that these criticisms will cover even the Filipino sub-/culture and sensibility in its attempt to exegete culture ontologically and contemplate on the phenomenon of popular culture at the very least. In that case, everyone who reads and specialises in cultural hermeneutics is thereby urged to offer a conscious understanding, comprehension and correspondence on the aforementioned particular aspects, albeit not everyone in the masses can readily grasp what this paper intends to build its discourse on. In carrying out this cultural exegetical task, certain markers and indicators will be used as halters, so to defamiliarise one’s attention on matters that may have immediate correspondence to the Filipino culture in its contemporary scene/sense, be it urban, suburban or rural depending on the spatial location of the readers as they interact with this treatise. As a whole, this paper endeavours to mould and uphold one’s glocal consciousness, distinctions, and differentiations in the assessment of culture, popular culture and popular culture in the Philippines vis-a-vis or vs other factors of this shared reality, sub-/culture and literacy and their probable popular culture counterparts elsewhere in the signifying and significant human experiences, challenges and perspectives. -/- Findings The paper finds out that without a critico-practical approach to the implications of popular culture, it will be an insidious challenge to anyone who wishes to coexist with it, most especially the subcultural expressions of certain communities. -/- Originality/value The paper possesses novelty in its being an intersection of cultural studies, criticism, theology and philosophy as basis for interpretation of certain socio-cultural phenomena in the contemporary urban space. (shrink)

In a beautiful recent essay, the philosopher Walter Sinnott-Armstrong explains the reasons for his departure from evangelical Christianity, the religious culture in which he was brought up. Sinnot-Armstrong contrasts the interpretive methods used by good philosophers and fundamentalist believers: Good philosophers face objections and uncertainties. They follow where arguments lead, even when their conclusions are surprising and disturbing. Intellectual honesty is also required of scholars who interpret philosophical texts. If I had distorted Kant’s view to make him reach a conclusion (...) that I preferred, then my philosophy professor would have failed me. The contrast with religious reasoning is stark. My Christian friends seemed happy to hide serious problems in the Bible and in their arguments. They preferred comfort to intellectual honesty. I couldn’t. To what extent can we, historians of philosophy, claim the virtue of intellectual honesty? Speaking frankly, I do not find the practice criticized by Sinnot-Armstrong’s philosophy professor rare or unusual at all. We very frequently distort the views of past philosophers in order to reach the conclusions we prefer. We just call it “Charitable Interpretation.” In this essay, I discuss and criticize the logic behind so-called charitable interpretations in the history of philosophy. This phenomenon is ubiquitous and is not at all restricted to a particular philosophical strand or ideology. Analytic philosophers and post-modernists, Marxists, liberals, secularists, and fundamentalists, we all engage in the very same domestication project. Even more disturbing than the sheer ideological pervasiveness of this phenomenon is the fact that, on many occasions, superb philosophers and historians take part in this fairly childish endeavor. In the first part of this essay, I discuss the general logic of charitable interpretations in the history of philosophy, mostly by addressing discussions in metaphysics and epistemology. In the second part, I focus on the somewhat less noticed use of charitable interpretations in the study of political philosophy, and point out the quintessential role ideology plays in these discussions. In both parts, I concentrate mostly on the interpretation of Spinoza’s thought. I do so not because I have special fondness for Spinoza (“guilty as charged,” I admit), but because Spinoza is such a beast (and may I add, an enchanting beast) and attracts a disproportionate share of the domestication efforts from historians and philosophers of all creeds and persuasions. In the third and final part of the paper, I will begin to outline an alternative methodology, which suggests that past philosophers can be most relevant to our current philosophical discussion, to the extent that they provide us with well-motivated challenges to our common-sense beliefs. Such challenges have the invaluable virtue of being able to undermine our most fundamental and secure beliefs, and force us to engage with the most fundamental questions. What more can we expect from good philosophy? (shrink)

Excerpt (in lieu of abstract) My aim in this paper is to put the spotlight on the following questions: how do lay Christians understand the relation between science and religion, and what can this tell us about the relationship between science and Christianity in a more academic setting? My focus will be on lay Christians in the US, in particular White Evangelicals. I will argue that American lay Christians, as well as American laypeople more generally, view the relationship between science (...) and religion as one of conflict. By contrast, conflict is a minority view in the academic literature on science and religion, where most authors defend a harmonious relationship (such as independence, dialogue, and integration). This disconnect between the academic literature and public perception should lead us to reflect on the social role of the science and religion debate. (shrink)

