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Globally, angiosperms are one of the most influential groups, representing more than 3 lakh species, of 80% known vegetation. Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are the pivotal architects that bridge the functional ecologies of multiple ecosystems and are woven into a living tapestry. These plants, in addition to their role in primary production, help regulate energy flow across different trophic levels. Moreover, they serve as shelters for various pollinators and are associated with microbiota that aid in nutrient cycling and resilience. This co-evolutionary interrelationship with herbivores, pollinators, and seed dissemination regulates the structure, distribution, and overall biodiversity. The multifaceted mechanistic roles of angiosperms contribute to bioresources and the complex tapestry of contemporary ecosystems. In a nutshell, angiosperms underpin the stability of ecosystems by offering various roles and functions toward ecological balance.
Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja Ambikapur, India
Arnab Banerjee
School of Studies in Environmental Science, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India
Surendra Singh Bargali
Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital, India
Annpurna Devi
Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja Ambikapur, India
Manish Kumar Mankur
Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja Ambikapur, India
Jaimangal Tirkey
Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja Ambikapur, India
Srimanta Gupta
Department of Environmental Science, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, India
*Address all correspondence to: manu9589@gmail.com
1. Introduction
The angiosperm world is the major group of flowering plants that has demonstrated a significant level of adaptive radiation and evolution in the diversity of the floral community. According to the time frame of 140 million years ago, angiosperms exhibited rapid diversification and redefined terrestrial ecosystems with ecological multifunctionality [1]. Furthermore, angiosperms display different modes of plant propagation, structural configuration, and ecological interrelationships with other life forms on Earth [2]. Such vast diversifications are the result of a continuous succession process that has led to a high level of adaptive capacity in these plant groups under variable climatic conditions [3]. This was favored by the presence of well-developed xylem-phloem systems, along with essential morphological and functional attributes necessary for their existence. These factors have contributed to their predominance in diverse terrestrial ecosystems of varying nature. Therefore, angiosperms have demonstrated maximum resilience to external and internal factors and have represented a wider ecological amplitude across the Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems [4].
The multifunctional nature and cooperativeness have been reflected in other life forms, popularly known as co-evolution, which has also helped in the successional process of the angiosperms. Various floral traits also mediate successful pollination, along with proper fruit and seed dispersal through various mechanisms that help this plant group colonize a new habitat successfully. The predominance of angiosperms is such that this community plays a significant role in ecosystem function and services [5]. For instance, they help in maintaining energy balance, climate regulation, carbon sequestration, and stabilization of habitat conditions under diverse environments. The diversification of angiosperms is so important that they have deeply integrated into various ecosystem processes and thus help in the sustainability of life. The present chapter is an attempt to understand the evolutionary nexus of angiosperms along with their potential roles in ecosystems, which helps to understand the complex mechanisms of modern-day global Earth ecosystems [6, 7].
2. Angiosperm historical background, progression, and divergence
The origin of angiosperms dates back to prehistoric times, although their fossil records and other evidence reveal that the early Cretaceous period happens to be the time of origin of angiosperms [1] (Table 1). Presently, if we move to the geological time scale, it appears to be approximately 140 million years ago. The world’s leading evolutionary biologist, Charles Darwin, described the diversification process of angiosperms as an "abominable mystery," as a proper explanation of their ecological spread and rise in population strength is yet to be fully understood [2]. Initially, angiosperms were herbs that occurred in marginal areas or habitats of considerable disturbance. Hence, their plant morphological attributes were simpler in nature, but within a short span of time, the entire group underwent an evolutionary mechanism known as adaptive radiation, giving rise to different lineages of growth with varied nature and capacities for reproduction, growth, photosynthesis, and other physiological processes [8]. When one traces back the cause of such ecological success of angiosperms, the results point to a significant level of coevolution between these plant groups and other life forms, with special emphasis on pollinating organisms and, most favorably, the insections [9]. Floral traits such as the structure of sepals and petals, nectar glands, and other essential morphological structures have also contributed to their ecological succession process [10]. As a consequence, there was a huge diversification of the insect community during the Cretaceous period of the geological time scale. By the end of the Cretaceous period, angiosperms tended to dominate over gymnosperms in terms of diversity, distribution, and ecological function across diverse habitats [11]. A milestone in this evolutionary process includes the origin of monocots and eudicots, which ultimately represent the entire community of present-day angiosperms [11]. During this time frame, a mass extinction event occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, which the flowering plants took as an ecological opportunity to recolonized every empty habitat [9]. Furthermore, the strength of angiosperms was promoted through the evolutionary progress of grass species during the Miocene period, which favored the propagation of herbivore populations and framed the origin of diverse grassland biomes [9]. Very interestingly, at present, more than 90% of angiosperms are extant in nature, occupying the most diverse habitats. This evolutionary journey of angiosperms has resulted in the most successful plant group on the Earth’s surface [12].