A chain is only as strong as its weakest link; likewise, a moral tradition is only as just as its most violent adherents. Religions that generate or tolerate violent extremists face a distinctive internal dilemma: non-violent believers, better acquainted than outsiders with their tradition's capacity for zeal, often hesitate to oppose the extremists for fear of being seen as traitors to the faith. This study interprets that tension as a systemic weakness within religious communities. It argues that within modern history, (...) Christian Zionism has functioned as the vulnerable link of Christianism, and Jewish Zionism as the vulnerable link of Judaism - each an eschatological or political amplification of older theological motifs. The article traces the chain of influences from centuries of Christian anti-Judaism through nineteenth- and twentieth-century British evangelical eschatology (e.g., Shaftesbury, Hechler, Balfour), Jewish political Zionism (e.g., Rothschild, Herzl, Weizmann), and British imperial strategy (e.g., Sykes). The resulting synthesis, it contends, produced the ideological preconditions for today's conflicts in Israel-Palestine. Section 2, "Political Evangelicalism Entails Vast Immiseration," tells the story about broken covenants and parochial ultimata leading inexorably to the intractable conflict over the land of Palestine. Section 3, "Microlectics Microlect," is a self-referential specialized way of speaking and writing about specialized ways of speaking and writing, which are called "microlects." These are semi-formal capsules of thought about specific topics. Sections 3-9 present microlects referring to philosophy, biology, and theology, leading to section 10, the "Christian-Anti-Human Microlect." Section 11, the "Ism Microlect," describes a desirable but impossible "Ism Place.". (shrink)

Debates over immigration and deportation cut to the core of U.S. democracy, raising questions of national identity, belonging, and exclusion. Religion plays a pivotal role in these debates, sometimes inspiring inclusion and solidarity, and at other times fueling restrictionist sentiment. -/- Drawing on a nationally representative 2018 YouGov survey of 2,000 U.S. adults, this article examines how religious identity and religious salience shape attitudes toward deportation. Our findings reveal that denominational affiliation alone (Catholic, Protestant, Evangelical, etc.) does not significantly predict (...) support for deportation once other factors are controlled. Instead, the key lies in the interaction between faith identity and religious salience: • Born-again Christians become markedly more supportive of deportation as religion grows more important in their lives. • Religiously unaffiliated respondents (“nothing in particular”)—a surprising 19% of the population—show the same pattern. When religion is personally meaningful for them, their attitudes also turn more exclusionary. -/- By contrast, Catholics and non-born-again Protestants do not display this effect. -/- Importantly, our multivariate statistical model (R² = 68.5%) shows that the strongest predictors of pro-deportation attitudes overall are white ethnonationalism, nativism, partisan identity, education, and age, but the salience–identity interaction among born-agains and the unaffiliated remains significant. -/- This study complicates simple binaries of “religious vs. secular.” It suggests that religious energy, when untethered from institutional guardrails, can fuse with nationalist sentiment to justify exclusionary immigration policies. These findings are especially relevant to ongoing debates about religion, politics, and American democracy. (shrink)

Spiritual formation currently lacks a robust epistemology. Christian theology and philosophy often spend more time devoted to an epistemology of propositions rather than an epistemology of knowing persons. This paper is an attempt to move toward a more robust account of knowing persons in general and God in particular. After working through various aspects of the nature of this type of knowledge this theory is applied to specific issues germane to spiritual formation, such as the justification of understanding spiritual growth (...) on an integrative and holistic (heart and mind) model, the reality of hearing God’s voice, and knowing his activity, as well as how such a theory should change the shape of sermons, evangelism, and apologetics. (shrink)

On more than one occasion, John Wesley found himself engaged in debate with Calvinists in the Methodist revival. In this article, I philosophically re-examine John Wesley’s concerns with the Calvinism of some members of his evangelical cohort. I argue that Wesley’s concerns fall into two types: theoretical concerns about the conceptual coherency of a view that makes God the author of sin and practical concerns about the moral implications of a view that suggests some individuals are elect and others are (...) reprobate. I then attempt a principled reconstruction of these objections. I argue that while there is a rational Arminian case to be made here, what is arguably most valuable in this case is the distinctive method of weaving together thought and action in the Christian life the connections between Wesley’s theoretical and practical concerns reveal. (shrink)

If successful scientific inquiry is to be possible, there must be a world that is independent of how we believe it to be, and in which there are kinds and laws; and we must have the sensory apparatus to perceive particular things and events, and the capacity to represent them, to form generalized explanatory conjectures, and check how these conjectures stand up to further experience. Whether these preconditions are met is not a question the sciences can answer; it is specifically (...) philosophical. This is why the myriad forms of scientistic philosophy in vogue today (neurophilosophy, experimental philosophy, naturalized metaphysics, evangelical-atheist reductionism, etc), are all hollow at the core. Does this mean we must return to the old, a priori analytic model? No! What is needed instead is scientific philosophy in the sense Peirce articulated more than a century ago: philosophy motivated by a genuine desire to discover the truth, and relying not solely on reason but also on experience—only not the special, recherché experience required by the sciences, but close attention to aspects of everyday experience so familiar we hardly notice them. (shrink)

1Preface: Malthus the Utilitarian vs. Malthus the Christian moral thinker. The chapter aims at reconstructing the deadlocks of Malthus scholarship concerning his relationship to utilitarianism. It argues that Bonar created out of nothing the myth of Malthus’s ‘Utilitarianism’, which carried, in turn, a pseudo-problem concerning Malthus’s lack of consistency with his own alleged Utilitarianism; besides it argues that such misinterpretation was hard to die and still persists in Hollander’s reading of Malthus’s work. ● 2 Eighteenth-century Anglican ethics. The chapter gives (...) an overview of eighteenth-century Anglican ethics, noticing how the Cambridge tradition gave special weight to natural theology as opposed to positive or revealed theology and how two Cambridge fellows, John Gay and Thomas Brown worked out a kind of a rational-choice account of the origins of natural laws, where a law-giver God chooses among a number of possible sets of laws on the basis of a maximizing criterion, happiness for his creatures. ● 3 Malthus’s meta-ethics. The chapter reconstructs the two ethical chapters of the second Essay. It argues that Malthus’s ethics is not dependent on Paley’s, but is derived from Cumberland, Butler, Gay, Brown. Besides, it argues that theodicy takes a new place in the 1803 Essays and ethics becomes a key to theodicy. The new solution is that, once it has been proved that passions can be mastered and that a world where passions are under control would be a comparatively happy place, a society where moral restraint prevailed would make the middling ranks more numerous, reduce dependence, and preserve liberty. ● 4 Malthus’s early normative ethics: a morality of freedom. The chapter reconstructs young Malthus’s views on the foundations of ethics, proving his adhesion to voluntarist consequentialism. Then it reconstructs his treatment of political issues, whence a clear stance emerges in favour of traditional Whig concerns, such as political freedom, personal independence and dignity. Finally, it gives a fresh look at the theological argument in the two well-known final chapters, locating it in the context of consequentialism, voluntarism, and quasi-Leibnizian theodicy. ● 5 Malthus’s intermediate normative ethics: a morality of prudence. Malthus’s normative ethics focuses on two main ‘natural’ virtues, benevolence and chastity, and three artificial virtues. These include love for equality and love for liberty. A special place is granted to another virtue, prudence, which is the link between natural and artificial virtues. This special virtue also provides an invisible link between the private and the public domains, in that it contributes to combine self-love with general happiness. This is granted by the unintended results mechanism, or “the happiness of the whole is to be the result of the happiness of individuals, and to begin first with them. No cooperation is required”. ● 6 Malthus’s mature normative ethics: a morality of humanity. The chapter describes reactions by Evangelicals, such as Gisborne, Sumner, and Chalmers, to Malthus’s theory and Malthus’s transformation of his own system in order to pave objections. This amounts to incorporating The Evangelicals’ ideas into his own system. The friendly controversy with his Evangelical fellow-travellers yielded several important changes in 1806, 1817, and 1826 editions of the second Essay in the formulation of Malthusian ethics, in the adoption of moral improvement instead of happiness as the variable to be maximised, in the adoption of generalized education as the main weapon in the war on poverty. ● 7 Malthus’s applied ethics. The chapter reconstructs Malthus’s treatment of a few issues in ‘applied ethics’, sexual morality, public morality, poverty, and besides, war and slavery. On the first issue, he argues the duty to marry only at a time when one is ready to carry the burden of six children as a moral duty imposed by prudence and rejects birth control because of its alleged effect of encouraging ‘indolence’. On the second issue, he defends a peculiar kind of Whiggism as anti-Machiavellian politics centred on rights, equality, and dignity. On the third issue, his final approach is a kind of Institutional approach to poverty, making room for generalized basic education, free markets for labour and allowing for a subsidiary role for private beneficence. The goal to be aimed at is bringing about circumstances which tend to elevate the character of the lower classes of society and offer them a chance of being respectable, virtuous and happy. ● 8 Conclusions: strengthening the theological foundation. Malthus’s criteria for policy appraisal were not utilitarian ones. His normative ethics and his politics were sharply different from Bentham’s. Utility is just one element in Malthus’s ethics, going with laws of nature and rights, and ironically, far from being a Benthamite insertion, is the most markedly theological element in Malthus’s system of ideas. ●. (shrink)

Nang masakop ng Estados Unidos ang Pilipinas, dumating sa bansa ang isa pang uri ng Kristiyanismo na iba sa bitbit ng mga Espanyol-ang Protestantismo (na nagsimulang isilang noong ika-16 na dantaon sa Europa sa pamumuno nina Luther, Calvin, at Zwingli). Salaysay ni T. Valentino Sitoy (1989, iii, 7-11), 1899 unang dumating ang mga misyonerong Protestante sa Pilipinas, na kinabibilangan ng mga Presbyterian, Baptist, at Methodist. Kalaunan ay sinundan ito ng pagdating ng mga Episcopalian, Seventh-Day Adventist, United Brethren, Disciples, Christian and (...) Missionary Alliance, at iba pa. Ilan sa mga ito ay nagsama-sama upang mabuo ang Evangelical Union. Hinati nila ang Pilipinas sa iba't ibang probinsya ng mission fields (tulad ng ginawa dati ng mga Heswita, Rekoletos, Augustino, Pransiskano, at Dominikano), upang hindi sila magkaagawan sa populasyon na babahaginan ng ebanghelyo. (shrink)

Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) was an Italian Jesuit and one of the first Christian missionaries to China in the modern era. He was a genuine polymath—a translator, cartographer, mathematician, astronomer, and musician. Above all, Ricci was a missionary for the gospel. As we briefly examine his 1603 seminal work, The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, our hope is that we, as evangelical educators, will perceive some of the deeper principles necessary for our own missionary work among unreached people.