S. No.
Region
Title
Description
Implications for angiosperm growth
References
1.
Tropical
Underestimation of the early Cretaceous unconformity
Inconformity may be underestimated due to the many fossils’ reproductive structures not yet formally stated or confidently stipulated to be angiosperms.
Wetlands demonstrate high carbon (C) sequestration potential via biomass accumulation, photosynthesis, and increased soil C retention, where management practices aimed at enhancement further increase sequestration capacity.
Promote angiosperms as the main mechanism for one of the global carbon cycles and the primary key to ecology-based climate mitigation, linking plant functional traits to ecosystem phases
Angiosperms as adaptive dynamics for pollen disparity
Angiosperm pollen disparity demonstrates two main pulsed spreads during the Mid Cretaceous and Paleogene, allied by environmental transformation and key pollen innovations.
Demonstrates the availability of pollen morphospace and disparity examination to illustrate both fossil and extant diversification models.
Based on the IUCN category, the present study estimated that around 20% of the global angiosperm progressive history is at risk of near senility.
Exhibit the imperativeness of incorporating phylogenetic knowledge into plant protection prioritization to safeguard stable evolutionary memorials and taxonomic chauvinism
3. Prospects of angiosperms in the terrestrial ecosystem
The predominance of flowering plants in the present context is the result of ecological adaptation, evolutionary innovativeness, reproductive efficiency, and many other factors that make them superior in the plant kingdom [20]. Among the various factors, efficient reproductive strategies are the most important ones that have helped the angiosperms to supersede the gymnosperms [21]. Some important reproductive strategies include efficient pollination, double fertilization, and diverse pollination. Second, mutualistic relationships in the mechanisms of pollination and seed dispersal have also aided the propagation and distribution of angiosperms over the Earth’s surface. Third, efficient physiological processes, which include nutrient uptake, enhanced photosynthetic rate, and regulation of water balance in plant systems, are also found to be significant in the succession of angiosperms. The morphological perspective reveals that the higher growth rate and adaptive life history have helped the angiosperms to occupy empty habitats along with enhanced reproductive ability. Ecological adaptability and structural flexibility have also contributed to the distribution of angiosperms across diverse habitats [22]. Competitiveness in these plants, through rapid adaptation and higher survivability rates, has further supported their rapid propagation and distribution. The indigenous defense mechanisms, in the form of various secondary metabolites and other biological macromolecules, have improved their sustenance and lifespan [23] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Evolutionary success of angiosperms [compiled from: 23].