This article examines the thoughts and works of Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain and evangelical philosopher Norman Geisler in light of their understanding of Thomas Aquinas’s view of faith and reason.

The article honours the contribution of the Ukrainian philosopher Hryhoriy Skovoroda on the occasion of his 300th birthday on 9 October 2022. It begins with an address of solidarity to the Ukrainians and the Ukrainian philosophers in their fight against the Russian invaders who had bombed and destroyed the Skorovoda Museum in Kharkov shortly before this birthday. The article's main part is an analysis of Skovoroda's theory of happiness in his writing "Conversation Among Five Travellers Concerning Life's True Happiness". In (...) the form of a Socratic dialogue, Skorovoda discusses materialistic hedonism, a Christian eudaemonism, satisfactionism and a radical, evangelical Christian eudaemonism. Skorovoda's own position is not entirely clear; it probably lies between the two Christian positions. The critical analysis then shows that Skorovoda's arguments quite well, if not flawless, in the first third of the text and in tune with the times, while after that, with the appearance of the representative of radical Christian eudaemonism, the dialogue moves more and more from the philosophical to the theological, abandons the argumentative style and slips more and more into (repetitive) preaching. Speculations follow as to why this striking change of subject and style occurs. (shrink)

According to Amos Funkenstein, Stephen Gaukroger and Andrew Cunningham, seventeenth-century natural philosophy was fused with theology, driven by theology, and pursued primarily to shed light on God. Experimental natural philosophy might seem to provide a case in point. According to its English advocates, like Robert Boyle and Thomas Sprat, experimental philosophy embodies the Christian virtues of humility, innocence, and piety, it helps establish God’s existence, attributes, and providence, and it provides a basis for evangelism. This chapter shows that, unlike their (...) English counterparts, experimental philosophers in seventeenth-century Italy kept natural philosophy sharply distinct from theological and religious matters. This indicates that seventeenth-century experimental philosophy was not, as such, theologically driven or oriented. It also suggests that there was no intrinsic relation between experimental philosophy and religion. Whether experimental philosophy was presented as an ally of religion or as distinct from it was, to a significant extent, a matter of cultural politics. It depended on which rhetorical and argumentative strategies were believed to be most likely to ensure freedom of research and institutional support for the work of experimental philosophers in a specific sociopolitical context. (shrink)

After its remarkable affirmation overseas, creationism has landed in Europe and is also present in Italy. As in the USA, also in Italy the main terrain of the clash with Darwinism is the public school. The essay investigates the reasons why in Italy too has been possible to require to teach creationism alongside evolutionism. If in the US this is explained by the strong influence of the evangelical communities, in Italy creationism has found fertile ground in the traditional backwardness of (...) the country in terms of scientific culture. To this we must add a relativistic epistemological interpretation that allows to equalize scientific doctrines to ideologies. (shrink)

This study considers Newman’s sermon—“On the Nature of the Future Promise”—which he preached on 4 September 1825 at St. Clement’s Church, Oxford—likely with his mother and sisters present in the congregation; in addition to treating Newman’s style of preaching and Evangelical theology, this sermon’s theological and pastoral dimensions are also examined.

At the heart of two recent theological traditions are hermeneutical principles which are not only consistent but are integrated in the hermeneutics of Augustine. According to the doctrine of biblical inerrancy as it has been recently articulated by Evangelicals, Scripture has an original meaning, and that meaning is not open to the possibility of error. According to some thinkers in postmodern theology, including Jean-Luc Marion, the meaning of Scripture transcends its original meaning. After examining postmodernism and inerrancy, I consider their (...) harmony in the writings of Augustine, who takes original meaning as a guide for understanding that biblical meaning which transcends it. An Augustinian hermeneutic consistent with inerrancy is thus an alternative to the more typical non-inerrantist postmodern theologies. (shrink)

Jacob Klapwijk’s book Purpose in the Living World? (Cambridge 2998) is examined with special attention given to the scholarly background from out of which it emerges as a significant contribution to reformational philosophical reflection. As an initial step to clarify some important issues raised by Klapwijk’s critical comments about Dooyeweerd’s “essentialist” concept of species, the article probes facets of the way Jan Lever incorporated reformational philosophical concepts into his biological theory and considers the 1959 review written by Herman Dooyeweerd of (...) Lever’s Creation and Evolution. The analysis focuses specifically upon the social responsibilities of these two scholars and the confrontation of their respective views. With the work of Lever and Dooyeweerd we sense something of the ambiguities when reformational philosophy confronts an evangelical scholasticism. This confrontation is an important facet of the context in which Klapwijk has set forth his discussion of creation and emergent evolution. Purpose is also the fruit of scholarly collaboration across disciplines, providing a welcome stimulus for a deepened understanding of the corporate character of the student vocation. (shrink)

The Fellowship of Confessing Anglicans (FCA), whose leaders govern well over half of the 80 million Anglicans worldwide, have put forward ‘a contemporary rule,’ called The Jerusalem Declaration, to guide the Anglican realignment movement. The FCA and its affiliates, e.g. the newly-formed Anglican Church in North America, require assent to the Declaration. To date, there has been little serious appraisal of the Declaration and the status accorded to it. I aim to correct that omission. Unlike ap-praisals in the social media, (...) however, mine grants the FCA’s conservative stand on same-sex unions and homosexual practice. Nevertheless, I argue, the Declaration mischaracterizes the traditional Christian teaching on marriage, binds Anglicans to falsehoods and dubieties in the Thirty-Nine Articles, and adds to the gospel. Two things follow. First, no one—especially no Anglican who identifies herself as con-servative, traditional, orthodox, evangelical, Anglo-catholic or simply concerned with the truth—should assent to the Jerusalem Declaration. Second, since the FCA and its affiliates know that these defects ex-ist in the Declaration, they should fess up to these shortcomings and retract the Declaration’s status as ‘a contemporary rule’ and they should stop requiring assent to it. Anything less constitutes intellectual dis-honesty of a most egregious sort. (shrink)

Anti-intellectualism involves general mistrust of scholars, academics, and ex- perts, often as pretentious or power-motivated. While scholars have described currents of anti-intellectualism in American public life, evangelical Christianity, in responses to COVID, and rural identity, to my knowledge none have looked at how anti-intellectualism specifically manifests in the New Atheism movement. In this work, we explore the way anti-intellectualism is commonly found and expressed in New Atheism and the modern Skeptical Movement, including scientific skepticism more generally.

Though academic debate over gender-inclusive God-talk seems to have fizzled, the issue is a pressing one within many Christian denominations today—both within and outside the Church—and for that reason deserves to be briefly revisited. Accordingly, although in this essay we approach the issue as professional philosophers, our focus is on the life of the Church—more specifically, those no doubt sizable segments of the Church for which a personal God and Satan exist and evangelism matters. Running an elimination argument, we contend (...) that if a certain sort of feminist concern about traditional God-talk is well-directed, the best response is to speak of not only God but also Satan in both masculine and feminine terms. And in closing, we address the possible worry that this response to the God-talk problem would not be Christian enough. (shrink)

This exploration of the Family Guy character Francis Griffin (Peter's father) reveals the pitfalls of his evangelical mindset, and the epistemic shortcomings of evangelical epistemology. Scripture, Historical Tradition, and religious Experience (SHiTE) can't justify religious belief.

Andre Willis argues that although Hume is generally credited with being a “devastating critic” of religion, it is a mistake to view Hume solely in these terms or to present him as an “atheist.” This not only represents a failure to appreciate Hume’s “middle path” between “militant atheists and evangelical theists”, it denies us an opportunity to “enhance” our understanding and appreciation of the positive, constructive value of religion through a close study of Hume’s views. Willis’s study presents Hume as (...) committed to a “bifurcated approach to religion” that rests on the fundamental distinction between “false religion” and “true religion”. False religion, which includes Christianity, is a... (shrink)

Many have said that God is hidden. This alleged hiddenness is particularly troublesome for evangelical Christianity, much more so than generally recognized, for it would render certain facts about the world and about the Bible very hard to explain on the hypothesis that the God of evangelical Christianity exists. Those facts would be best explained by appeal to the alternate hypothesis that that deity does not exist. Three evidential, epistemic, atheological arguments emerge from this consideration. One of them is the (...) Argument from Nonbelief, which focuses on the fact that there is widespread nonbelief in the given deity. I have written essays and a book (NONBELIEF & EVIL) on that one. The other two are the Argument from Confusion (to be labeled AC) and the Argument from Biblical Defects (ABD). AC focuses on the fact that there is widespread confusion among Christians regarding important doctrinal issues, including morality and salvation. ABD focuses on the fact that there are various defects in the Bible. The present essay is devoted to the latter two arguments. (shrink)