These days, when we discuss the tapestry of angiosperms, one major aspect includes the ecological role and function played by these plants (Figure 2). It was observed that structural diversification, physiological adaptation, coevolution, and relationships with other life forms have made angiosperms the most efficient community to occupy the central position in the ecosystem structure. Angiosperms play important ecological roles across diverse ecosystems. In tropical rainforests, the diverse forms of angiosperms serve the functions of carbon cycling and primary productivity, provide essential materials for the sustenance of life, and engage in mutualistic behavior with pollinators and seed dispersers. In a temperate forest ecosystem, angiosperms mediate nutrient cycling, litter decomposition, regulation of the hydrological cycle, and prevention of soil erosion, provide forage and fodder for wildlife, and promote pollination through different flowering periods [24]. In the grassland and savanna biomes, they provide food resources, shape fire events, enhance soil carbon storage, and prevent erosion, thereby supporting diverse soil micro- and macro-biota. In the desert, they help stabilize the soil, provide life support to desert organisms, regulate the microhabitat, and act as primary producers. Wetlands, as one of the key ecosystems for environmental sustainability, are a significant habitat for diverse forms of angiosperms, regulating water quality, reducing the impact of floods, supporting diverse life forms, and promoting proper nutrient cycling. For alpine and tundra ecosystems, soil stabilization, seasonal resources, soil formation processes, and the indication of global climate change are mediated through diverse forms of angiosperms [20]. Concerning freshwater and aquatic ecosystems, angiosperms favor the protection of coastlines, support fisheries, enhance oxygenation and nutrient cycling, and build the ocean ecosystem as a potential carbon sink [5, 7].
Figure 2.
Importance of angiosperms as primary producers to ecosystem-based climate regulation [compiled from: 20, 24, 7].
5. Diversity as the foundation of ecological success
The multidimensional diversity of angiosperms has supported the ecological succession process, which helps sustain the diversity of other lifeforms. Apart from diversity and distribution, angiosperms also contribute to the structure and functioning of different ecosystems [7]. These days, when we discuss the morphological diversification of angiosperms, it encompasses an array of growth forms, ranging from aquatic herbs to grasses to various vegetational strata. In angiosperms, diverse leaf structures and different types of roots also play a role in their ecological success. Such structural and morphological diversification among angiosperms, along with the development of specialized pollination systems, favoured growth in an unhostile environment, along with efficient fruit and seed dispersal mechanisms, also helps the ecological success [24]. Physiological perspectives, such as the photosynthetic process, water-use strategies, and phenological attributes, are major factors that are regulated by the structural and functional diversification of angiosperms. Chemical diversification, in the form of different types of metabolites and biological molecules, aids in protection against enemies, attraction of pollinators, and mediation of microbe and symbiotic relationships in angiosperms. Genetic diversification in angiosperms increases the adaptive capacity of plants under diverse climatic conditions, thereby contributing to flexibility in the evolutionary process. It facilitates the development of suitable genetic traits that help combat various biotic and abiotic stresses. Additionally, it generates resiliency within angiosperms against different types of disturbances. Furthermore, when we consider ecosystem services and functions, angiosperms tend to contribute to primary productivity, maintenance of the food web, efficient nutrient cycling, followed by ecosystem resilience, climatic stability, and sustainability of diverse lifeforms [25].
6. Morphological, functional, and reproductive diversity
Angiosperms have gained their renowned importance through wider diversity in terms of morphology, reproductive capability, and functional attributes [25]. Morphological diversity facilitates the development of different structures to adapt to varied environmental conditions. The diversity may manifest in the form of plant parts or in the growth form that comprises the architecture of the plant species. Such diversification helps in shaping the forest canopy, developing the understorey, anchoring plants under rocky substrata, surviving under different environmental conditions, etc. [7]. In functional terms, various physiological and ecological attributes, such as photosynthetic pathways, water-use efficiency, drought tolerance, flood tolerance, hydrophyte plant development, phenological diversification, and diverse types of life history strategies, enable angiosperms to thrive in diverse habitats and environmental conditions. Diversification of the reproductive capability of the species, including biotic and abiotic pollination, diversification of flowering species, specialized pollination systems, and flexibility in the pollination process, helps improve the reproduction rate and enhances genetic variability among angiosperms, leading to greater ecological success. Diversification in the structure, dispersal, and morphology of the fruit and seeds of different angiosperms also favors to improving the reproductive capability of the species, thereby enabling the successful establishment of the species. The adoption of diverse modes, such as sexual and vegetative reproduction, further favors the successful establishment of angiosperms in the reproductive process [4].
7. Adaptive strategies and functions of angiosperms
Angiosperms have a wide range of adaptive mechanisms that support their growth, reproduction, and development in a given environmental setup. These strategies include pollination biology, seed dissemination, phenological forms, and design, which are key components of their ecological adaptation and success in different ecosystems. These contribute to the ecological resilience and colonizing ability of angiosperms, which are the building blocks leading to their dominance across different ecosystems globally [19].