Born December 2, 1848 in Gilcomston, Aberdeen, Scotland, Mary Mitchell Slessor, a five foot, red haired Scottish Missionary who pioneered her way into the jungles of Africa was undoubtedly one of the most outstanding missionaries who made tremendous contributions to evangelism, charity work, educational and healthcare services and publicized Nigeria in the map of the world. She faced many challenges living with the villagers, and at times, even had to be a peacemaker between tribesmen. Her work and strong personality allowed (...) her to be trusted and accepted by the locals while spreading Christianity in Nigeria, promoting women’s rights, rescuing unwanted children, protecting native children and died on 13 January, 1915 (aged 66) at Use Ikot Oku, Calabar, Nigeria. Beyond contribution to knowledge this brief work is therefore a legacy of Mary Mitchell Slessor’s contributions to the evangelization of Nigeria and Church History. (shrink)

Title: The Systemic Causes of Emergent Religious Dogma and Its Violation of the Three Universal Laws of Nature -/- Author: Angelito Malicse -/- Abstract: This paper examines the systemic causes behind the emergence of dogmatic teachings in major world religions and analyzes how such dogmas violate the Three Universal Laws of Nature proposed by the author. These laws include the Law of Karma (understood as error-free system functioning), the Law of Balance (homeostasis in natural and mental systems), and the Law (...) of Natural Feedback (interconnected response mechanisms within and between systems). By identifying the historical, cognitive, and systemic roots of religious dogmatism, this paper aims to provide a framework for reprogramming educational and leadership systems toward holistic and balanced decision-making. -/- 1. Introduction Religious dogma has played a central role in shaping civilizations, cultures, and individual behavior. While it has often provided moral guidance and social cohesion, it has also contributed to ignorance, intolerance, and societal imbalance. Through the lens of the Three Universal Laws of Nature, we can identify the ways in which rigid dogmatic systems disrupt natural and cognitive harmony. -/- 2. The Three Universal Laws of Nature -/- Law of Karma (System Integrity): Every system must operate without defects or errors to function effectively. When errors persist, the system’s outcomes are flawed. -/- Law of Balance (Homeostasis): All natural and human systems strive for balance. Imbalance causes internal conflict, societal dysfunction, or collapse. -/- Law of Natural Feedback: All systems must remain open to feedback from their internal and external environments. Ignoring feedback leads to maladaptation and systemic failure. -/- 3. Causes of Emergent Religious Dogma -/- 3.1 Fear-Based Origins Many religious doctrines emerged as responses to existential fear—of death, the unknown, and natural disasters. Dogmatic narratives provided simplified explanations and behavioral rules. 3.2 Example 1: Ancient Mesopotamian religions attributed floods and famines to the anger of gods. Such beliefs led to ritual sacrifices as a means to appease divine forces, rather than understanding ecological or agricultural causes. -/- Example 2: In medieval Christianity, the Black Death was interpreted as divine punishment for sin. This view discouraged public health interventions and led to persecution of marginalized groups. -/- Example 3: In early Hinduism, untouchability was justified through religious texts associating impurity with karmic punishment from past lives, perpetuating caste discrimination and fear-based exclusion. -/- Example 4: In pre-Columbian Aztec religion, fear of cosmic catastrophe led to mass human sacrifices to ensure the sun would rise. This reflected a deep-seated fear-based cosmology that stifled alternative explanations of natural cycles. -/- Violation: These teachings suppress inquiry and reinforce imbalance by replacing curiosity with fear, violating all three universal laws. -/- 3.3 Authority Control and Power Structures Religious institutions often formalized dogma to maintain social or political control, discouraging dissent and elevating select individuals or groups as unquestionable authorities. 3.4 Example 1: The Catholic Church during the Middle Ages used religious dogma to justify inquisitions and excommunication. Galileo was tried for promoting heliocentric theory. -/- Example 2: In early Islamic empires, the rationalist Mu’tazilite school was silenced by political authorities in favor of more conservative Sunni orthodoxy. -/- Example 3: In Tibet, theocratic rule under the Dalai Lamas mixed religious and political power, sometimes using spiritual authority to suppress rival views or secular reforms. -/- Example 4: In Imperial Japan, State Shinto was enforced as a sacred national ideology, deifying the emperor and using religion to justify wartime expansion. -/- Violation: These systems ignored feedback, violated the Law of Balance by consolidating unchecked power, and created systemic dysfunction. -/- 3.3 Lack of Critical Thinking in Education Religious dogma has historically discouraged critical thinking by promoting belief over analysis, often within educational institutions. -/- Example 1: In Islamic madrasas during the Abbasid period’s decline, rote memorization of Qur’anic verses replaced the earlier golden age of open philosophical debate. -/- Example 2: Christian parochial schools often emphasize catechism and obedience over philosophical inquiry, especially before modern curriculum reforms. -/- Example 3: In Orthodox Jewish yeshivas, intense focus on Talmudic repetition can limit exposure to secular critical reasoning. -/- Example 4: Buddhist monastic training in some Theravāda traditions may discourage questioning of senior monks or re-evaluation of ancient commentaries. -/- Violation: This suppresses the Law of Feedback (students cannot question), and disrupts cognitive homeostasis (Law of Balance), leading to mental rigidity. -/- 3.5 Mythologizing Natural Laws Early religions often interpreted natural phenomena (e.g., storms, disease, fertility) as divine interventions rather than natural processes. 3.6 Example 1: In ancient Egypt, the Nile’s flooding was attributed to the goddess Isis’s tears rather than seasonal rainfall patterns. -/- Example 2: In Norse mythology, lightning was seen as Thor’s hammer striking enemies of the gods, preventing meteorological exploration. -/- Example 3: In early Christianity, illness was often seen as divine punishment or demonic possession, leading to reliance on exorcism rather than medicine. -/- Example 4: In many African traditional religions, droughts or epidemics were attributed to the anger of ancestors, promoting rituals over sustainable agriculture or hygiene. -/- Violation: These interpretations contradict the Law of Karma (scientific accuracy), perpetuate system errors, and prevent systemic adaptation. -/- 3.5 Cultural Echo Chambers and Isolation When religious communities isolate themselves ideologically or physically, they create self-reinforcing dogmas. -/- Example 1: The Amish community rejects most forms of modern technology, sometimes impeding access to life-saving medical care. -/- Example 2: Ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities may reject secular sciences and discourage contact with outsiders, limiting exposure to empirical knowledge. -/- Example 3: Some Pentecostal or evangelical sects promote insular beliefs about divine prophecy, rejecting scientific consensus on evolution or climate change. -/- Example 4: In certain Buddhist nationalist movements (e.g., in Myanmar), religious dogma is used to isolate the majority from minority faiths, promoting violence and xenophobia. -/- Violation: Such communities resist external feedback, violate the Law of Balance (sociopolitical harmony), and risk collapse under external pressures. -/- 4. Implications for Holistic Education and Leadership To rectify the imbalances caused by dogmatic teachings, education systems must integrate the Three Universal Laws. Leadership training should emphasize systemic thinking, feedback reception, and the pursuit of balance in decision-making. -/- Example in Practice 1: Finland’s education system promotes critical inquiry, emotional intelligence, and a secular understanding of comparative religion. -/- Example in Practice 2: Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness model balances spiritual traditions with modern governance, integrating wellbeing, feedback, and environmental balance. -/- Example in Practice 3: Montessori and Waldorf education methods encourage experiential learning and questioning authority, aligning with natural feedback and balanced cognitive growth. -/- Example in Practice 4: In Rwanda, post-genocide leadership training incorporates forgiveness and rational unity, balancing traditional values with forward-looking governance. -/- 5. Conclusion Dogmatic teachings in major religions arose from systemic needs but now often function in opposition to natural laws. By understanding their origins and violations through the Three Universal Laws of Nature, societies can reform education and leadership systems to restore balance, functionality, and human well-being. -/- . (shrink)

The Scientific Explanation of the Spread of Major Religions -/- Religions have played a central role in shaping human history, influencing cultures, societies, and even political systems. The spread of major religions—such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism—can be understood through scientific explanations rooted in sociology, psychology, economics, and geopolitics. Rather than being solely driven by divine revelation, the expansion of religious beliefs has been largely influenced by historical circumstances, human cognition, and social structures. By analyzing these factors, we can (...) gain a deeper understanding of how and why religions spread across different regions of the world. -/- Cultural Evolution and the Power of Ideas -/- Religions can be viewed as “memes”—units of cultural transmission that spread from person to person, much like genes pass on biological traits. This concept, proposed by Richard Dawkins in his theory of memetics, suggests that religions that are easy to remember, emotionally compelling, and socially reinforcing tend to survive and spread. Throughout history, religious ideas have been passed down through generations via oral traditions, rituals, and later, written scriptures. Those that provided meaning, purpose, and guidance in an uncertain world became deeply embedded in human societies. -/- Social Cohesion and Group Survival -/- One of the primary functions of religion has been to unify communities. Shared beliefs and rituals create a sense of belonging, encouraging cooperation and social order. In early human societies, religious groups that fostered strong social bonds had a survival advantage. They were more likely to defend themselves, share resources, and maintain stability, which allowed them to expand and influence neighboring communities. As a result, religions that emphasized social cohesion—such as Islam’s ummah (community) or Christianity’s emphasis on brotherhood—were more successful in spreading. -/- Political and Military Expansion -/- The role of political power and military conquest in the spread of religions cannot be overlooked. Throughout history, many rulers have used religion as a tool to unify their empires and legitimize their authority. Christianity, for example, gained immense influence when the Roman Emperor Constantine adopted it in the 4th century, leading to its rapid expansion across Europe. Similarly, the Islamic Caliphates spread Islam through military conquests across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia. In many cases, conquered populations adopted the dominant religion, either voluntarily or through social and economic incentives. -/- Trade and Economic Networks -/- Trade has historically been one of the most effective ways for religions to spread peacefully. Merchants and travelers carried religious beliefs along trade routes, introducing them to new regions. Islam, for example, spread through merchant networks across Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean. Hinduism and Buddhism expanded through trade along the Silk Road and maritime routes, reaching China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Religious ideas often spread more easily when they were associated with economic prosperity, as people were more willing to adopt new beliefs that were linked to wealth and success. -/- Human Psychology and Cognitive Biases -/- The human mind is naturally inclined to seek patterns, explanations, and a sense of purpose. Religions provide answers to existential questions, such as the meaning of life, the nature of good and evil, and the afterlife. Psychological studies suggest that people are more likely to believe in supernatural explanations when faced with uncertainty, fear, or suffering. The concept of divine reward and punishment—such as heaven and hell—also plays a strong motivational role in religious adherence and proselytization. Additionally, religious rituals and experiences often trigger deep emotional and neurological responses, reinforcing belief and devotion. -/- Missionary Work and Proselytization -/- Many major religions actively encourage conversion and missionary work. Christianity, for instance, has a long history of evangelism, with missionaries traveling to distant lands to spread their faith. Islam also emphasizes Dawah, or the invitation to Islam, encouraging believers to share their religion. Buddhism spread from India to East Asia largely through the efforts of monks and scholars who traveled and translated Buddhist texts. This deliberate effort to spread religious teachings has played a crucial role in their global expansion. -/- Technology and the Role of Media -/- Advancements in communication technology have accelerated the spread of religions. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized Christianity by making the Bible widely available, fueling the Protestant Reformation and expanding religious literacy. Today, digital media, television, and the internet continue to spread religious ideas globally. Online sermons, religious forums, and social media have made it easier than ever for religious movements to reach new followers, transcending geographical boundaries. -/- Colonization and Forced Conversions -/- While some religions spread peacefully, others expanded through force. During the Age of Exploration, European powers, particularly Spain and Portugal, used colonization to spread Christianity to the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Indigenous populations were often forced to convert, either through direct coercion or social pressure. Similarly, Islamic expansion in some regions involved the establishment of religious laws that encouraged conversion. These historical events demonstrate how religion has often been intertwined with power and conquest. -/- Adaptability and Syncretism -/- Religions that successfully integrated local customs and traditions tended to spread more effectively. This process, known as syncretism, allowed religions to adapt to new cultures without completely replacing indigenous beliefs. For example, Christianity in Latin America blended with indigenous traditions, creating unique forms of Catholicism. Buddhism in China incorporated elements of Confucianism and Daoism, making it more appealing to the local population. By absorbing elements of local traditions, religions became more accessible and attractive to new followers. -/- Conclusion -/- The spread of major religions is not a purely spiritual phenomenon but a complex process influenced by historical, social, psychological, and technological factors. Political power, military conquest, trade networks, missionary efforts, and cognitive biases all played a role in shaping the religious landscape of the world. By understanding these scientific explanations, we gain a clearer perspective on how religious ideas have persisted and evolved over time. While faith remains a deeply personal experience, its expansion has been driven by forces that extend far beyond individual belief, shaping the course of human civilization. -/- . (shrink)