Angiosperms are found to play a key role in the processes of ecosystem regulation, function, and resilience. Due to variations in their structure, as well as external and internal morphology, they also provide habitats of diverse nature, regulate biogeochemical processes, and create a strong ecological nexus in terms of the food web and food chain. Owing to their significant contribution in shaping and maintaining ecological interactions, they tend to remain in a central position in ecosystem functioning across different types of ecosystem habitats. Resilience is an important aspect that ensures the capability of the ecosystem to withstand stress. Angiosperms hold a key position at the core of diverse habitat types. The ecological role played by angiosperms varies on both temporal and spatial scales. Considering the diverse habitat types, angiosperms provide essential ecosystem services such as productivity, carbon fixation, biodiversity support, resources for overall living biota, prevention of soil erosion, maintenance of food web complexity, and enhancement of ecosystem resilience. This diverse range of ecological functions has enabled angiosperms to dominate the plant kingdom [26].
Angiosperms act as the backbone in terms of primary productivity in diverse ecosystems. They can convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, as they belong to the autotrophs. Hence, they become the primary step in any food chain or food web. Such dominance as a primary producer may be due to their structural efficiency, morphological variation, and adaptive potential under a changing climate. Therefore, angiosperms can be considered as biological fuels for driving the ecosystem, regulating the climate, enriching soil resources, and acting as a foundational source for promoting biodiversity conservation [27].
Due to the diverse physiological adaptations, complexity of structure, and high level of species interaction, numerous microhabitats are generated, followed by numerous niches. This serves as a source of support for the existence of diverse communities. In this way, heterogeneity at the habitat level creates a mosaic of complexity in life forms. Angiosperms have been reported to play an active role in regulating the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. Angiosperms, through various physiological activities, tend to regulate the migration and movement of essential elements across the different spheres of the Earth. Such processes are essential for the sustenance of life on Earth’s surface. They have been reported to sequester carbon, performing the tasks of soil enrichment and stabilization of the landscape structure, which can be utilized as an approach to combat climatic perturbations at the global level [26].
Angiosperms have the capability to bridge the gap between many species and maintain ecological complexity for multiple species. They provide various life-supporting resources for the herbivore community of the ecosystem and help maintain trophic relationships in the community structure of the ecosystem. For example, activities such as pollination in flowering plants, followed by seed dispersal, often regulate the geographical distribution of species and also maintain harmony between plant and animal communities. This clearly indicates that interconnectedness plays a significant role in sustaining biological resources across the earth’s surface, and the existence of many species depends upon angiosperms [28].
Plant pollination is a positive interaction between species in which both the plant and the pollinators are mutually benefited. On the other hand, flowers provide life-sustaining resources for the pollinators, and in return, pollination helps complete the cycle of reproduction. Such interactions often contribute to co-evolution between plants and pollinators, which helps maintain the diversity of the upper cascade of diversity at the higher trophic level [7].
Angiosperms help in maintaining the interlinkage of higher trophic levels and the food web. Angiosperms are a potential food source for the herbivore community, which, in turn, is related to the predator community. Such interlinkage with the higher trophic levels helps in maintaining ecosystem homeostasis and homeorhesis. Therefore, angiosperms tend to play a key role in shaping the structure and community of plants and animals and help to maintain overall biodiversity. The interaction of mycorrhizal fungi and flowering plants helps to improve plant fitness, as well as strengthens the ecological stability of other organisms. Evolutionary processes in flowering plants, in the form of complex ecological interactions, lead to the proper shaping of ecosystem structure and function. Various evolutionary traits, such as types of nectar, feeding mechanisms, and allelopathic mechanisms, are changes that promote biodiversity and species richness [29].