UMI Number: 3319553 This study is a historical ethnography of religious diversity in post-revolutionary Nicaragua from the vantage point of Catholics who live in the city of Masaya located on the Pacific side of Nicaragua at the end of the twentieth century. My overarching research question is: How may ethnographically observed patterns in Catholic religious practices in contemporary Nicaragua be understood in historical context? Utilizing anthropological theory and method grounded in Weberian historical theory, I explore Catholic ritual as contested politico-religious (...) cultural terrain. The patron saint celebration of Masaya becomes a contested symbol in 1999 as those who carry Saint Jerome in street procession refuse to honor a sitting president, challenging his right to rule. The deep Marian devotion of the Nicaraguan people is reflected in the household and neighborhood celebrations of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, while nation-building elites have a long history of claiming the Virgin as patron saint of the nation. While these traditional Catholic saint celebrations figure in imagining a nation, three "new" Catholic movements also compete for attention, while the polity is increasingly exposed to Protestant and Pentecostal groups. When Anastasio Somoza Debayle was overthrown in 1979, ending the 40-year family dictatorship, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) ruled for a decade with the attention of the world placed on its religion of revolution, the Christian base community and liberation theology. At the same time, however, two other movements began growing quietly. They, like liberation theology, draw their justification from the second Vatican Council. In Masaya, Catholic Charismatic Renewal and the Neocatechumenal Way are "exemplary" prophetic movements gaining ground within the Catholic Church in competition with the "ethical" prophets of the Christian base community. Selectively adopting "protestant-like" forms of worship through these modern movements, the Nicaraguan Roman Catholic Church reacts to the challenge to its cultural hegemony coming from evangelical competitors. New history is continuously being made as people in this part of Nicaragua struggle over the direction of their country within a complex terrain of religious competition. (shrink)