Angiosperms are the most diverse group of flowering plants, with more than 300,000 species spread across the earth’s surface, which vary in terms of structure, ecological function, and genetic adaptability. The distribution of angiosperms is varied and dominated across the globe and in Indian conditions (Table 2). They also sustain numerous diverse groups of biota by providing food, protection, and shelter. Additionally, they help maintain genetic variability through cross-breeding and various types of pollination facilitated by diverse agents. Higher levels of genetic variability also enable them to develop a broader ecological amplitude, allowing them to persist under diverse climatic perturbation conditions. This indicates that angiosperms are potential drivers of biodiversity [7].
Multiformity and cataloging of angiosperms in India.
Angiosperms have the specific capability to stimulate species diversity and richness by providing resources, as well as mediating plant propagules for their effective distribution, adaptive radiation among plants and animals, colonization of new habitats or ecosystems, and supporting diverse trophic levels across the food chain and web. This also helps in species and habitat connectivity, which, in turn, maintains the metapopulation dynamics that are highly essential for preserving genetic variation [29]. Angiosperm vegetation, through the creation of micro and macro habitats, supports the growth and development of micro-, meso-, and mega-faunal communities. Through such mechanisms, it aids in the maintenance of ecological complexes and establishes complex interactions among species. In the trophic cascade of the food chain, they form the base and influence the trophodynamics of diverse communities. As producers, they tend to act as the fundamental building block to provide food and other energy resources for the higher trophic levels. In this way, interconnectedness develops across the diverse trophic levels from bottom to top, which also fosters a diverse community of biota [4].
The world of angiosperms is full of traits and strategies exhibiting specific ecological functions. It includes the adaptability of plants under stress, biotic and abiotic interactions, and the role of flowering plants in formulating diverse ecological niches. This leads to the identification of fruitful and beneficial traits for the effective distribution of angiosperms, which contributes to sustainability in ecosystem performance. Angiosperms have often demonstrated broader ecological capability toward adaptability against shade, drought, and nutrient availability. Such activities have helped them develop resilience against external factors and maintain the balance of the ecosystem [26].
11. Anthropogenic pressures on angiosperm ecology
Human beings tend to exert an influence over angiosperms by shaping their ecology. The natural balance of angiosperms is often hampered by the anthropogenic role across various spheres of the environment. Urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, and land degradation are responsible for the negative impact on the distribution and diversity of angiosperms. Land degradation is one of the major factors that contributes significantly to shrinking the diversity and distribution of angiosperms [39]. Climatic perturbation triggered by human civilization is also another important factor that influences the climate, which, in turn, alters the phenology and structure of the respective plant species [40].
Pollution is a significant factor that leads to alterations in water and soil quality and causes the inhibition of growth and development of indigenous species, as well as the spreading of ecological invasions. It hampers the distribution of angiosperms. Overexploitation and overharvesting of plant resources also hinder the diversity and distribution of angiosperms in a particular habitat [41]. This leads to the weakening of ecosystem resilience, and hence, there is an urgent need for the conservation of angiosperms. Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation are other human-made alterations that influence the distribution and existence of anthropogenic plants. Altered land-use practices also disrupt the distribution of angiosperms. Habitat fragmentation further affects genetic variation through the population bottleneck phenomenon, with special reference to endangered plant species and island populations. Changing climate is another major phenomenon that leads to the shifting and alteration of climatic elements, which, being human-triggered, are massively disastrous for the distribution and functioning of angiosperms. Climate change alters the life cycle of plants through changes in phenology, flowering time, seed dispersal, etc., and consequently disrupts the ecological interrelationships among species [40]. Pesticide and agrochemical-mediated reproductive disorders in angiosperms present another huge challenge. These issues cause a reduction in pollinator populations, which in turn further affects the distribution of angiosperms [42]. Ecological invasions, through the spread of invasive species, outcompete the distribution of native indigenous plants by significantly altering habitat conditions, including changes in air, water, and soil quality [43].
12. Conservation and sustainability perspectives
The major goal is to have a sustainable outlook for the conservation of angiosperms in order to protect the ecosystem and its services through biodiversity conservation [44]. Angiosperms are associated with critical processes of the ecosystem; their conservation is essential and would also help to promote diverse SDGs. Considering the challenges and issues imposed by mankind on the angiosperm ecosystem, a conservation approach should be prioritized, followed by an understanding of the ecosystem adaptation traits of the angiosperms [27]. Numerous works have revealed that various diverse angiosperms play a key role in restoring degraded ecosystems. Sustainable harvesting, climate-smart practices, nature-based solutions, and eco-friendly technology would aid in the integration of research into a policy framework that would be effective in angiosperm management and conservation (Figure 3) [45]. This would help in maintaining the ecological integrity and overall sustainability of the ecosystem, along with the welfare of mankind. Angiosperms are associated with important processes such as soil conservation, carbon sequestration, biogeochemical cycling, etc. Protecting the diverse forms of angiosperms could act as a life-supporting system for various habitats and ecosystems. The ex-situ and in-situ approaches can be effective for sustaining the angiosperm population both in the wild and under captivity. In natural areas, the creation of protected areas, conservation reserve creation, public awareness, and participation all enhance the survivability rate of angiosperms. The ex-situ approach, including tissue culture, botanical gardens, and restoration initiatives through replantation, is highly effective for specific conservation outcomes [45].
Figure 3.
Management dynamics of angiosperms [compiled from: 45].
13. Emerging research and future directions
Presently, the ecology of angiosperms is driven by technology, employing an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach. The development of new disciplines in the field of angiosperm genetics, such as transcriptomics, genomics, phylogenetics, etc., is adding a new dimension to the research on angiosperm ecology [46]. These disciplines help in understanding the adaptation levels, functional traits, and the evolution-based geography of angiosperms and their diversification. The response of angiosperms toward climate change and global warming is an emerging research issue that needs to be studied appropriately from a future perspective. Machine learning processes, the generation of digital databases, and simulation modeling are new research trends that need to be integrated into the field of angiosperm ecology to understand the complexity of the life cycle of flowering plants. Furthermore, knowledge can be extended through an understanding of the meta-genomics, implications of restoration of ecology, etc. These advances are essential for understanding the adaptive capabilities of angiosperms and formulating effective strategies for the conservation of these plant resources. The development of new techniques and disciplines may help explore the interlinkages between genetic variation and the evolutionary processes associated with ecosystem functions [46]. The genomic study of angiosperms emphasizes the pattern recognition of various angiospermic traits along with tracing their evolutionary lineage. This would help identify favorable traits that could aid in developing resilience under variable environmental conditions [47]. Remote sensing is another advanced technique, where a satellite image-based database would be highly useful for optimizing and understanding the structure, function, and ecology of angiosperms with a higher level of accuracy and precision. Such techniques would also help trace the changes occurring in angiosperm diversity and distribution across different areas. Predictive modeling of the likely impact of climate change on angiosperm distribution is another important aspect to study. Such studies would also assist in assessing extinction risks, alterations in species diversity, and more. The identification of conservation priorities and restoration strategies can also be facilitated through these machine learning processes.
14. Conclusion
The ecology of angiosperms includes an understanding of their ecological role, evolutionary trends, biotic interactions, and functional diversity, all of which contribute to overall environmental sustainability [7]. Furthermore, the potential role of angiosperms across diverse habitats has made them the predominant community within the plant kingdom, with the survival of other living biota being dependent upon them to some extent in the near future [48]. Hence, an integrated framework encompassing ecology, ecosystem science, evolutionary biology, and plant taxonomy would be highly useful in studying the angiosperm tapestry [6]. The role of angiosperms in various directives, such as climate change, their function as primary producers, carbon sequestration, food chain dynamics, and food web interactions, needs to be explored thoroughly, as this would aid in proper policy formulation and decision-making to achieve the SDGs, and ensure overall environmental sustainability [5]. Conservation is also another important aspect of angiosperm ecology, which involves understanding ecosystem processes, plant-environment interactions, and the effective formulation of conservation plans. Overall, angiosperms are key players in Earth's biodiversity, undergoing a diverse framework of ecological functions. Their evolutionary patterns and ecological complexity have established them as a significant component of Earth’s ecosystem, contributing to the maintenance of environmental sustainability.
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